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125-457: The Gemma Augustea is a low-relief cameo engraved gem cut from a double-layered Arabian onyx stone. One layer is white, while the other is bluish-brown. The painstaking method by which the stone was cut allowed minute detail with sharp contrast between the images and background, also allowing for a great deal of shadow play. The size of the gem also made for easier manipulation and a grander scene. It stands 7.5 inches (190 mm) tall with

250-403: A cuffia (cap), then the fazzoletto (kerchief/head scarves) a long triangular or rectangular piece of cloth that could be tied in various ways, and sometimes covered the whole face except the eyes, sometimes bende (lit. swaddles, bandages) or a wimple underneath too. For centuries, European women have worn sheer veils, but only under certain circumstances. Sometimes a veil of this type

375-464: A sehra on their wedding day. This is a male veil covering the whole face and neck. The sehra is made from either flowers or beads. The most common Sehra (headdress) is made from fresh marigolds. The groom wears this throughout the day concealing his face even during the wedding ceremony. In Northern India today, grooms can be seen arriving on a horse with the sehra wrapped around the head. Biblical references include: Note: Genesis 20:16 , which

500-402: A tropaion . In some interpretations of the scene, all the lower figures are by design anonymous. Other interpretations attribute definite real or mythological persons to the figures. At left, the seated male and female figures (combined in #11) are either Celts or Germans, as is apparent from their clothing and hair styles, including the man's beard, and represent prisoners of war, symbolizing

625-559: A cameo from the early period is the Portland Vase . Although occasionally used in Roman cameos, the earliest prevalent use of shell for cameo carving was during the Renaissance , in the 15th and 16th centuries. Before that time, cameos were carved from hardstone. The Renaissance cameos are typically white on a grayish background and were carved from the shell of a mussel or cowry , the latter

750-484: A contrasting background. A variation of a carved cameo is a cameo incrustation (or sulphide). An artist, usually an engraver, carves a small portrait, then makes a cast from the carving, from which a ceramic type cameo is produced. This is then encased in a glass object, often a paperweight. These are very difficult to make but were popular from the late 18th century through the end of the 19th century. Originating in Bohemia ,

875-626: A contrasting colour. This is called an assembled cameo. Alternatively, a cameo can be carved by the traditional, but far more difficult, method directly out of a material with integral layers or banding, such as (banded) agate or layered glass, where different layers have different colours. Sometimes dyes are used to enhance these colours. While traditional cameos were commonly crafted from onyx and agate, artisans have explored diverse materials over time. Rare examples include ancient cameos cut from precious stones like emeralds, lapis lazuli, and even unusual mediums such as ostrich eggshells, which produce

1000-479: A cord, tie (it) at his back; he shall perform the king's service for one full month. Slave-women shall not veil themselves, and he who should see a veiled slave-woman shall seize her and bring her to the palace entrance: they shall cut off her ears; he who seizes her shall take her clothing. Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to "differentiate between 'respectable' women and those who were publicly available". The veiling of matrons

1125-459: A face veil when they visited urban areas, "as a sign of civilization". The practice of veiling gradually declined in much of the Muslim world during the 20th century before making a comeback in recent decades. The choice, or the forced option for women to veil remains controversial, whether a personal choice as an outward sign of religious devotion, or a forced one because of extremist groups that require

1250-552: A hand brush. Veil A veil is an article of clothing or hanging cloth that is intended to cover some part of the head or face , or an object of some significance. Veiling has a long history in European, Asian, and African societies. The practice has been prominent in different forms in Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . The practice of veiling is especially associated with women and sacred objects, though in some cultures, it

1375-406: A highly developed artistic ability, craft skill and many years of experience are needed to be able to create lifelike portraits. It is quite rare, these days, for subjects other than portraits to be carved by hand as agate cameos. The traditional themes of classical scenes from mythology or a standard image of a young lady, are more likely to be made with the help of the ultrasonic carving machine as

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1500-470: A later Roman ruler. Figure #1 is holding the augur's staff, known as a lituus , a symbol of military high command. Figure #3 is the most readily identifiable, having characteristics held by no other. The woman is Oikoumene - the personification of the inhabited world. This inhabited or civilized world is either that of the early Roman Empire , or more likely the Mediterranean world conquered by Alexander

1625-552: A limited collection of typically 50–200 pieces. Since the late 19th century, the species most used in good-quality cameos has been Cypraecassis rufa , the bullmouth helmet, the shell of which can be up to 6 inches long. In this species, the upper shell layer is whitish, and the lower shell layer is a rich orange-brown. Modern sources for this shell are Madagascar and South Africa . The finest hand-carving of these shells takes place in Italy . The most highly prized shell for carving

1750-550: A long cloak and a separate headpiece with a drop-down face veil. Some educated urban women no longer wear the burqa. The burqa is also not worn by rural peasant women who work in the fields. In rural areas only elite women wear burqas. The wearing of head and especially face coverings by Muslim women has raised political issues in the West; including in Quebec , and across Europe . Countries and territories that have banned or partially banned

1875-414: A raised (positive) relief image; contrast with intaglio , which has a negative image. Originally, and still in discussing historical work, cameo only referred to works where the relief image was of a contrasting colour to the background; this was achieved by carefully carving a piece of material with a flat plane where two contrasting colours met, removing all the first colour except for the image to leave

2000-457: A religious requirement, although it was apparently believed to provide magical protection against evil forces. In practice, the litham has served as protection from the dust and extremes of temperature characterizing the desert environment. Its use by the Almoravids gave it a political significance during their conquests. In some parts of India , Pakistan , Bangladesh , and Nepal , men wear

