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112-441: Garlic ( Allium sativum ) is a species of bulbous flowering plant in the genus Allium . Its close relatives include the onion , shallot , leek , chive , Welsh onion , and Chinese onion . It is native to Central Asia , South Asia and northeastern Iran . It has long been used as a seasoning and culinary ingredient worldwide, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, including also use as

224-453: A mosquito repellent , although there is no scientific evidence of its efficacy. In the typical serving size of 1–3 cloves (3–9 grams), raw garlic provides no significant nutritional value, with the content of all essential nutrients below 10% of the Daily Value (DV). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raw garlic contains some micronutrients in rich amounts (20% or more of

336-423: A mutation–selection balance . It is predicted that a viral quasispecies at a low but evolutionarily neutral and highly connected (that is, flat) region in the fitness landscape will outcompete a quasispecies located at a higher but narrower fitness peak in which the surrounding mutants are unfit, "the quasispecies effect" or the "survival of the flattest". There is no suggestion that a viral quasispecies resembles

448-478: A traditional medicine . It was known to ancient Egyptians and other ancient cultures for which its consumption has had a significant culinary cultural impact, especially across the Mediterranean region and across parts of Asia. It is produced globally but the largest producer is China which produced 73% of the world's supply of garlic in 2021. There are two subspecies and hundreds of varieties of garlic. Garlic

560-400: A "classical" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus, early in evolutionary theory. However, different phenotypes are not necessarily different species (e.g. a four-winged Drosophila born to a two-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called morphospecies . In the 1970s, Robert R. Sokal , Theodore J. Crovello and Peter Sneath proposed

672-424: A 'smallest clade' idea" (a phylogenetic species concept). Mishler and Wilkins and others concur with this approach, even though this would raise difficulties in biological nomenclature. Wilkins cited the ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan 's early 20th century remark that "a species is whatever a suitably qualified biologist chooses to call a species". Wilkins noted that the philosopher Philip Kitcher called this

784-508: A Middle Eastern garlic sauce called Toum (تُوم; meaning "garlic" in Arabic). While not exclusively served with meats, toum is commonly paired with chicken or other meat dishes such as shawarma . Garlic is also a key component in some hummus varieties, an Arabic dip composed of chickpeas, tahini, garlic, lemon juice, and salt. Lightly smoked garlic is used in British and other European cuisine. It

896-428: A connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can sexually interbreed with adjacent related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow between each "linked" population. Such non-breeding, though genetically connected, "end" populations may co-exist in the same region thus closing

1008-532: A crop and remain in the soil indefinitely once introduced. Garlic may also suffer from pink root , a typically non-fatal disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red; or leek rust , which usually appears as bright orange spots. The larvae of the leek moth attack garlic by mining into the leaves or bulbs. Botrytis neck and bulb rot is a disease of onion , garlic, leek and shallot . Botrytis allii and Botrytis aclada cause this disease in onion and Botrytis porri causes it in garlic. According to

1120-432: A different species from its ancestors. Viruses have enormous populations, are doubtfully living since they consist of little more than a string of DNA or RNA in a protein coat, and mutate rapidly. All of these factors make conventional species concepts largely inapplicable. A viral quasispecies is a group of genotypes related by similar mutations, competing within a highly mutagenic environment, and hence governed by

1232-546: A garlic odor coming from them. If higher-than-recommended doses of garlic are taken with anticoagulant medications, this can lead to a higher risk of bleeding. Garlic may interact with warfarin , saquinavir , antihypertensives , calcium channel blockers , the quinolone family of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin , and hypoglycemic drugs, as well as other medications. The American Veterinary Medical Association considers garlic to be toxic to pets. Because of sulfur compounds circulating in blood, consumed garlic may act as

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1344-508: A genetic boundary suitable for defining a species concept is present. DNA barcoding has been proposed as a way to distinguish species suitable even for non-specialists to use. One of the barcodes is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for cytochrome c oxidase . A database, Barcode of Life Data System , contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species. However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider

1456-402: A known recessive genotype with worms of an unknown genotype on an agar plate. Allow the male and hermaphrodite worms time to mate and produce offspring. Using a microscope, the ratio of recessive versus dominant phenotype will elucidate the genotype of the dominant parent. To perform a test cross with D. melanogaster , select a trait with a known dominant and recessive phenotype. Red eye colour

1568-465: A lineage should be divided into multiple chronospecies , or when populations have diverged to have enough distinct character states to be described as cladistic species. Species and higher taxa were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being . In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time. Charles Darwin 's 1859 book On

1680-492: A misnomer, need to be reconciled, as they delimit species differently. Genetic introgression mediated by endosymbionts and other vectors can further make barcodes ineffective in the identification of species. A phylogenetic or cladistic species is "the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineages (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts)". The empirical basis – observed character states – provides

1792-637: A mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer. Laba garlic , prepared by soaking garlic in vinegar , is a type of pickled garlic served with dumplings in northern China to celebrate the Chinese New Year . Garlic is essential in Middle Eastern and Arabic cooking, with its presence in many food items. In the Levant , garlic is traditionally crushed together with olive oil, and occasionally salt, to create

1904-473: A monohybrid cross, Mendel initiated the experiment with a pair of pea plants exhibiting contrasting traits, one being tall and the other dwarf. Through cross-pollination, the resulting offspring plants manifested the tall trait. These first-generation hybrids were termed F1 , with their offspring referred to as Filial or F1 progeny. Mendel observed that characteristics that were absent in F1 generation had reappeared in

2016-449: A particular species, including which genus (and higher taxa) it is placed in, is a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as

2128-400: A perfect model of life, it is still a useful tool to scientists and conservationists for studying life on Earth, regardless of the theoretical difficulties. If species were fixed and clearly distinct from one another, there would be no problem, but evolutionary processes cause species to change. This obliges taxonomists to decide, for example, when enough change has occurred to declare that

2240-400: A short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but not to all. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet. The names of genera and species are usually printed in italics . However, abbreviations such as "sp." should not be italicised. When a species' identity is not clear,

2352-652: A small area of skin using a low concentration of garlic. On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged. In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable. The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown. Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities. Some breastfeeding mothers have found, after consuming garlic, that their babies can be slow to feed, and have noted

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2464-471: A soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels. There are different varieties of garlic, most notably split into the subspecies of hardneck garlic and softneck garlic. The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic

2576-404: A specialist may use "cf." before the epithet to indicate that confirmation is required. The abbreviations "nr." (near) or "aff." (affine) may be used when the identity is unclear but when the species appears to be similar to the species mentioned after. With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including: The naming of

2688-523: A species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. Mayr's use of the adjective "potentially" has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in

2800-400: A species as determined by a taxonomist. A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties (a type), so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (such as longer or shorter tails) would differentiate the species. This method was used as

2912-488: A species. All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter" organism, but that is not what happens in HGT. There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of prokaryotes , and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of eukaryotes , including some crustaceans and echinoderms . The evolutionary biologist James Mallet concludes that there

3024-685: A species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation. Many authors have argued that a simple textbook definition, following Mayr's concept, works well for most multi-celled organisms , but breaks down in several situations: Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorised as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence , cryptic species ) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity , multiple life-cycle stages). In addition, horizontal gene transfer (HGT) makes it difficult to define

3136-487: A strong odor and is typically made up of 10 to 20 cloves. The cloves close to the center are symmetrical, and those surrounding the center can be asymmetrical. Each clove is enclosed in an inner sheathing leaf surrounded by layers of outer sheathing leaves. If garlic is planted at the proper time and depth, it can be grown as far north as Alaska. It produces hermaphroditic flowers. It is pollinated by bees, butterflies, moths, and other insects. Fresh or crushed garlic yields

