Gavia Pass ( Italian : Passo di Gavia ) (el. 2621 m.) is a high mountain pass in the Italian Alps . It is the tenth highest paved road in the Alps .
127-492: The pass lies in the Lombardy region and divides the province of Sondrio to the north and the province of Brescia to the south. The road over the pass (SS 300) connects Bormio to the northwest with Ponte di Legno to the south and is single track most on its southern section. There are many peaks to climb around. Directly above the pass on its east side is Corno dei Tre Signori (3360 m) and next to it Monte Gaviola (3025). On
254-504: A Roman aristocrat and a governor, it is clear that Ambrose retained the attitudes and practices of Roman governance even after becoming a bishop. His acts and writings show he was quite clear about the limits of imperial power over the church's internal affairs including doctrine, moral teaching, and governance. He wrote to Valentinian: "In matters of faith bishops are the judges of Christian emperors, not emperors of bishops." ( Epistle 21.4). He also famously said to an Arian bishop chosen by
381-465: A bit from place to place at this time, and as the bishop, Ambrose could have required that everyone adapt to his way of doing things. It was his place to keep the churches as united as possible in both ritual and belief. Instead, he respected local customs, adapting himself to whatever practices prevailed, instructing his mother to do the same. As bishop, Ambrose undertook many different labours in an effort to unite people and "provide some stability during
508-535: A brief extract from one of the three emperors ruling in 339, Constantine II , Constantius II , or Constans , in the Codex Theodosianus , book XI.5). What does seem certain is that Ambrose was born in Trier and his father was either the praetorian prefect or part of his administration. A legend about Ambrose as an infant recounts that a swarm of bees settled on his face while he lay in his cradle, leaving behind
635-569: A drop of honey. His father is said to have considered this a sign of his future eloquence and honeyed tongue. Bees and beehives often appear in the saint's symbology . Ambrose's mother was a woman of intellect and piety. It was probable that she was a member of the Roman family Aurelii Symmachi , which would make Ambrose a cousin of the orator Quintus Aurelius Symmachus . The family had produced one martyr (the virgin Soteris ) in its history. Ambrose
762-399: A large number of books and letters of theology and spiritual commentary dedicated to the emperor. The sheer volume of these writings and the effusive praise they contain has led many historians to conclude that Gratian was dominated by Ambrose, and it was that dominance that produced Gratian's anti-pagan actions. McLynn asserts that effusive praises were common in everyone's correspondence with
889-457: A martyr and create a scandal embarrassing the emperor. Ambrose, referring to a prior incident where Magnus Maximus issued an edict censuring Christians in Rome for burning down a Jewish synagogue, warned Theodosius that the people, in turn, exclaimed "the emperor has become a Jew", implying that Theodosius would receive the same lack of support from the people. Theodosius rescinded the order concerning
1016-512: A merchant or banker from northern Italy, for example Lombard Street, London . The name "Lombardy" came to denote the whole of northern Italy until the 15th century and sometimes later. From the 14th century onward, the instability created by the internal and external struggles ended in the creation of noble seigniories , the most significant of whom were the Viscontis (later Sforzas ) in Milan and of
1143-472: A pagan senator sentenced to die. After years of acquaintance, this indicates that Ambrose could not take for granted that Gratian would see him, so instead, Ambrose had to resort to such manoeuvrings to make his appeal. Gratian was personally devout long before meeting Ambrose. Modern scholarship indicates Gratian's religious policies do not evidence capitulation to Ambrose more than they evidence Gratian's own views. Gratian's devotion did lead Ambrose to write
1270-408: A period of religious, political, military, and social upheavals and transformations". Brown says Ambrose "had the makings of a faction fighter". While he got along well with most people, Ambrose was not averse to conflict and even opposed emperors with a fearlessness born of self-confidence and a clear conscience and not from any belief he would not suffer for his decisions. Having begun his life as
1397-498: A personal friendship, putting Ambrose in the dominant role of spiritual guide, but modern scholars now find this view hard to support from the sources. The ancient Christian historian Sozomen ( c. 400 – c. 450 ) is the only ancient source that shows Ambrose and Gratian together in any personal interaction. In that interaction, Sozomen relates that, in the last year of Gratian's reign, Ambrose intruded on Gratian's private hunting party in order to appeal on behalf of
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#17328513087841524-415: A public figure, fiercely promoting Roman Christianity against Arianism and paganism . He left a substantial collection of writings, of which the best known include the ethical commentary De officiis ministrorum (377–391), and the exegetical Exameron [ it ] (386–390). His preaching, his actions and his literary works, in addition to his innovative musical hymnography, made him one of
1651-485: A representation of actual history. The view of a pious Theodosius submitting meekly to the authority of the church, represented by Ambrose, is part of the myth that evolved within a generation of their deaths. In April 393 Arbogast ( magister militum of the West) and his puppet Emperor Eugenius marched into Italy to consolidate their position against Theodosius I and his son, Honorius , now appointed Augustus to govern
1778-561: A significant boom due to improved trading, sartorial manufacturing of silk and wool, and agricultural conditions; arms manufacturing for the purpose of defensive army development, by the German imperial divisions of Guelphs ( Welfen ) defending the Pope and Ghibellins ( Wibellingen ) defending the Emperor, became a significant factor. As in other areas of Italy, this led to a growing self-acknowledgement of
1905-521: A theological and a practical level, and Ambrose exercised crucial influence at a crucial time. Ambrose had good relations and varying levels of influence with the Roman emperors Gratian , Valentinian II and Theodosius I , but exactly how much influence, what kind of influence, and in what ways, when, has been debated in the scholarship of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. It has long been convention to see Gratian and Ambrose as having
2032-403: A visit to Milan. The bishop made a good impression on Gratian and his court, which was pervasively Christian and aristocratic – much like Ambrose himself. The emperor returned to Milan in 380 to find that Ambrose had complied with his request for a statement of his faith – in two volumes – known as De Fide : a statement of orthodoxy and of Ambrose' political theology, as well as a polemic against