2125-584: A striking two-tone effect. Sir Wallis Budge alleged that the noun cameo apparently comes from kame'o , a word used in kabbalistic slang to signify a 'magical square', i.e. a kind of talisman whereupon magical spells were carved. Cameos are often worn as jewelry , but in ancient times were mainly used for signet rings and large earrings, although the largest examples were probably too large for this, and were just admired as objets d'art . Stone cameos of great artistry were made in Greece dating back as far as

2250-453: A symbol of the husband's authority over his wife; a married woman who omitted the veil was seen as withdrawing herself from marriage. In 166 BC, consul Sulpicius Gallus divorced his wife because she had left the house unveiled, thus allowing all to see, as he said, what only he should see. Unmarried girls normally did not veil their heads, but matrons did so to show their modesty and chastity, their pudicitia . Veils also protected women against

2375-619: A tropical mollusk. In the mid 18th century, explorations revealed new shell varieties. Helmet shells ( Cassis tuberosa ) from the West Indies, and queen conch shells ( Eustrombus gigas ) from the Bahamas and West Indies, arrived in Europe. This sparked a big increase in the number of cameos that were carved from shells. Conch shells carve very well, but their color fades over time. After 1850 demand for cameos grew, as they became popular souvenirs of

2500-432: A two-horse chariot to be used for the triumph. Also, Tiberius wears the toga . The toga represents civility and peace, not war. Perhaps this is a way to hand the victory to Augustus’ auguries. Tiberius steps down from the chariot, doing obeisance to Augustus, giving his adoptive parent the triumph and victory. If all this is true, then figure #8 could still be one of two persons, Drusus or Germanicus . By this age, Drusus

2625-510: A unique texture compared to the more rigid materials used in earlier periods, making them highly prized by collectors. While the Victorian era popularized large shell cameos, these were often set in bright gold frames that, though eye-catching, sometimes overshadowed the intricate carvings. Wealthier patrons favored gold or silver settings, while the more affordable Pinchbeck frames enabled the middle class to partake in this popular trend. During

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2750-705: A variety of styles of wimple , kerchiefs and headscarves. Veiling, covering the hair, was the normative practice of Christian women until at least the 19th century and still extant in certain regions, in accordance with Christian teaching delineated by Saint Paul in 1 Corinthians 11 . While in the Western world this practice largely lapsed in the 1960s with the rise of the sexual revolution , traditional congregations, such as those of Conservative Anabaptist Christians , as well as certain Oriental Orthodox Christians and Eastern Orthodox Christians , continue observing

2875-477: A veil (also known as a headcovering) is seen as a sign of humility before God, as well as a reminder of the bridal relationship between Christ and the church. This practice is based on 1 Corinthians 11:4–15 in the Christian Bible , where St. Paul writes: I commend you because you remember me in everything and maintain the traditions even as I have delivered them to you. But I want you to understand that

3000-472: A veil, under severe penalty, even death. The motives and reasons for wearing a hijab are wide and various, but ultimately depend on each individual person's situation and can not be said to come from any one distinct reason or motive. Although religion can be a common reason for choosing to veil, the practice also reflects political and personal conviction, so that it can serve as a medium through which personal choices can be revealed, in countries where veiling

3125-401: A width of 9 inches (230 mm) and an average thickness of 0.5 inches (13 mm). It is commonly agreed that the gem cutter who created Gemma Augustea was either Dioscurides or one of his disciples. Dioscurides was Caesar Augustus ’ favorite gem cutter, and his work and copies of it are seen from all over the ancient Roman world. In terms of the ages of the portrait figures, the gem

3250-490: A woman to be shorn or shaven, let her wear a veil. For a man ought not to cover his head, since he is the image and glory of God; but woman is the glory of man. (For man was not made from woman, but woman from man. Neither was man created for woman, but woman for man.) That is why a woman ought to have a veil on her head, because of the angels. (Nevertheless, in the Lord woman is not independent of man nor man of woman; for as woman

3375-466: A wreath of flowers. A veil of consecration, longer and fuller, is used by some orders whose nuns receive the consecration of virgins who are already in solemn vows or who are being consecrated as a virgin in the same ceremony. References to "consecrated nuns" in medieval literature refers to solemnly professed nuns who received the consecration of virgins from their bishops, usually some years after their final profession of vows. The reintroduced rite of

3500-434: Is Victoria driving the chariot that holds the descending figure #7. She is obviously the deliverer of the victorious but not necessarily there for celebration, as it seems she might be impatiently urging figure #7 on to his next campaign. In associating Victoria with the chariot , it is necessary to analyze some historical importance relating to the chariot and the horses around it. The two foreshortened horses in front of

3625-406: Is "set" as though in the period c. AD 10–20, although some scholars believe it to have been created decades later because of their interpretation of the scene. If Dioscurides, or cutters following his example, made it, the gemma was probably made in the court of Caesar Augustus. At some time in antiquity it moved to Byzantium , perhaps after Constantine I had officially moved the capital of

3750-463: Is clearly complex. Many interpretations insist that the ‘auxiliaries’ are dragging the barbarian prisoners to join their kindred in being bound to the trophy. However, there are indications that this might not be the case at all. First, the man on his knees is begging for mercy from Diana, who does look down on him. That same man wears around his neck a torque , suggesting him to be a Celt or German. It may be significant that Diana has her back turned to

3875-521: Is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice. Since Islam identified with the monotheistic religions practiced in the Byzantine and Sasanian empires, in the aftermath of the early Muslim conquests veiling of women was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety. Veiling gradually spread to upper-class Arab women, and eventually, it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout

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4000-609: Is indeed a choice, such as Turkey. Among the Tuareg , Songhai , Hausa , and Fulani of West Africa , women do not traditionally wear the veil, while men do. Male veiling was also common among the Berber Sanhaja tribes. The North African male veil, which covers the mouth and sometimes part of the nose, is called litham in Arabic and tagelmust by the Tuareg. Tuareg boys start wearing

4125-556: Is known as al-maghrun, al-baghrah, or al-niqab. In the UAE, Qatar and Oman, a face mask known as the burghu is used, and in Bahrain, Qatar and Oman, the batulah is used. In Central Asian sedentary Muslim areas (today Uzbekistan and Tajikistan) women wore veils which when worn the entire face was shrouded, called Paranja or faranji. The traditional veil in Central Asia worn before modern times

4250-624: Is men, rather than women, who are expected to wear a veil. Besides its enduring religious significance, veiling continues to play a role in some modern secular contexts, such as wedding customs. Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Macedonian and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status. The earliest attested reference to veiling is found a Middle Assyrian law code dating from between 1400 and 1100 BC. Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon

4375-417: Is often said that the image of Roma strongly resembles Livia , Augustus’ long-lived wife. Not only was she his wife, but from a previous marriage, the mother of Tiberius . The reason for the cutting of this gem is also called into question when it is noted that Roma was not worshiped inside Rome till around the rule of Hadrian . Thus the gem might have been custom cut for a friend in the provinces. Figure #4

4500-404: Is often seen as one balancing the scene across from #4 and #7, and also an important onlooker, as he represents the realm of water. Below him is a reclined personification of either Gaia or Italia Turrita (#6). The scholars who see Gaia link her with the cornucopia and the children surrounding her, who may represent seasons. It might be odd that Gaia holds the horn of plenty when it seems as if

4625-422: Is one and the same thing as if she were shaven." But if to be shaven is always dishonourable, it is plain too that being uncovered is always a reproach. And not even with this only was he content, but he added again, saying, "The woman ought to have a sign of authority on her head, because of the angels." He signifies that not at the time of prayer only but also continually, she ought to be covered. But with regard to

4750-585: Is placed on top, and the breastplate and weaponry of the enemy is placed upon it. In the scene, four young men are raising the trophy into a vertical position. Figure #18 is the least identifiable, but his helmet has led some to believe that he may be a Macedonian soldier of King Rhoemetalces I , who helped Tiberius in Pannonia . Figure #15 is often identified as a personification of the god Mars with his armor and flowing cape. Although figures #16 and #17 seem less important, they look very much alike and may represent

4875-480: Is said that the image of Augustus as Jupiter is linked to future Roman triumphs by Horace in his Odes : He'll be brave who trusts himself to perfidious foes, and he will crush the Carthaginians in a second war who has tamely felt the chains upon his fettered wrists and has stood in fear of death. Such a one, not knowing how to live life secure, has mixed peace with war. O mighty Carthage, you rise all

5000-403: Is seated in the role of Jupiter. Seated next to figure #1 is Roma . The helmeted goddess holds a spear in her right arm while her left hand lightly touches the hilt of her sword, probably showing that Rome was always prepared for war. Besides showing her feet resting upon the armor of the conquered, Roma seems to look admiringly towards figure #1. Though there might be a dispute as to who #1 is, it

5125-491: Is the emperor or queen's helmet shell, Cassis madagascariensis . This shell has white and dark brown layers and is known as sardonyx shell, and looks similar to the layered agate known as sardonyx. This shell is found in the waters of the Caribbean. The world center for cameo carving in shell is Torre del Greco , Italy. The shells are first marked with a series of ovals in a process called signing, then cut into oval blanks for

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5250-665: The Arab tribes prior to the rise of Islam  – originated in the Byzantine Empire , and then spread. The Bedouin living in Southern Palestine and the Sinai peninsula also use face veils. The traditional veils in Palestine are short and decorated with coins. In northern Sinai, the veil sections are longer, and often contain embroidery, chains, pendants, beads, … The Bedouin-style mask

5375-536: The Eastern Rites of the Catholic Church, a veil called an epanokamelavkion is used by both nuns and monks, in both cases covering completely the kamilavkion , a cylindrical hat they both wear. In Slavic practice, when the veil is worn over the hat, the entire headdress is referred to as a klobuk . Nuns wear an additional veil under the klobuk , called an apostolnik , which is drawn together to cover

5500-780: The Grand Tour among the middle class. Classically the designs carved onto cameo stones were either scenes of Greek or Roman mythology or portraits of rulers or important dignitaries. In history, agate portrait cameos were often gifts from royalty to their subjects. These antique cameos, some more than 2000 years old, are either displayed in museums or are in private collections. Many modern cameos are carved into layered agates. The layers are dyed to create strong color contrasts. The most usual colors used for two-layer stones are white on black, white on blue, and white on red-brown. Three-layer stones are sometimes made. The colors are usually black on white on black. The layers are translucent; this allows

5625-475: The King James Version renders as: "And unto Sarah he said, Behold, I have given thy brother a thousand pieces of silver: Behold, he is to thee a covering of the eyes , unto all that are with thee, and with all other: Thus, she was reproved" has been interpreted in one source as implied advice to Sarah to conform to a supposed custom of married women, and wear a complete veil, covering the eyes as well as

5750-472: The Roman period the cameo technique was used on glass blanks , in imitation of objects being produced in agate or sardonyx. Cameo glass objects were produced in two periods; between around 25 BC and 50/60 AD, and in the later Empire around the mid-third and mid-fourth century. Roman glass cameos are rare objects, with only around two hundred fragments and sixteen complete pieces known, only one of which dates from