3248-519: A taxonomic decision at the discretion of cognizant specialists, is not governed by the Codes of Zoological or Botanical Nomenclature, in contrast to the PhyloCode , and contrary to what is done in several other fields, in which the definitions of technical terms, like geochronological units and geopolitical entities, are explicitly delimited. The nomenclatural codes that guide the naming of species, including

3360-511: A tetrapyrrole). Like chlorophyll, the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat. Upon cutting, similar to a color change in onion caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds, garlic can turn green. The green, dry "folds" in the center of the garlic clove are especially pungent . The sulfur compound allicin , produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic, produces other sulfur compounds: ajoene , allyl polysulfides, and vinyldithiins . Aged garlic lacks allicin, but may have some activity due to

3472-506: A traditional biological species. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses has since 1962 developed a universal taxonomic scheme for viruses; this has stabilised viral taxonomy. Most modern textbooks make use of Ernst Mayr 's 1942 definition, known as the Biological Species Concept as a basis for further discussion on the definition of species. It is also called a reproductive or isolation concept. This defines

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3584-447: A variation on the morphological species concept, a phenetic species, defined as a set of organisms with a similar phenotype to each other, but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms. It differs from the morphological species concept in including a numerical measure of distance or similarity to cluster entities based on multivariate comparisons of a reasonably large number of phenotypic traits. A mate-recognition species

3696-515: A variety of reasons. Viruses are a special case, driven by a balance of mutation and selection , and can be treated as quasispecies . Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from morphology and moving towards genetics . Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept. Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts,

3808-438: Is "an entity composed of organisms which maintains its identity from other such entities through time and over space, and which has its own independent evolutionary fate and historical tendencies". This differs from the biological species concept in embodying persistence over time. Wiley and Mayden stated that they see the evolutionary species concept as "identical" to Willi Hennig 's species-as-lineages concept, and asserted that

3920-493: Is a perennial flowering plant that is native to Central Asia , South Asia and northeastern Iran . and grows from a bulb . It has a tall, erect flowering stem that grows up to 1 m (3 ft). The leaf blade is flat, linear, solid, and approximately 1.25–2.5 cm (0.5–1.0 in) wide, with an acute apex. The plant may produce pink to purple flowers from July to September in the Northern Hemisphere. The bulb has

4032-475: Is a basic essential item in dipping fish sauce , a highly used dipping sauce condiment used in Indochina . In East and Southeast Asia , chili oil with garlic is a popular dipping sauce , especially for meat and seafood. Tuong ot toi Viet Nam (Vietnam chili garlic sauce) is a highly popular condiment and dip across North America and Asia. In some cuisines, the young bulbs are pickled for three to six weeks in

4144-461: Is a fertilization process which entails two purebred parents that consist of a difference in only one characteristic, where the resulting offspring become monohybrids. It is utilized to test only one type of gene or phenotype.   Monohybrid, also called “single gene test cross”, is used to observe how homozygous offspring express heterozygous genotypes inherited from their parents.   The implantation of monohybrid crossing includes signifying

4256-400: Is a group of sexually reproducing organisms that recognise one another as potential mates. Expanding on this to allow for post-mating isolation, a cohesion species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridise successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if

4368-458: Is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognise as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources are divided up tend to produce those clusters. A genetic species as defined by Robert Baker and Robert Bradley is a set of genetically isolated interbreeding populations. This

4480-499: Is actually a wild leek ( A. ampeloprasum ) and not a true garlic. Single clove garlic (also called pearl or solo garlic) originated in the Yunnan province of China. There are two subspecies of A. sativum , ten major groups of varieties , and hundreds of varieties, or cultivars. There are at least 120 cultivars originating from Central Asia , making it the main center of garlic biodiversity. Some garlics have protected status in

4592-510: Is bred with another individual that is homozygous for the recessive trait and the offspring of the test cross are examined. Since the homozygous recessive individual can only pass on recessive alleles, the allele the individual in question passes on determines the phenotype of the offspring. Thus, this test yields 2 possible situations: The first uses of test crosses were in Gregor Mendel ’s experiments in plant hybridization . While studying