2159-717: Is remembered in the calendar of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church on 7 December, and is also honoured in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 7 December. In 1960, Neil B. McLynn wrote a complex study of Ambrose that focused on his politics and was intended to "demonstrate that Ambrose viewed community as a means to acquire personal political power". Subsequent studies of how Ambrose handled his episcopal responsibilities, his Nicene theology and his dealings with
2286-458: Is an administrative region of Italy that covers 23,844 km (9,206 sq mi); it is located in northern Italy and has a population of about 10 million people, constituting more than one-sixth of Italy's population. Lombardy is located between the Alps mountain range and tributaries of the river Po , and includes Milan , its capital, the largest metropolitan area in the country, and among
2413-674: Is bordered by Canton Ticino and Canton Grisons of Switzerland to the north, and by the Italian regions of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Veneto to the east, Emilia-Romagna to the south and Piedmont to the west. Lombardy's northern border is between the Valtellina and the valleys of the Rhine and the Inn . To the east, Lake Garda and the Mincio separate Lombardy from the other Italian regions, as does
2540-566: Is difficult "not to posit a deep spirituality in a man" who wrote on the mystical meanings of the Song of Songs and wrote many extraordinary hymns. Despite an abiding spirituality, Ambrose had a generally straightforward manner, and a practical rather than a speculative tendency in his thinking. De Officiis is a utilitarian guide for his clergy in their daily ministry in the Milanese church rather than "an intellectual tour de force ". Christian faith in
2667-608: Is foundational to Italy in the Middle Ages . The term was also used until around 965 in the form Λογγοβαρδία ( Longobardia ) as the name for the territory roughly covering modern Apulia, which the Byzantines had recovered from the Lombard rump state Duchy of Benevento . Lombardy has a surface area of 23,861 km (9,213 sq mi), and is the fourth-largest region of Italy after Sicily , Piedmont and Sardinia . It
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#17328513087842794-557: Is mainly humid subtropical ( Köppen Cfa), especially in the plains, though with significant variations to the Köppen model, especially in the normally long, damp, and cold winters. There is high seasonal temperature variation; in Milan, the average temperature is 2.5 °C (36.5 °F) in January and 24 °C (75 °F) in July. The plains are often subject to fog during the coldest months. In
2921-551: Is of more recent origin; formed by the deposit of detrital material on the continental shelf, coming from the erosion caused by surface waters, which accompanied the lifting of the Alpine chain, which rose to the west and north of the plain, and of the Apennine chain to the south, which filled the marine gulf existing in the Pliocene created by the uplift of the two mountain chains. Lombardy
3048-532: Is one of the most-air-polluted areas of Europe. Because of high levels of industrialisation and the lack of wind due to the region being enclosed between mountain ranges, air pollution remains a severe problem in Lombardy and northern Italy. In March 2019, the European Space Agency (ESA) published images taken from its satellites that show a large stain composed of nitrogen dioxide and fine particles above
3175-762: Is the Alpine zone, which includes the Lepontine and Rhaetian Alps (4,020 m (13,190 ft)), which derive their name, respectively, from the Raeti , a population of Etruscan origin who took refuge in the Central Alps during the Celtic invasion of the Italian peninsula, and from the Ligurian population of the Lepontii settled in this area and then subjugated by the Roman emperor Augustus ,
3302-548: Is the economic capital of Italy and is a global financial centre . Of the fifty-eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Italy, eleven are in Lombardy, tying it with Castile and León in northwest-central Spain . Virgil , Pliny the Elder , Ambrose , Gerolamo Cardano , Caravaggio , Claudio Monteverdi , Antonio Stradivari , Cesare Beccaria , Alessandro Volta , and Alessandro Manzoni ; and popes John XXIII and Paul VI originated in
3429-763: Is the second most populous region of the European Union (EU), and the second region of the European Union by nominal GDP. Lombardy is the first region of Italy in terms of economic importance, contributing to approximately a fifth of the national gross domestic product (GDP). Lombardy is a member of the Four Motors for Europe , an international economical organization whose other members are Baden-Württemberg in Germany, Catalonia in Spain, and Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes in France. Milan
3556-607: The Cima Coppi , the highest point of the race. On 5 June 1988, the race passed over the Gavia in a snowstorm, making for an epic stage won by Erik Breukink . American Andrew Hampsten , the second-place finisher, became the overall race leader and went on to win the Giro. This Lombardy location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Lombardy Lombardy ( Italian : Lombardia ; Lombard : Lombardia )
3683-869: The Risorgimento , with the Five Days of Milan in March 1848, the Ten Days of Brescia in 1849, the Belfiore martyrs in Mantua in the years between 1851 and 1853. The annexation of Lombardy to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia occurred following the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859, a war during which Lombardy was the main theatre of battle (battles of Montebello , Palestro , Magenta , Solferino and San Fermo ). In 1861, with
3810-510: The Adriatic Sea . Celtic development was halted by the Roman expansion in the Po Valley from the 3d century BC. After centuries of struggle, at the end of the 2nd century B.C., the entirety of modern-day Lombardy became a Roman province called Gallia Cisalpina —" Gaul on the inner side (with respect to Rome) of the Alps ". The Roman culture and language overwhelmed the former civilisation in
3937-472: The Air Quality Life Index (AQLI), Po Valley air pollution reduces life expectancy by about six months. Air pollution in the Po Valley is connected to livestock and factories. The use of NPK fertilizers , made of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, along with manure emissions from intensive breeding and high levels of nitrogen dioxide released by diesel and petrol engines are all causes of pollution in
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4064-541: The Alta —an upper, permeable ground zone in the north—and the Bassa , a lower zone dotted by the line of fontanili , spring waters rising from impermeable ground. Inconsistent with the three distinctions above is the small sub-region of Oltrepò Pavese , which is formed by the Apennine foothills beyond the Po , and Lomellina , area particularly renowned for its rice paddies . The Po marks