5875-560: The constellation Gemini . Gemini is the more difficult constellation to pick out, and it might represent the hidden identity of figure #8. Two others, however, are more obvious. Figure #20 is a shield with a large scorpion emblazoned upon it. Tiberius was born in November, and thus might be represented with such an item. Figure #9 shows Augustus’ favorite sign, the Capricorn . Although Augustus might have been conceived during December, he claimed

6000-868: The ordinance of headcovering. Other Christian women, including certain Catholic and Lutheran , as well as certain conservative Reformed Christian women (such as those belonging to the Heritage Reformed Congregations or Free Presbyterian Church of North America ), continue to wear a headcovering at least during prayer and worship. Lace face-veils are often worn by female relatives at funerals in some Catholic countries. In Orthodox Judaism , married women cover their hair for reasons of modesty; many Orthodox Jewish women wear headscarves ( tichel ) for this purpose. Christian Byzantine literature expressed rigid norms pertaining to veiling of women, which have been influenced by Persian traditions, although there

6125-402: The "veil of probation" during novitiate . A black veil is the traditional sign of a professed nun. Some monasteries or communities bestow the black veil at the first profession of vows, but usually it is bestowed with the profession of solemn vows . When the vows have been professed the white veil of a novice will be swapped for the black veil of the professed, and she is usually crowned with

6250-608: The 17th century, it was set in German gold. This setting shows that the gem must have been damaged, the upper left side being broken with at least one other figure missing, probably before Rudolph II bought it, but definitely before 1700. The gem is now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna . The enthroned figure, #1 in the numbered illustration, is usually taken to be Augustus, although in some interpretations, it could represent

6375-773: The 18th century, later acquired by the Duke of Marlborough. Edward Good’s renowned collection, housed at 'Cameo Corner' in London, also contributed significantly to the appreciation of cameo craftsmanship, with notable pieces now residing in the British Museum and Sir John Soane's Museum. During the Victorian era, there was a marked revival of shell cameos, particularly made from conch and helmet shells. These Victorian cameos were admired for their delicate softness and intricate carvings, which often depicted mythological figures, famous individuals, or symbolic themes. This era's cameos were softer and had

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6500-499: The 19th-century Russian poet Lev Mei , who composed a cycle of six poems entitled Камеи ( Cameos , 1861), as reflections on each of the Roman rulers from Julius Caesar to Nero . In 1852 Théophile Gautier titled a collection of his highly polished, lapidary poems Emaux et Camées ( Enamels and Cameos ). Historical patrons of cameo art included influential collectors like the Earl of Bessborough, who began an extensive collection in

6625-725: The 5th century BC. The Farnese Tazza (a cup) is the oldest major Hellenistic piece surviving. They were very popular in Ancient Rome , especially in the family circle of Augustus . The most famous stone "state cameos" from this period are the Gemma Augustea , the Gemma Claudia made for the Emperor Claudius , and the largest flat engraved gem known from antiquity, the Great Cameo of France . Roman cameos became less common around in

6750-545: The Capricorn as his constellation. The sun or moon, which were necessary to show the full power of a constellation, is seen behind the sign. Mars is represented by figure (#15), and thus at least three signs of the Zodiac are evident. Figure #13 is probably Diana, identified with the moon, although some commentators believe her to be a mere auxiliary troop with #14. Diana holds spears in her left hand and her right hand seems to rest on

6875-568: The Germans and the Pannonians, it would stand to reason that Germanicus, born in 13 B.C., was old enough to don gear and prepare for war, years after his father's death. Germanicus was also looked upon quite fondly by Augustus and others. The dispute carries on. Gemma Augustea seems to be based on dramatic Hellenistic compositions. The refined style of execution was more common in the late Augustan or earlier Tiberian age, though more likely Augustan. It

7000-459: The Great . She wears upon her head a mural crown and veil . She is crowning figure #1 with the corona civica of oak leaves - used to commend someone for saving the life of a Roman citizen. In this grand scale depiction, however, it is given to figure #1 because he saved a multitude of Roman citizens. Figure #5 and #6 seem to be closely related. Figure #5 is Oceanus or Neptune whose significance

7125-587: The Medieval Islamic Mughal Empire , various aspects of veiling and seclusion of women was adopted, such as the concept of Purdah and Zenana , partly as an additional protection for women. Purdah became common in the 15th and 16th century, as both Vidyāpati and Chaitanya mention it. Sikhism was highly critical of all forms of strict veiling, Guru Amar Das condemned it and rejected seclusion and veiling of women, which saw decline of veiling among some classes during late medieval period. This

7250-458: The Middle East. Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle, and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities. Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields. Since wearing a veil

7375-416: The Roman victory. The man is bound with his hands behind his back, and both are apparently about to be tied to the base of the as yet half-erected tropaion (figure #19), a trophy of war displayed upon winning a battle, usually fixed into the ground at the position of the "turning-point" of the battle in favour of the victors. The trophy consists of a wooden cross, designed to support human clothing. A helmet

7500-469: The abaya is worn constructed like a loose robe covering everything but the face itself. In another location, such as Iran, the chador is worn as the semicircles of fabric are draped over the head like a shawl and held in place under the neck by hand. The two terms for veiling that are directly mentioned in the Quran is the jilbab and the khimar. In these references, the veiling is meant to promote modesty by covering

7625-471: The aid of the ultrasonic mill. This is a process where multiple copies of a master design can be produced very quickly by pressing a master die onto the agate cameo blank. A film of diamond slurry is used to aid cutting and the die vibrates ultrasonically in a vertical motion. The master is often hand carved by a skilled cameo artist. The result is a cameo that has a satin surface texture described as "freshly fallen snow" (FFS) by Anna Miller. This texture and