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4704-414: Is called speciation . Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book The Origin of Species . Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation , a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in allopatric speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation

4816-412: Is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature , also sometimes in zoological nomenclature ). For example, Boa constrictor is one of the species of the genus Boa , with constrictor being the species' epithet. While the definitions given above may seem adequate at first glance, when looked at more closely they represent problematic species concepts. For example,

4928-418: Is caused by allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from there to the mouth, causing garlic breath ) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at

5040-403: Is described formally, in a publication that assigns it a unique scientific name. The description typically provides means for identifying the new species, which may not be based solely on morphology (see cryptic species ), differentiating it from other previously described and related or confusable species and provides a validly published name (in botany) or an available name (in zoology) when

5152-400: Is dominant and white is recessive. Obtain virgin females with white eyes, young males with red eyes, and put them into a single tube. Once offspring begin to appear as larvae, remove parental lines and observe the phenotype of adult offsprings. There are many limitations to test crosses. It can be a time-consuming process as some organisms require a long growing time in each generation to show

5264-503: Is easy to cultivate and may grow year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually by planting individual cloves in the ground. In colder climates, cloves are best planted about six weeks before the soil freezes. The goal is to have the bulbs produce only roots and no shoots above the ground. Harvest is in late spring or early summer. Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for

5376-491: Is for epistatic mutations where the expression of a gene will be overpowered by the expression of another gene. A trait can also be determined by multiple genes, known as polygenic inheritance . Genes also have different levels of penetrance , which determines how much they will be expressed. In addition, the environment affects the expression of numerous genes, therefore making the test cross inapplicable in many cases. As more advanced techniques to determine genotype emerge,

5488-671: Is further weakened by the existence of microspecies , groups of organisms, including many plants, with very little genetic variability, usually forming species aggregates . For example, the dandelion Taraxacum officinale and the blackberry Rubus fruticosus are aggregates with many microspecies—perhaps 400 in the case of the blackberry and over 200 in the dandelion, complicated by hybridisation , apomixis and polyploidy , making gene flow between populations difficult to determine, and their taxonomy debatable. Species complexes occur in insects such as Heliconius butterflies, vertebrates such as Hypsiboas treefrogs, and fungi such as

5600-434: Is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small, tightly packed cloves. Garlic scapes are removed to focus all the garlic's energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked. In 2021, world production of garlic was 28 million tonnes , with China alone accounting for 73% of the total. The scent of garlic is known to linger upon the human body and cause bad breath ( halitosis ) and body odor. This

5712-726: Is hard or even impossible to test. Later biologists have tried to refine Mayr's definition with the recognition and cohesion concepts, among others. Many of the concepts are quite similar or overlap, so they are not easy to count: the biologist R. L. Mayden recorded about 24 concepts, and the philosopher of science John Wilkins counted 26. Wilkins further grouped the species concepts into seven basic kinds of concepts: (1) agamospecies for asexual organisms (2) biospecies for reproductively isolated sexual organisms (3) ecospecies based on ecological niches (4) evolutionary species based on lineage (5) genetic species based on gene pool (6) morphospecies based on form or phenotype and (7) taxonomic species,

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5824-404: Is heterozygous, a phenotypic ratio of 1:1:1:1 is typically observed. To test Mendel’s idea, he performed complex crosses with plants that were purebred for two characteristics: seed color (yellow and green), seed shape (round and wrinkled). He crossed plants with wrinkled and yellow seeds and plants with round and green seeds. Due to earlier cross testing with monohybrids, Mendel anticipated that

5936-868: Is made from dehydrated garlic and can be used as a substitute for fresh garlic, though the taste is not quite the same. Garlic salt combines garlic powder with table salt. Garlic is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe , Eastern Europe and parts of Latin America. Latin American seasonings, particularly, use garlic in sofritos and mofongos . Oils can be flavored with garlic cloves. These infused oils are used to season all categories of vegetables , meats, breads, and pasta . Garlic, along with fish sauce , chopped fresh chilis, lime juice , sugar, and water,