4191-766: The Bernina Pass (2,323 m (7,621 ft)), with the latter two which are located in Swiss territory. The most important national passes are the Stelvio Pass (2,759 m (9,052 ft)) and the Tonale Pass (1,883 m (6,178 ft)), which connect Lombardy with Trentino-Alto Adige . These Alpine passes are also of great importance from a historical point of view, given that they have always allowed easy communication between Lombardy and its bordering territories. It then resulted in constant commercial traffic, which contributed to
4318-527: The Edict of Thessalonica , a decree addressed to the city of Constantinople , determining that only Christians who did not support Arian views were catholic and could have their places of worship officially recognized as "churches". The Edict opposed Arianism , and attempted to establish unity in Christianity and to suppress heresy. German ancient historian Karl Leo Noethlichs [ de ] writes that
4445-628: The Fossa Interna , also known as the Inner Ring. The urban section of the Naviglio Martesana was covered over at the beginning of the 1930s, together with the entire Inner Ring, thus sounding the death knell for the north-eastern canals. The Lombard Alpine valleys are wider than those found, again in the Alps , in Piedmont and Aosta Valley . Most of them are crossed by streams that descend towards
4572-720: The Gonzagas in Mantua. This wealth, however, attracted the now-more-organised armies of national powers such as France and Austria, which waged a lengthy battle for Lombardy in the late 15th to early 16th centuries. After the Battle of Pavia , the Duchy of Milan became a possession of the Habsburgs of Spain; the new rulers did little to improve the economy of Lombardy, instead imposing a growing series of taxes to support their lengthy series of European wars. The eastern part of modern-day Lombardy, including
4699-466: The Kingdom of Italy , both of which were puppet states of France's First Empire , with Milan as capital and Napoleon as head of state. During this period, Lombardy regained Valtellina from Switzerland. The restoration of Austrian rule in 1815 as the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia was characterised by a struggle with the new ideals introduced by the Napoleonic era. Lombardy was then an important centre of
4826-752: The Oltrepò Pavese , formerly the southern part of the Province of Novara , to the Province of Pavia . The Alpine front of World War I crossed the eastern Lombardy Alpine side, and in the post-war period Milan was the centre of the Italian Fasces of Combat . Milan then became the Gold Medal of Military Valor for the Italian resistance movement during the Italian Civil War after its liberation from fascism during
4953-898: The Orobic Alps (3,050 m (10,010 ft)) which derive their name from the Orobii , population of Ligurian or perhaps Celtic origin, the Ortler Alps and the Adamello massif. It is followed by the Alpine foothills zone Prealps , which are followed by hills that smooth the transition from the mountain to the Po Valley , the main peaks of which are the Grigna Group (2,410 m (7,910 ft)), Resegone 1,875 m (6,152 ft), and Presolana (2,521 m (8,271 ft)). The plains of Lombardy, which are formed by alluvial deposits, can be divided into
5080-557: The Piazza Fontana bombing in Milan in 1969 and the Piazza della Loggia bombing in Brescia in 1974. In the 1980s, Milan became a symbol of the country's economic growth, and a symbol of the economic-financial rampantism of the so-called "Milano da bere" , literally "Milan to be drunk", while the Milanese socialist group of Bettino Craxi was in the national government. The city of Milan, in
5207-699: The Po Valley , forming rivers which then flow into the Po on the hydrographic left. Thanks to the width of their valleys, the Lombard Alpine passes, although they are at a high altitude, are easily accessible. The most important international passes found in the Lombard Alps and which connect the region with Switzerland are the Splügen Pass (2,118 m (6,949 ft)), the Maloja Pass (1,815 m (5,955 ft)) and
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5334-402: The Prealpine zone, up to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59.1 to 78.7 in) annually, but is also abundant in the plains and alpine zones, with an average of 600 to 850 mm (23.6 to 33.5 in) annually. Average annual rainfall is 827 mm (32.6 in). Lake Garda, thanks to its size and position, mitigates the climate of its coasts, creating a " Mediterranean " microclimate which makes
5461-404: The Valcamonica depicting animals, people, and symbols were made over 8,000 years before the Iron Age , based on about 300,000 records. The many artefacts found in a necropolis near Lake Maggiore and the Ticino demonstrate the presence of the Golasecca Bronze Age culture that prospered in western Lombardy between the ninth and the 4th centuries BC. In the following centuries, Lombardy
5588-429: The Western and Eastern empires. Although the western Emperor Gratian ( r. 367–383 ) supported orthodoxy, his younger half brother Valentinian II , who became his colleague in the empire in 375, adhered to the Arian creed. Ambrose sought to refute Arian propositions theologically, but Ambrose did not sway the young prince's position. In the East, Emperor Theodosius I ( r. 379–395 ) likewise professed
5715-463: The World War II , while the partisan resistance spread across the valleys and provinces. Following the historical borders, in 1948 the administrative region of Lombardy was prefigured as part of the newly formed Italian Republic . In the years of the Italian economic miracle , Milan was one of the poles of the "industrial triangle" of northern Italy formed by the cities of Turin - Milan - Genoa . The Years of Lead had wide relevance in Lombardy, with
5842-457: The proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy , Lombardy became part of the modern Italian state, except for the central-eastern part of the province of Mantua which was annexed in 1866 after the Third Italian War of Independence . Regarding the battle of Solferino, it was during this conflict that Henry Dunant took the initiative to create the Red Cross . After the annexation of Mantua, Lombardy achieved its present-day territorial shape by adding
5969-500: The " Te Deum " hymn, though modern scholars now reject both of these attributions. Ambrose's authorship on at least four hymns, including the well-known " Veni redemptor gentium ", is secure; they form the core of the Ambrosian hymns , which includes others that are sometimes attributed to him. He also had a notable influence on Augustine of Hippo (354–430), whom he helped convert to Christianity. Western Christianity identified Ambrose, along with Augustine , Jerome and pope Gregory
6096-416: The Alpine foothills with oceanic climate ( Köppen Cfb), numerous lakes have a mitigating influence, allowing typically Mediterranean crops (olive, citrus fruit ) to grow. In the hills and mountains, the climate is humid continental ( Köppen Dfb). In the valleys, it is relatively mild while it can be severely cold with copious snowfalls above 1,500 m (4,900 ft). Precipitation is more intense in