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7750-455: The ancient practice of women to be consecrated by their bishop as a consecrated virgin living in the world. These virgins are set aside as sacred persons who belong only to Christ and the service of the church. The veil is a bridal one, because the velatio virginum primarily signified the newly consecrated virgin as the Bride of Christ . In ancient times his veil was called the flammeum because it

7875-441: The artist to create shading effects by removing material to allow the background layer to show through. This way a very realistic, lifelike quality to a figure can be achieved. For example, thinning the top black layer on a three-layer stone changes its color to shades of brown. Removing material from the white layer creates shades of blue or grey, depending on the color of the base. The majority of modern agate cameos are carved with

8000-414: The battlefield precedes the triumph on the upper plate. The upper scene is a fusion of Rome, Olympus , and the world of cities. Augustus is conspicuously above the birth sign he claimed, while the eagle personifying him as Jupiter sits below. He ended many years of internal strife for Rome and will forever wear the oak crown. In his right hand he holds a lituus – his augury stick in which he reads

8125-399: The bishop, as can be found in the writings of Ambrose of Milan and in the oldest liturgical sources. After the promulgation of Pope Paul VI's decree Perfectae caritatis on the adaption and renewal of religious life most monastic orders for nuns retained the veil. Regarding other institutes of religious sisters who work as teachers, nurses or in other active apostolates, some wear

8250-496: The bride as being "clouded over with a veil" and connected the verb nubere (to be married) with nubes , the word for cloud. Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic-speaking peoples of the Middle East. With the spread of Christianity , the ordinance of headcovering by women became normative throughout Christendom because it

8375-431: The cameo carver. The actual cameo is mainly cut with a metal scraping tool called a bulino, an invention of Jewish artisan Antonio Cimeniello . A number of metal gravers are used: flat-faced, round and three-cornered. To speed production, grinding wheels are used to quickly remove excess material. When the details are completed, the shell is then soaked in olive oil, cleaned with soap and water and selectively polished with

8500-405: The chariot are part of the chariot team, whereas the single horse to the side cannot be, and might belong to figure #8. Historically, a victory chariot was driven by four horses forming a quadriga , not the mere two represented on the gemma, a biga . This might show that figure #7 is not a triumphator . The lower scene, in which the figures are less readily identifiable, depicts the erection of

8625-455: The churches of God. The early Church Fathers , including Tertullian of Carthage , Clement of Alexandria , Hippolytus of Rome , John Chrysostom and Augustine of Hippo attested in their writings that men should pray uncovered, and that women should wear a headcovering . John Chrysostom ( c.  347  – 407) delineated Saint Paul's teaching on the wearing of headcoverings by Christian women, continually: Well then:

8750-593: The complexion from sun and wind damage (when untanned skin was fashionable), or to keep dust out of a woman's face, much as the keffiyeh (worn by men) is used today. In Judaism , Christianity , and Islam the concept of covering the head is or was associated with propriety and modesty. Most traditional depictions of the Virgin Mary , the mother of Christ , show her veiled. During the Middle Ages most European married women covered their hair rather than their face, with

8875-496: The complicity of the abbot, including one of Pope Paul II in 1470. In 1533 King Francis I of France , visiting the city, took the opportunity to appropriate it on the pretext of showing it to Pope Clement VII . But he took it directly to his palace at Fontainebleau, where sympathisers of the Catholic League of France stole it in 1590. Not long thereafter it was sold for 12,000 ducats to Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor . During

9000-455: The consecration of virgins for women living in the world provides, as the Roman Ritual . Since the reintroduction of the rite of consecration of virgins for women living in the world in 1970, the newly consecrated virgin receives a veil as a sign of her consecration, as in ancient times. The nuptial symbolism of the rite was displayed particularly in the bestowal of the veil on the virgin by

9125-511: The covering appointed by the law of God, cast away likewise that appointed by nature." Additionally, the Church Fathers taught that because the hair of a woman has sexual potency, it should only be for her husband to see and covered the rest of the time. In Western Europe and North America , from the arrival of Christianity to those lands to the mid-20th century, women in most mainstream Christian denominations wore head coverings (often in

9250-562: The day is still practiced by those who wear plain dress , such as traditional Anabaptists including Mennonites ( Old Order Mennonites and Conservative Mennonites ), Hutterites , Schwarzenau Brethren ( Old Order Schwarzenau Brethren and Dunkard Brethren Church ), River Brethren ( Old Order River Brethren and Calvary Holiness Church ), Apostolic Christians , Amish (Old Order Amish, New Order Amish , Para-Amish and Beachy Amish ), and Charity Christians , as well as Conservative Quakers . Many Holiness Christians who practice

9375-412: The depiction of Augustus is considered to be an actual portrait because of the iris seen in his eye. Tiberius, Augustus’ adopted son, recently having fought in the north, comes back momentarily – for Victoria anxiously urges that he continue on to fight new battles and receive his triumph. There are problems with this interpretation, however. The chariot is not one of victory. It would be unusual for

9500-652: The design of the Tabernacle as their plan. The Ark of the Law , which contains the scrolls of the Torah , is covered with an embroidered curtain or veil called a parokhet . (See also below regarding the traditional Jewish custom of veiling – and unveiling – the bride.) Traditionally, in Christianity, women were enjoined to cover their heads, and men were instructed to remove their hat when praying or prophesying. Wearing

9625-641: The doctrine of outward holiness , also practice headcovering (such as the Calvary Holiness Church ). The Plymouth Brethren and conservative Reformed and Presbyterian churches, along with Traditionalist Catholics , practice headcovering when praying at home and while attending public liturgies. In many Oriental Orthodox Churches and certain Eastern Orthodox congregations, the custom of women's covering their heads continues in church (and when praying privately at home). A veil forms part of