6048-483: Is mainly due to organosulfur compounds including allicin present in fresh garlic cloves and ajoene which forms when they are crushed or chopped. A further metabolite allyl methyl sulfide is responsible for garlic breath. Other parts of the garlic plant are also edible. The leaves and flowers ( bulbils ) on the head ( spathe ) are sometimes eaten. They are milder in flavor than the bulbs, and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. Immature garlic

6160-403: Is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species. Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time. One is forced to admit that Darwin's insight is correct: any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced over large geographic ranges and time periods. The botanist Brent Mishler argued that the species concept

6272-468: Is not valid, notably because gene flux decreases gradually rather than in discrete steps, which hampers objective delimitation of species. Indeed, complex and unstable patterns of gene flux have been observed in cichlid teleosts of the East African Great Lakes . Wilkins argued that "if we were being true to evolution and the consequent phylogenetic approach to taxa, we should replace it with

6384-805: Is particularly prized for stuffing poultry and game, and in soups and stews. Emulsifying garlic with olive oil produces aioli . Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produce skordalia . Crushed garlic, oil, and water produce a strong flavored sauce, mujdei . Blending garlic, almond , oil, and soaked bread produces ajoblanco . Tzatziki , yogurt mixed with garlic and salt, is a common sauce in Eastern Mediterranean cuisines. Numerous cuneiform records show that garlic has been cultivated in Mesopotamia for at least 4,000 years. The use of garlic in China and Egypt also dates back thousands of years. Well-preserved garlic

6496-586: Is similar to Mayr's Biological Species Concept, but stresses genetic rather than reproductive isolation. In the 21st century, a genetic species could be established by comparing DNA sequences. Earlier, other methods were available, such as comparing karyotypes (sets of chromosomes ) and allozymes ( enzyme variants). An evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) or "wildlife species" is a population of organisms considered distinct for purposes of conservation. In palaeontology , with only comparative anatomy (morphology) and histology from fossils as evidence,

6608-417: Is sometimes an important source of genetic variation. Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains , making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species. Test cross In a test cross, the individual in question

6720-621: Is sometimes pulled, rather like a scallion, and sold as "green garlic". When green garlic is allowed to grow past the "scallion" stage, but not permitted to fully mature, it may produce a garlic "round", a bulb like a boiling onion, but not separated into cloves like a mature bulb. Green garlic imparts a garlic flavor and aroma in food, minus the spiciness. Green garlic is often chopped and stir-fried or cooked in soup or hot pot in Southeast Asian (i.e. Vietnamese , Thai , Myanmar , Lao , Cambodian , Singaporean ), and Chinese cookery , and

6832-594: Is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible alleles of the same gene, as described in the Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model . A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form (a chronospecies ), without increasing the number of resultant species. Horizontal gene transfer between organisms of different species, either through hybridisation , antigenic shift , or reassortment ,

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6944-535: Is very abundant and low-priced. Additionally, the immature flower stalks ( scapes ) of the hardneck are sometimes marketed for uses similar to asparagus in stir-fries . Inedible or rarely eaten parts of the garlic plant include the "skin" covering each clove and root cluster. The papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant are generally discarded during preparation for most culinary uses, though in Korea immature whole heads are sometimes prepared with

7056-491: Is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or condiment . The garlic plant's bulb is the most commonly used part of the plant. With the exception of the single clove types, garlic bulbs are normally divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Garlic cloves are used for consumption (raw or cooked) or for medicinal purposes. They have a characteristic pungent, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking. The distinctive aroma

7168-523: The ICZN for animals and the ICN for plants, do not make rules for defining the boundaries of the species. Research can change the boundaries, also known as circumscription, based on new evidence. Species may then need to be distinguished by the boundary definitions used, and in such cases the names may be qualified with sensu stricto ("in the narrow sense") to denote usage in the exact meaning given by an author such as