6223-589: The Alps are a succession of low hills of morainic origin that were formed during the Last Glacial Period and small, barely fertile plateaux with typical heaths and conifer woods. A minor mountainous area the Oltrepò Pavese lies in the Apennines range south of the Po. The navigli are a system of interconnected canals in and around Milan dating back as far as the Middle Ages. The system consists of five canals: Naviglio Grande , Naviglio Pavese , Naviglio Martesana , Naviglio di Paderno , Naviglio di Bereguardo . The first three were connected through Milan via
6350-436: The Arian heresy – intended for public discussion. The emperor had not asked to be instructed by Ambrose, and in De Fide Ambrose states this clearly. Nor was he asked to refute the Arians. He was asked to justify his own position, but in the end, he did all three. It seems that by 382 Ambrose had replaced Ausonius to become a major influence in Gratian's court. Ambrose had not yet become the "conscience" of kings he would in
6477-453: The Arians challenged the succession . Ambrose went to the church where the election was to take place to prevent an uproar which seemed probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call, "Ambrose, bishop!", which was taken up by the whole assembly. Ambrose, though known to be Nicene Christian in belief, was considered acceptable to Arians due to the charity he had shown concerning their beliefs. At first, he energetically refused
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#17328513087846604-493: The Arians in his episcopate, his pastoral care, his commitment to community, and his personal asceticism, have mitigated this view. All of Ambrose's writings are works of advocacy for Nicene Christianity, and even his political views and actions were closely related to his religion. He was rarely, if ever, concerned about simply recording what had happened; he did not write to reveal his inner thoughts and struggles; he wrote to advocate for his God. Boniface Ramsey writes that it
6731-534: The Balkans when his uncle and the "cream of the eastern army" were destroyed at Adrianople. Gratian withdrew to Sirmium and set up his court there. Several rival groups, including the Arians, sought to secure benefits from the government at Sirmium. In an Arian attempt to undermine Ambrose, whom Gratian had not yet met, Gratian was "warned" that Ambrose's faith was suspect. Gratian took steps to investigate by writing to Ambrose and asking him to explain his faith. Ambrose and Gratian first met, after this, in 379 during
6858-499: The Edict of Thessalonica was neither anti-pagan nor antisemitic ; it did not declare Christianity to be the official religion of the empire; and it gave no advantage to Christians over other faiths. Liebeschuetz and Hill indicate that it was not until after 388, during Theodosius' stay in Milan following the defeat of Maximus in 388, that Theodosius and Ambrose first met. After the Massacre of Thessalonica in 390, Theodosius made an act of public penance at Ambrose's behest. Ambrose
6985-430: The Frankish general Arbogast to keep an eye on the young emperor. By May of the following year, Arbogast's ward was dead amidst rumours of both treachery and suicide... While Ambrose was writing De Fide , Theodosius published his own statement of faith in 381 in an edict establishing Nicene Catholic Christianity as the only legitimate version of the Christian faith. There is unanimity amongst scholars that this represents
7112-515: The Great , as one of the four Great Latin Church Fathers , declared Doctors of the Church in 1298. He is considered a saint by the Catholic Church , Eastern Orthodox Church , Anglican Communion , and various Lutheran denominations, and venerated as the patron saint of Milan and beekeepers . Legends about Ambrose had spread through the empire long before his biography was written, making it difficult for modern historians to understand his true character and fairly place his behaviour within
7239-403: The Lombard people and the Gallo-Roman peoples improved. The Lombard language and culture was integrated with the Latin culture, leaving evidence in many names, the legal code and laws. The Lombards became intermixed with the Roman population owing to their relatively smaller number. The end of Lombard rule came in 774, when the Frankish king Charlemagne conquered Pavia , deposed Desiderius
7366-454: The Lombard side of the river Ticino to protect one of the last major examples of fluvial forest in northern Italy. There have also been efforts to protect the endangered Italian agile frog . Parco naturale lombardo della Valle del Ticino is the first Italian regional park to be established as well as the first European river park. In 2022 the two Parks were included by UNESCO in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves . Other parks in
7493-454: The Nicene creed; but there were many adherents of Arianism throughout his dominions, especially among the higher clergy. In this state of religious ferment, two leaders of the Arians, bishops Palladius of Ratiaria and Secundianus of Singidunum , confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that Gratian complied without hesitation. However, Ambrose feared
7620-401: The Pass, while Rifugio A. Berni is located in close proximity to the monument. Further up in the mountains, at 3398 meters, is Bivacco Seveso, situated directly below the summit of Tresero. Another refuge, Bivacco Battaglione Ortles, rests below Cima di Val Umbrina at 3122 meters altitude. The Gavia Pass is often on the route of the Giro d'Italia road bicycle race and is sometimes designated
7747-545: The Po Valley area. Lombardy is the geographic and economic centre of this area, with more than 10 million residents and the highest GRP per inhabitant of the country. Most of its major cities are located in the Po river basin, which crosses the region. The stain analysed by ESA is the main reason Po Valley air pollution levels are so high. Milan also has high levels of ozone and nitrogen oxides , which are mainly produced by cars diesel and petrol engines. According to Chicago Energy Policy Institute , which has recently developed
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#17328513087847874-473: The Po Valley suffer the most serious impact of poor air quality in Europe, primarily the metropolitan area of Milan, which is 13th in terms of fine particulate impact, with an annual premature death rate of 3,967 – approximately 9% of the total. From archaeological findings of ceramics, arrows, axes, and carved stones, the area of current-day Lombardy has been settled at least since the second millennium BC. Well-preserved rock drawings left by ancient Camuni in
8001-443: The Po river in the south with the exception of the province of Mantua and Oltrepò Pavese . The western boundary is formed by the Lake Maggiore and the Ticino river, except Lomellina . Lombardy has three natural zones; mountains, hills and plains—the last being divided into Alta (high plains) and Bassa (low plains). The surface area of Lombardy is divided almost equally between the plains (which represent approximately 47% of