9750-486: The empire there. Augustus, though fully accepting and encouraging cult worship of the emperor outside Rome and Italy, especially in more distant provinces with traditions of deified rulers, did not allow himself to be worshipped as a god inside Rome. If this gem was made during his lifetime (he died in AD 14), it would perhaps have been made as a gift to a respected family in a Roman province or client kingdom . Alternatively, if

9875-513: The evil eye, it was thought. A veil called flammeum was the most prominent feature of the costume worn by the bride at Roman weddings . The veil was a deep yellow color reminiscent of a candle flame. The flammeum also evoked the veil of the Flaminica Dialis , the Roman priestess who could not divorce her husband, the high priest of Jupiter , and thus was seen as a good omen for lifelong fidelity to one man. The Romans apparently thought of

10000-564: The exception of young unmarried girls, wore veils that entirely covered their hair, and often their necks up to their chins (see wimple ). Only in the Tudor period (1485), when hoods became increasingly popular, did veils of this type become less common. This varied greatly from one country to another. In Italy, veils, including face veils, were worn in some regions until the 1970s. Women in southern Italy often covered their heads to show that they were modest, well-behaved and pious. They generally wore

10125-475: The exquisite craftsmanship of ancient cameos and saw them as emblems of France’s connection to Roman grandeur. He established a school in Paris for cameo making, bringing Sicilian artisans to train young French craftsmen in the glyptic arts, resulting in some of the most innovative cameo work of the period. In Britain, this revival first occurred during King George III 's reign, and his granddaughter, Queen Victoria ,

10250-512: The face. Depending on geography and culture, the veil is referenced and worn in different ways. The khimar is a type of headscarf . The niqāb and burqa are two kinds of veils that cover most of the face except for a slit or hole for the eyes. In Algeria , a larger veil called the haïk includes a triangular panel to cover the lower part of the face. In the Arabian Peninsula and parts of North Africa (specifically Saudi Arabia),

10375-539: The finest examples were made by the French glassworks in the early to mid-nineteenth century. Today the term may be used very loosely for objects with no colour contrast, and other, metaphorical, terms have developed, such as cameo appearance . This derives from another generalized meaning that has developed, the cameo as an image of a head in an oval frame in any medium, such as a photograph. Ancient and Renaissance cameos were made from semi-precious gemstones , especially

10500-509: The form of a scarf, cap, veil or hat). These included many Anglican , Baptist , Catholic , Lutheran , Methodist , Moravian , and Reformed (including Continental Reformed , Congregationalist and Presbyterian traditions) Churches. In these denominations, the practice now continues in certain congregations and by individuals who have sought to follow the precedent set in Scripture and church history. Christian veiling throughout

10625-529: The gem was made after Augustus’ death, the identity of one or more of the portraits may be different from the usual identification. Another viewpoint is that the gem does portray Augustus as a god in his lifetime, but was cut specifically for a close friend or relative in the inner court circle. Similar issues arise with other Imperial cameos such as the Blacas Cameo in the British Museum . The whereabouts of

10750-548: The gemma were undocumented, though it remained relatively intact and was probably always above ground, until 1246 when it was recorded in the treasury of the abbey of Saint-Sernin in the French city of Toulouse . The gemma aroused from that time the lusts of the powerful: in 1306 Pope Clement V offered to exchange it for the construction of a bridge over the Garonne, the magistrates of Toulouse then had to strengthen its surveillance because there were several attempts to seize it with

10875-423: The genitals and breasts of women. The Afghan burqa covers the entire body, obscuring the face completely, except for a grille or netting over the eyes to allow the wearer to see. The boshiya is a veil that may be worn over a headscarf; it covers the entire face and is made of a sheer fabric so the wearer is able to see through it. It has been suggested that the practice of wearing a veil  – uncommon among

11000-400: The head of every man is Christ, the head of a woman is her husband, and the head of Christ is God. Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head, but any woman who prays or prophesies with her head unveiled dishonors her head—it is the same as if her head were shaven. For if a woman will not veil herself, then she should cut off her hair; but if it is disgraceful for

11125-416: The head of the man in figure #12, but not gripping his hair as supposed by many. Another identifying feature of Diana is her bountiful hair, bound up for the hunt, and her hunting clothes. Figure #14 might be an auxiliary, but more likely he personifies Mercurius (Mercury/ Hermes ), identified by his rimmed hat. Mercurius seems to be dragging the female in figure #12 by her hair towards the tropaion . The scene

11250-463: The headdress of some orders of nuns or religious sisters in Catholicism, Lutheranism and Anglicanism; this is why a woman who becomes a nun is said "to take the veil". In medieval times married women normally covered their hair outside the house, and a nun's veil is based on secular medieval styles, often reflecting the fashion of widows in their attire. In many institutes, a white veil is used as

11375-494: The higher upon Italian ruins! Tis said he set aside his wife’s chaste kisses and his little children, as one bereft of civil rights, and sternly bent his manly gaze upon the ground till he should strengthen the Senate’s wavering purpose by advice ne’er given before, and amid sorrowing friends should hurry forth a glorious exile. Full well he knew what the barbarian torturer was making ready for him; and yet he pushed aside

11500-462: The horn is not presently producing anything. This supports an argument that she is not Gaia, but Italia, for historically there was famine at the scene's event. Also, she wears a bulla , a locket of some sort, around her neck, which, again, would seem odd for Gaia to wear. Either way, the children represent seasons, probably summer and Autumn, as one of them carries grains. Figure #10 is the eagle of Jupiter . The eagle could be showing that figure #1