8128-487: The Prealpine area include some species of saxifrage , Lombardy garlic , groundsel and bellflowers . The highlands are characterised by the typical vegetation of the Italian Alps . At and below about 1,100 m (3,600 ft), oaks or broadleaf trees grow; on the mountain slopes between 2,000 and 2,100 m (6,600 and 6,900 ft), beech trees grow at the lowest limits with conifer woods higher up. Shrubs such as rhododendron , dwarf pine and juniper are native to
8255-448: The Son , indicating that the Son was a lesser being who was not eternal and of a different "essence" from God the Father. This Christology , though contrary to tradition, quickly spread through Egypt, Libya and other Roman provinces. Bishops engaged in the dispute, and the people divided into parties, sometimes demonstrating in the streets in support of one side or the other. Arianism appealed to many high-level leaders and clergy in both
8382-418: The State's influence." Ambrose was also well aware of the limits of his power. At the height of his career as a venerable, respected and well-loved bishop in 396, imperial agents marched into his church, pushing past him and his clergy who had crowded the altar to protect a political suspect from arrest, and dragged the man from the church in front of Ambrose who could do nothing to stop them. "When it came to
8509-431: The area of modern-day Lombardy. The name Lombardy comes from Lombard , which is derived from Late Latin Longobardus, Langobardus ("a Lombard"), which derived from the Proto-Germanic elements * langaz + * bardaz ; equivalent to long beard . According to some scholars, the second element derives from Proto-Germanic *bardǭ , *barduz ("axe"), related to German Barte . The name of
8636-410: The bishop, as a divine representative, as guardian of his god's property. Subsequently, while Ambrose was performing the Liturgy of the Hours in the basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give it up to the Arians. Ambrose again refused. Certain deans (officers of the court) were sent to take possession of the basilica by hanging upon it imperial escutcheons. Instead, soldiers from
8763-423: The bishop. That was not enough for Ambrose, however, and when Theodosius next visited Milan Ambrose confronted him directly in an effort to get him to drop the entire case. McLynn argues that Ambrose failed to win the emperor's sympathy and was mostly excluded from his counsels thereafter. The Callinicum affair was not an isolated incident. Generally speaking, however, while McLynn says it makes Ambrose look like
8890-414: The central functions of the Roman state, even the vivid Ambrose was a lightweight". Ambrose is recorded on occasions as taking a hostile attitude towards Jews, for example in 388, when the Emperor Theodosius I was informed that a crowd of Christians had retaliated against the local Jewish community by destroying the synagogue at Callinicum on the Euphrates . The synagogue most probably existed within
9017-414: The church of Christ. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but God alone can appease it." By Thursday, the emperor gave in, bitterly responding: "Soon, if Ambrose gives the orders, you will be sending me to him in chains." In 386, Justina and Valentinian II received the Arian bishop Auxentius
9144-617: The cities Bergamo and Brescia , was controlled by the Republic of Venice , which had begun to extend its influence in the area from the 14th century onwards. Between the mid-15th century and the battle of Marignano in 1515, the northern part of east Lombardy from Airolo to Chiasso (modern Ticino ), and the Valtellina valley came under possession of the Old Swiss Confederacy . Pestilences like that of 1628–1630, which Alessandro Manzoni described in his I Promessi Sposi , and
9271-516: The cities, whose increasing wealth made them able to defy the traditional feudal supreme power that was represented by the German emperors and their local legates. This process peaked in the 12th and 13th centuries, when Lombard Leagues formed by allied cities of Lombardy, usually led by Milan, defeated the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick I , at Legnano but not his grandson Frederick II at Battle of Cortenuova . Although having
9398-560: The city (the Basilica of the Apostles), the other in the suburbs (St Victor's). Ambrose refused to surrender the churches. He answered by saying that "What belongs to God, is outside the emperor's power." In this, Ambrose called on an ancient Roman principle: a temple set apart to a god became the property of that god. Ambrose now applied this ancient legal principle to the Christian churches, seeing
9525-528: The consequences and prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Western bishops. Accordingly, a synod composed of thirty-two bishops was held at Aquileia in the year 381. Ambrose was elected president and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined. A vote was then taken and Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from their episcopal offices. Ambrose struggled with Arianism for over half of his term in
9652-411: The context of antiquity. Most agree he was the personification of his era. This would make Ambrose a genuinely spiritual man who spoke up and defended his faith against opponents, an aristocrat who retained many of the attitudes and practices of a Roman governor , and also an ascetic who served the poor. Ambrose was born into a Roman Christian family in the year 339. Ambrose himself wrote that he
9779-457: The crown. He adds that Gratian's actions were determined by the constraints of the system as much as "by his own initiatives or Ambrose's influence". McLynn asserts that the largest influence on Gratian's policy was the profound change in political circumstances produced by the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Gratian had become involved in fighting the Goths the previous year and had been on his way to
9906-568: The cultivation of olive trees and the production of olive oil possible; the so-called "Lombard oil" is also produced in other Lombard lake areas. The geological structure of Lombardy derives from the orogeny of the Alps due to the collision between the African and Eurasian plates which generated the Alpine chain from the Upper Cretaceous to the Miocene . The Po Valley , on the other hand,
10033-433: The development of the region. The plains have been intensively cultivated for centuries, and little of the original environment remains. The most common trees are elm , alder , sycamore , poplar , willow and hornbeam . In the area of the foothills lakes, however, olive , cypresses and larches grow, as do varieties of subtropical flora such as magnolia , azalea and acacias . Numerous species of endemic flora in
10160-554: The early 1990s, was the origin of the series of scandals known as Tangentopoli which emerged from the judicial investigations of the Milanese prosecutor's office known as Mani pulite , which then spread to the rest of the country. In early 2020, Lombardy was severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic , in which Italy was one of the worst-affected countries in Europe. Several towns were quarantined from 22 February after community transmission
10287-463: The emperor's own beliefs. The aftermath of the death (378) of Valens (Emperor in the East from 364 to 378) had left many questions for the church unresolved, and Theodosius' edict can be seen as an effort to begin addressing those questions. Theodosius' natural generosity was tempered by his pressing need to establish himself and to publicly assert his personal piety. On 28 February 380, Theodosius issued
10414-607: The emperor, "The emperor is in the church, not over the church." ( Sermon Against Auxentius , 36). Ambrose's acts and writings "created a sort of model which was to remain valid in the Latin West for the relations of the Church and the Christian State. Both powers stood in a basically positive relationship to each other, but the innermost sphere of the Church's life--faith, the moral order, ecclesiastical discipline--remained withdrawn from
10541-454: The episcopate. Ecclesiastical unity was important to the church, but it was no less important to the state, and as a Roman, Ambrose felt strongly about that. Conflict over heresies loomed large in an age of religious ferment comparable to the Reformation of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Orthodox Christianity was determining how to define itself as it faced multiple challenges on both
10668-718: The fall of Pavia on the river Ticino , in CE 774 by the Frankish Charlemagne on the Pope's behalf. As such, "Lombardy" and "Italy" were almost interchangeable; by the mid-8th century, the Lombards ruled everywhere except the Papal possessions around Rome —roughly modern Lazio and northern Umbria — Venice and some Byzantine possessions in the south—southern Apulia and Calabria ; some coastal settlements including Amalfi , Gaeta , Naples and Sorrento ; Sicily and Sardinia ; their culture
10795-445: The family moved to Rome. There Ambrose studied literature , law , and rhetoric . He then followed in his father's footsteps and entered public service. Praetorian Prefect Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus first gave him a place as a judicial councillor, and then in about 372 made him governor of the province of Liguria and Emilia , with headquarters in Milan. In 374 the bishop of Milan, Auxentius , an Arian, died, and
10922-596: The famous Edict of Milan that gave freedom of confession to all religions within the Roman Empire. During and after the fall of the Western Empire, Lombardy heavily suffered from destruction brought about by a series of invasions by tribal peoples. After 540, Pavia became the permanent capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom , the fixed site of the court and the royal treasury. The last and most effective invasion
11049-459: The following centuries. In the 10th century, Lombardy, although formally under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, was included in the kingdom of Italy , of which Pavia remained the capital until 1024. Starting gradually in the late-11th century, Lombardy became divided into many small, autonomous city-states, the medieval communes . Also in the 11th century, the region's economy underwent
11176-609: The following years, and Lombardy became one of the most-developed and richest areas of Italy with the construction of roads and the development of agriculture and trade. Important figures were born here, such as Pliny the Elder (in Como ) and Virgil (in Mantua). In late antiquity the strategic role of Lombardy was emphasised by the move of the capital of the Western Empire to Mediolanum (Milan). Here, in 313 AD, Roman Emperor Constantine issued
11303-420: The fortified town to serve the soldiers stationed there, and Theodosius ordered that the offenders be punished and that the synagogue be rebuilt at the expense of the bishop. Ambrose wrote to the emperor arguing against this, basing his argument on two assertions: first, if the bishop obeyed the order, it would be a betrayal of his faith, and second, if the bishop instead refused to obey the order, he would become
11430-565: The general decline of Italy's economy in the 17th and 18th centuries halted further development of Lombardy. In 1706 the Austrian Empire came to power, and introduced some economic and social measures that allowed a degree of recovery to occur. Austrian rule was interrupted in the late-18th century by the French; under Napoleon , Lombardy became the centre of the Cisalpine Republic and of
11557-568: The largest in the EU. Its territory is divided into 1,502 comuni (region with the largest number of comuni in the entire national territory ), distributed in twelve administrative subdivisions (eleven provinces plus the Metropolitan City of Milan ). The region ranks first in Italy in terms of population, population density and number of local authorities, while it is fourth in terms of surface area, after Sicily , Piedmont and Sardinia . It
11684-437: The last Lombard king, and annexed the Kingdom of Italy —mostly northern and central present-day Italy—to his newly established Holy Roman Empire . Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope on 25 December 800. The former Lombard dukes and nobles were replaced by other German vassals, prince-bishops and marquises. The entire northern part of the Italian peninsula continued to be called "Lombardy" and its population "Lombards" throughout
11811-562: The lasting enmity of Valentinian II's mother, the Empress Justina , in the winter of 379 by helping to appoint a Nicene bishop in Sirmium. Not long after this, Valentinian II, his mother, and the court left Sirmium; Sirmium had come under Theodosius' control, so they went to Milan which was ruled by Gratian. In 383 Gratian was assassinated at Lyon , in Gaul (France) by Magnus Maximus . Valentinian
11938-437: The late-twentieth century. McLynn argues that Theodosius's anti-pagan legislation was too limited in scope for it to be of interest to the bishop. The fabled encounter at the door of the cathedral in Milan, with Ambrose as the mitred prelate braced, blocking Theodosius from entering, which has sometimes been seen as evidence of Ambrose' dominance over Theodosius, has been debunked by modern historians as "a pious fiction". There
12065-472: The later 380s, but he did speak out against reinstating the Altar of Victory . In 382, Gratian was the first to divert public financial subsidies that had previously supported Rome's cults. Before that year, contributions in support of the ancient customs had continued unchallenged by the state. The childless Gratian had treated his younger brother Valentinian II like a son. Ambrose, on the other hand, had incurred
12192-505: The military purpose as preponderant, the Lombard League also had its own stable government, considered one of the first examples of confederation in Europe. Subsequently, among the local city-states, a process of consolidation took place, and by the end of the 14th century, two signoria emerged as rival hegemons in Lombardy; Milan and Mantua . In the 15th century, the Duchy of Milan