11625-451: The kinsmen who blocked his path and the people who would halt his going with no less unconcern than if some case in court had been decided, and he were leaving the tedious business of his clients, speeding to Venafran fields, or to Lacedaemonian Tarentum. Cameo (carving) Cameo ( / ˈ k æ m i oʊ / ) is a method of carving an object such as an engraved gem , item of jewellery or vessel. It nearly always features

11750-452: The lack of any undercutting are used by appraisers as markers to prove that the cameo is machine-made. These cameos are carved by hand, usually working from photographs of the subject. The fact that there is usually only one copy made means that the tooling costs involved rule out the ultrasonic carving process. There are very few people working in this field, as this is one of the hardest challenges for any gemstone carver. The combination of

11875-424: The later period. During the early period they usually consisted of a blue glass base with a white overlying layer, but those made during the later period usually have a colourless background covered with a translucent coloured layer. Blanks could be produced by fusing two separately cast sheets of glass, or by dipping the base glass into a crucible of molten overlay glass during blowing . The most famous example of

12000-414: The man he compelleth not to be always uncovered, but only when he prays. "For every man," saith he, "praying or prophesying, having his head covered, dishonoureth his head." But the woman he commands to be at all times covered. Wherefore also having said, "Every woman that prayeth or prophesieth with her head unveiled, dishonoureth her head," he stayed not at this point only, but also proceeded to say, "for it

12125-529: The man, it is no longer about covering but about wearing long hair, that he so forms his discourse. To be covered he then only forbids, when a man is praying; but the wearing of long hair he discourages at all times. For he said not merely covered, but covered over , meaning that she be with all care sheltered from view on every side. And by reducing it to an absurdity, he appeals to their shame, saying by way of severe reprimand, but if she be not covered, let her also be shorn. As if he had said, "If thou cast away

12250-407: The neck and shoulders as well as the head, leaving the face itself open. Some female members of Lutheran and Anglican religious communities also wear a veil, differing according to the traditions of each community. Among Christian churches which have a liturgical tradition, several different types of veils are used. These veils are often symbolically tied to the veils in the Tabernacle in

12375-465: The observer and possibly the scene itself. She is the only one as such, and perhaps to contrast the celebration of victory in battle, she shows instead mercy to one pleading for his life. In addition, since the man is a leader, it makes for better propaganda that he should beg for mercy before a Roman goddess. Mercurius might not be dragging the woman to be bound to the trophy, but might be bringing her to kneel before Diana to beg for mercy as well. She shows

12500-434: The palace entrance. They shall not take her jewelry; he who has seized her shall take her clothing; they shall strike her 50 blows with rods; they shall pour hot pitch over her head. And if a man should see a veiled prostitute and release her and not bring her to the palace entrance: they shall strike that man 50 blows with rods; the one who informs against him shall take his clothing; they shall pierce his ears, thread (them) on

12625-514: The protection afforded by the intercessions of the Virgin Mary. A variety of headdresses worn by Muslim women and girls in accordance with hijab (the principle of dressing modestly) are sometimes referred to as veils. The principal aim of the Muslim veil is to cover the Awrah (parts of the body that are considered private). Many of these garments cover the hair, ears, and throat, but do not cover

12750-461: The rest of the face, but the phrase is generally taken to refer not to Sarah's eyes, but to the eyes of others, and to be merely a metaphorical expression concerning vindication of Sarah ( NASB , RSV ), silencing criticism ( GWT ), allaying suspicions ( NJB ), righting a wrong ( BBE , NLT ), covering or recompensing the problem caused her ( NIV , New Life Version, NIRV , TNIV , JB ), a sign of her innocence ( ESV , CEV , HCSB ). The final phrase in

12875-454: The sign of a truce by placing her hand upon her chest. Perhaps Diana and Mercurius are sheltering them, perhaps offering them salvation in the final moments of victory. Whatever the case, the couple in #12 are not comparable to the despairing couple in #11, with whom they appear both to balance and contrast; balance by having barbarians on the right and left, literally balancing the composition, and contrast as one couple being doomed to be bound at

13000-457: The signs and declares wars to be just. He faces Roma, representing all he united and saved from civil bloodshed. He sits equal to Roma, personifying a god. His feet lay upon armor, which could be identified with the newly conquered barbarians , or it may depict the descent of the Julian family from Mars through his human children Romulus and Remus . Unlike all the other figures, except for #7 and #8,

13125-592: The three portraits. Drusus would claim Gemini, though the Gemini is quite covert. If the portrait represented Drusus as alive, however, the gem would have been made about the same time as the Ara Pacis and the Altar of Augustus , sometime before 9 B.C., the year of Drusus’ death. Others, though, think that Figure #8 is Germanicus, son of Drusus. If the gem was commissioned no earlier than A.D. 12 and referred to Tiberius’ triumph over

13250-470: The trophy, and the other begging for what looks like a chance of mercy. The upper and lower scenes take place at different times, illustrating cause and effect. The lower scene takes place at the northern frontiers, just after a battle won by the Romans, who erect a victory trophy. Gathered prisoners of war are waiting for their punishment in grief or begging for mercy at the hands of assisting gods. The triumph on

13375-402: The various types of onyx and agate , and any other stones with a flat plane where two contrasting colours meet; these are "hardstone" cameos. In cheaper modern work, shell and glass are more common. Glass cameo vessels, such as the famous Portland Vase , were also developed by the Romans. Modern cameos can be produced by setting a carved relief, such as a portrait, onto a background of

13500-406: The veil at the onset of puberty and veiling is regarded as a mark of manhood. It is considered improper for a man to appear unveiled in front of elders, especially those from his wife's family. Ancient African rock engravings depicting human faces with eyes but no mouth or nose suggest that the origins of litham are not only pre-Islamic but even pre-historic. Wearing of the litham is not viewed as