12319-479: The most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. Ambrose was serving as the Roman governor of Aemilia - Liguria in Milan when he was unexpectedly made Bishop of Milan in 374 by popular acclamation. As bishop, he took a firm position against Arianism and attempted to mediate the conflict between the emperors Theodosius I and Magnus Maximus . Tradition credits Ambrose with developing an antiphonal chant, known as Ambrosian chant , and for composing
12446-526: The north of Italy. Lombardy also produces vast amounts of animal waste, a big contributor to pollution. Lombardy produces more than 40% of Italy's milk and over half of the Italian pig production is located in the Po Valley. According to research published in The Lancet Planetary Health , in January 2021, Brescia and Bergamo had the highest death rate from fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) in Europe. The data show many cities in Lombardy and
12573-461: The office of bishop, for which he felt he was in no way prepared: Ambrose was a relatively new Christian who was not yet baptized nor formally trained in theology . Ambrose fled to a colleague's home, seeking to hide. Upon receiving a letter from the Emperor Gratian praising the appropriateness of Rome appointing individuals worthy of holy positions, Ambrose's host gave him up. Within a week, he
12700-469: The other side of the road raises Monte Gavia (3223 m). By continuing along the road in the direction of Bormio, after less than 3 km, one arrives at the monument from where routes start for the Punta San Matteo (3678 m) group. The group includes Pizo Tresero (3594 m), Punta Pendranzini (3599), Cima Dosegu (3560) and several others. Several huts dot the area. Rifugio Bonetta is positioned right on
12827-563: The plate of the church melted for the relief of the poor. After defeating the usurper Maximus at Aquileia in 388 Theodosius handed the western realm back to the young Valentinian II, the seventeen-year-old son of the forceful and hardy Pannonian general Valentinian I and his wife, the Arian Justina. Furthermore, the Eastern emperor remained in Italy for a considerable period to supervise affairs, returning to Constantinople in 391 and leaving behind
12954-505: The power to do so, and probably did not solely because of Ambrose's popularity with the people and what they might do. When Magnus Maximus usurped power in Gaul (383) and was considering a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him, and the embassy was successful (384). A second, later embassy was unsuccessful. Magnus Maximus entered Italy (386–387) and Milan was taken. Justina and her son fled, but Ambrose remained and had
13081-431: The ranks the emperor had placed around the basilica began pouring into the church, assuring Ambrose of their fidelity. The escutcheons outside the church were removed, and legend says the children tore them to shreds. Ambrose refused to surrender the basilica, and sent sharp answers back to his emperor: "If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never betray
13208-590: The region are the Campo dei Fiori and the Cinque Vette Park , both of which are located in the Province of Varese . The system of protected areas in Lombardy consists of one national park, 24 regional parks, 65 natural reserves and 30 natural monuments . In total, protected areas cover more than 27% of the regional territory. Lombardy has a wide array of climates due to variance in elevation, proximity to inland water basins, and large metropolitan areas. The climate
13335-571: The region derives from the name of the people of the Lombards who arrived in Italy in 568 and made Pavia their capital. During the Early Middle Ages , "Lombardy" referred to the Kingdom of the Lombards ( Latin : Regnum Langobardorum ), which was ruled by the Germanic Lombard raiders who had controlled most of early Christian Italy since their invasion of Byzantine Italy in CE 568 until
13462-940: The southern border of the region for about 210 km (130 mi); its major tributaries are the Ticino , which rises in the Val Bedretto in Switzerland and joins the Po near Pavia, the Olona , the Lambro , the Adda , the Oglio and the Mincio . The numerous lakes of Lombardy are all of glacial origin and are located in the northern highlands. From west to east, these are: Lake Maggiore , Lake Lugano (both shared with Switzerland), Lake Como , Lake Iseo , Lake Idro , and Lake Garda (the largest lake in Italy). South of
13589-459: The summit zone beyond 2,200 m (7,200 ft). Lombardy includes many protected areas. The most important is Stelvio National Park , established in 1935 —the fourth largest Italian natural park, with typically alpine wildlife such as red deer , roe deer , ibex , chamois , foxes, ermine and golden eagles ; and the Parco naturale lombardo della Valle del Ticino , which was instituted in 1974 on
13716-606: The territory) and the mountainous areas (which represent 41%). The remaining 12% of the region is hilly. The orography of Lombardy is characterised by three distinct belts; a northern mountainous belt constituted by the Alpine relief, a central piedmont area of mostly alluvial pebbly soils, and the Lombard section of the Padan Plain in the south of the region. The main valleys are Val Camonica , Val Trompia , Valle Sabbia , Valtellina , Val Seriana , Val Brembana , Valsassina , and Valassina . The most important mountainous area
13843-510: The third century developed the monastic lifestyle which subsequently spread into the rest of Roman society in a general practice of virginity, voluntary poverty and self-denial for religious reasons. This lifestyle was embraced by many new converts, including Ambrose, even though they did not become actual monks. The bishops of this era had heavy administrative responsibilities, and Ambrose was also sometimes occupied with imperial affairs, but he still fulfilled his primary responsibility to care for
13970-536: The two are less about personal friendship than they are about negotiations between two formidable leaders of the powerful institutions they represent: the Roman State and the Italian Church. Cameron says there is no evidence that Ambrose was a significant influence on the emperor. For centuries after his death, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. This view
14097-498: The undisputed possession of the Roman Empire , Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and Ambrose gave the eulogy. Two years later (4 April 397) Ambrose also died. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by Simplician . Ambrose's body may still be viewed in the church of Saint Ambrogio in Milan, where it has been continuously venerated – along with the bodies identified in his time as being those of Saints Gervase and Protase . Ambrose
14224-431: The use of vending machines, but from the beginning of May, following a reported decrease in the number of active cases, restrictions were gradually relaxed. Ambrose Ambrose of Milan ( Latin : Aurelius Ambrosius ; c. 339 – 4 April 397), venerated as Saint Ambrose , was a theologian and statesman who served as Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. He expressed himself prominently as