13625-486: The veil include, among others: Places where headscarves continue to be a contentious political issue include: In Indian subcontinent , from 1st century B.C. societies advocated the use of the veil for married Hindu women which came to be known as Ghoonghat . Buddhists attempted to counter this growing practice around 3rd century CE. Rational opposition against veiling and seclusion from spirited ladies resulted in system not becoming popular for several centuries. Under

13750-423: The veil, while some others have abolished the use of the veil. The fullest versions of the nun's veil cover the top of the head and flow down around and over the shoulders. In western Christianity, it does not wrap around the neck or face. In those orders that retain one, the starched white covering about the face, neck, and shoulders is known as a wimple and is a separate garment. The Catholic Church has revived

13875-511: The verse, which KJV takes to mean, "she was reproved", is taken by almost all other versions to mean instead, "she was vindicated", and the word "הוא", which KJV interprets as "he" (Abraham), is interpreted as "it" (the money). Thus, the general view is that this passage has nothing to do with material veils. After the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem , the synagogues that were established took

14000-516: The wilderness and in Solomon's Temple . The purpose of these veils was not so much to obscure as to shield the most sacred things from the eyes of sinful men. In Solomon's Temple the veil was placed between the "Inner Sanctuary" and the " Holy of Holies ". According to the New Testament, this veil was torn when Jesus Christ died on the cross. The Veil of Our Lady is a liturgical feast celebrating

14125-467: The woman's class, rank, and occupation in society. Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so. The Middle Assyrian law code states: § 40. A wife-of-a-man, or [widows], or [Assyrian] women who go out into the main thoroughfare [shall not have] their heads [bare]. […] A prostitute shall not veil herself, her head shall be bare. Whoever sees a veiled prostitute shall seize her, secure witnesses, and bring her to

14250-536: The word for veil was καλύπτρα ( kalyptra ; Ionic Greek : καλύπτρη , kalyptrē ; from the verb καλύπτω , kalyptō , "I cover"). Classical Greek and Hellenistic statues sometimes depict Greek women with both their head and face covered by a veil. Caroline Galt and Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones have both argued from such representations and literary references that it was commonplace for women (at least those of higher status) in ancient Greece to cover their hair and face in public. Roman women were expected to wear veils as

14375-525: The years leading up to 300   AD, although production continued at a much reduced rate right through the Middle Ages. The technique has since enjoyed periodic revivals, notably in the early Renaissance , and again in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Neoclassical revival began in France with Napoleon 's support of the glyptic arts, and even his coronation crown was decorated with cameos. Napoleon admired

14500-483: Was a major proponent of the cameo trend, to the extent that they would become mass-produced by the second half of the 19th century. After the death of her husband, Queen Victoria commissioned bejeweled cameos in onyx with portraits of herself and Prince Albert, which she gifted to members of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert. The visual art form of the cameo has even inspired at least one writer of more recent times,

14625-488: Was also customary in ancient Greece . Between 550 and 323 B.C.E respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men. The Mycenaean Greek term 𐀀𐀢𐀒𐀺𐀒 , a-pu-ko-wo-ko , possibly meaning "headband makers" or "craftsmen of horse veil", and written in Linear B syllabic script, is also attested since ca. 1300 BC. In ancient Greek

14750-436: Was draped over and pinned to the bonnet or hat of a woman in mourning , especially at the funeral and during the subsequent period of "high mourning". They would also have been used, as an alternative to a mask , as a simple method of hiding the identity of a woman who was traveling to meet a lover, or doing anything she did not want other people to find out about. More pragmatically, veils were also sometimes worn to protect

14875-512: Was enjoined in the Bible and by the Church Fathers . Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians, before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses. In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face. For many centuries, until around 1175, Anglo-Saxon and then Anglo-Norman women, with

15000-504: Was impractical for working women, "a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle." By the 19th century, upper-class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and a burqa ( muslin cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth). Up to the first half of the twentieth century, rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on

15125-428: Was made from man, so man is now born of woman. And all things are from God.) Judge for yourselves; is it proper for a woman to pray to God with her head uncovered? Does not nature itself teach you that for a man to wear long hair is degrading to him, but if a woman has long hair, it is her pride? For her hair is given to her for a covering. If any one is disposed to be contentious, we recognize no other practice, nor do

15250-409: Was probably already dead, having fallen from his horse and suffered fatal injuries. It could be, then, a representation of Drusus, and his memory, since he was fondly regarded by almost all. Since he is clad in fighting garb, the helmet probably beside him under the chariot, and coincidentally standing next to a horse, this could very well be Drusus. In addition, there are three constellations relating to

15375-480: Was stressed by Bhagat Kabir . Stay, stay, O daughter-in-law - do not cover your face with a veil. In the end, this shall not bring you even half a shell. The one before you used to veil her face; do not follow in her footsteps. The only merit in veiling your face is that for a few days, people will say, "What a noble bride has come". Your veil shall be true only if you skip, dance and sing the Glorious Praises of

15500-454: Was supposed to remind the virgin of the indissoluble nuptial bond she was contracting with Christ. The wearing of the flammeum for the sacred virgin Bride of Christ arose from the bridal attire of the strictest pagan marriage which did not permit of divorce at the time. The flammeum was a visible reminder that divorce was not possible with Christ, their Divine spouse. In Eastern Orthodoxy and in

15625-553: Was the faranji but it was banned by the Soviet Communists. In Pakistan, upper and middle-class women in towns wear burqas over their normal clothes in public. The burqa is the most visible dress in Pakistan. It is typically a tent-like garment worn over the ordinary clothes and is made of white cotton. Many upper-class women wear a two-piece burqa which is usually black in colour but sometimes navy blue or dark red. It consists of

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