14351-498: The well-being of his flock. He preached and celebrated the Eucharist multiple times a week, sometimes daily, and dealt directly with the needs of the poor, as well as widows and orphans, "virgins" (nuns), and his own clergy. He replied to letters personally, practised hospitality, and made himself available to the people. Ambrose had the ability to maintain good relationships with all kinds of people. Local church practices varied quite
14478-491: The western portion of the empire. Arbogast and Eugenius courted Ambrose's support by very obliging letters; but before they arrived at Milan, he had retired to Bologna, where he assisted at the translation of the relics of Saints Vitalis and Agricola . From there he went to Florence, where he remained until Eugenius withdrew from Milan to meet Theodosius in the Battle of the Frigidus in early September 394. Soon after acquiring
14605-446: The younger , and Ambrose was again ordered to hand over a church in Milan for Arian usage. Ambrose and his congregation barricaded themselves inside the church, and again the imperial order was rescinded. There was an attempted kidnapping, and another attempt to arrest him and to force him to leave the city. Several accusations were made, but unlike in the case of John Chrysostom , no formal charges were brought. The emperor certainly had
14732-677: Was 53 years old in his letter number 49, which has been dated to 392. He began life in Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier ) the capital of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica in what was then northeastern Gaul and is now in the Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. Scholars disagree on who exactly his father was. His father is sometimes identified with Aurelius Ambrosius, a praetorian prefect of Gaul ; but some scholars identify his father as an official named Uranius who received an imperial constitution dated 3 February 339 (addressed in
14859-804: Was away from court during the events at Thessalonica, but after being informed of them, he wrote Theodosius a letter. In that still-existing letter, Ambrose presses for a semi-public demonstration of penitence from the emperor, telling him that, as his bishop, he will not give Theodosius communion until it is done. Wolf Liebeschuetz says "Theodosius duly complied and came to church without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly admitted him to communion". Formerly, some scholars credited Ambrose with having an undue influence over Emperor Theodosius I, from this period forward, prompting him toward major anti-pagan legislation beginning in February of 391. However, this interpretation has been heavily disputed since
14986-455: Was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated as the new bishop of Milan . This was the first time in the West that a member of the upper class of high officials had accepted the office of bishop. As bishop, he immediately adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apportioned his money to the poor, donating all of his land, making only provision for his sister Marcellina . This raised his standing even further; it
15113-520: Was documented in Lombardy and Veneto the previous day. The entirety of Lombardy was placed under lockdown on 8 March, followed by all of Italy the following day, making Italy the first country to implement a nationwide lockdown in response to the epidemic, which the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a pandemic on 11 March. The lockdown was extended twice, and the region toughened restrictions on 22 March, banning outdoor exercise and
15240-463: Was his popularity with the people that gave him considerable political leverage throughout his career. Upon the unexpected appointment of Ambrose to the episcopate, his brother Satyrus resigned a prefecture in order to move to Milan, where he took over managing the diocese's temporal affairs. Arius (died 336) was a Christian priest who around the year 300 asserted that God the Father must have created
15367-647: Was inhabited by different peoples; the Etruscans founded the city of Mantua and spread the use of writing. It was seat of the Celtic Canegrate culture starting from the 13th century BC, and later of the Celtic Golasecca culture . From the 5th century BC, the area was invaded by more Celtic Gallic tribes coming from north of the Alps. These people settled in several cities including Milan and extended their rule to
15494-416: Was no encounter at the church door. The story is a product of the imagination of Theodoret , a historian of the fifth century who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record". The twenty-first-century view is that Ambrose was "not a power behind the throne". The two men did not meet each other frequently, and documents that reveal the relationship between
15621-462: Was one of the wealthiest states during the Renaissance . Milan and Mantua became centres of the Renaissance , whose culture with people such as Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea Mantegna , and works of art such as da Vinci's The Last Supper were highly regarded. The enterprising class of the communes extended its trade and banking activities well into northern Europe; the metonym "Lombard" designated
15748-504: Was recorded by Theodoret, who is recognized as an unreliable historian, in the century following their deaths. Theodosius's predecessors Constantine ( r. 306–337 ), Constantius ( r. 337–361 ), and Valens had all been semi-Arians . Therefore, it fell to the orthodox Theodosius to receive from Christian literary tradition most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity. Modern scholars see this as an interpretation of history by orthodox Christian writers more than as
15875-635: Was that of the Germanic Lombards or Longobards, whose nation migrated to the region from the Carpathian basin in fear of the conquering Pannonian Avars in 568. The Lombards' long-lasting reign, with its capital in Pavia , gave the current name to the region. There was a close relationship between the Frankish , Bavarian and Lombard nobility for many centuries. After the initial struggles, relationships between
16002-450: Was the youngest of three children. His siblings were Satyrus , the subject of Ambrose's De excessu fratris Satyri , and Marcellina , who made a profession of virginity sometime between 352 and 355; Pope Liberius himself conferred the veil upon her. Both Ambrose's siblings also became venerated as saints. Sometime early in the life of Ambrose, his father died. At an unknown later date, his mother fled Trier with her three children, and
16129-467: Was twelve years old, and the assassination left his mother, Justina, in a position of something akin to a regent. In 385 (or 386) the emperor Valentinian II and his mother Justina, along with a considerable number of clergy , the laity , and the military, professed Arianism. Conflict between Ambrose and Justina soon followed. The Arians demanded that Valentinian allocate to them two churches in Milan : one in
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