7280-531: The Middle East . Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized . The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and " field garlic " of Britain are members of the species A. ursinum , A. vineale , and A. oleraceum , respectively. In North America, A. vineale (known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") and Allium canadense (known as "meadow garlic", "wild garlic", or "wild onion") are common weeds in fields. So-called elephant garlic

7392-425: The bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, and is hardy throughout USDA climate zones 4–9. When selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, will also increase bulb size. Garlic plants prefer to grow in

7504-399: The fly agaric . Natural hybridisation presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the carrion crow Corvus corone and the hooded crow Corvus cornix appear and are classified as separate species, yet they can hybridise where their geographical ranges overlap. A ring species is

7616-448: The jaguar ( Panthera onca ) of Latin America or the leopard ( Panthera pardus ) of Africa and Asia. In contrast, the scientific names of species are chosen to be unique and universal (except for some inter-code homonyms ); they are in two parts used together : the genus as in Puma , and the specific epithet as in concolor . A species is given a taxonomic name when a type specimen

7728-473: The sulfur -containing compounds allicin , ajoene , diallyl polysulfides, vinyldithiins , and S - allylcysteine , as well as enzymes , saponins , flavonoids , and Maillard reaction products when cooked, which are not sulfur-containing compounds. The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant's cells are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored in cell vacuoles trigger

7840-406: The "cynical species concept", and arguing that far from being cynical, it usefully leads to an empirical taxonomy for any given group, based on taxonomists' experience. Other biologists have gone further and argued that we should abandon species entirely, and refer to the "Least Inclusive Taxonomic Units" (LITUs), a view that would be coherent with current evolutionary theory. The species concept

7952-491: The DV), including vitamins B6 (73% DV) and C (35% DV), and the dietary mineral , manganese (73% DV). Per 100 gram serving, raw garlic is a moderate source (10–19% DV) of the B vitamins , thiamin and pantothenic acid , as well as the dietary minerals, calcium , potassium , phosphorus , and zinc . The composition of raw garlic is 59% water, 33% carbohydrates , 6% protein , 2% dietary fiber , and less than 1% fat . Garlic

8064-496: The F2 generation. He referred the suppressed characteristic as recessive and the expressed characteristics as dominant characteristic. Mendel furthermore determined to explore the outcome of crossing two plants that were hybrids for a single trait. This investigation aimed to determinate the inheritance patterns of two characteristics simultaneously and to verify the hypothesis that the inheritance of one trait would remain independent of

8176-624: The Latin version of the text may refer to herring rather than garlic. Species A species ( pl. : species) is a population of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring , typically by sexual reproduction . It is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity . Other ways of defining species include their karyotype , DNA sequence, morphology , behaviour, or ecological niche . In addition, paleontologists use

8288-622: The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection . That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology . Genetic variability arises from mutations and recombination , while organisms themselves are mobile, leading to geographical isolation and genetic drift with varying selection pressures . Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal gene transfer ; new species can arise rapidly through hybridisation and polyploidy ; and species may become extinct for

8400-588: The UK and the EU, including: The word garlic derives from Old English , garlēac , meaning gar ( spear ) and leek , as a 'spear-shaped leek'. Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases. Garlic plants are said to repel rabbits and moles . The California Department of Food and Agriculture conducts a certification program to assure freedom from nematode and white rot disease caused by Stromatinia cepivora , two pathogens that can both destroy

8512-473: The University of California, Initial symptoms usually begin at the neck, where affected tissue softens, becomes water-soaked, and turns brown. In a humid atmosphere, a gray and feltlike growth (where spores are produced) appears on rotting scales, and mycelia may develop between scales. Dark-brown-to-black sclerotia (the resting bodies of the pathogen) may eventually develop in the neck or between scales. Garlic

8624-405: The abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." (standing for species pluralis , Latin for "multiple species") in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet (e.g. Canis sp.). This commonly occurs when authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong, as is common in paleontology . Authors may also use "spp." as

8736-410: The alleles by using characters – recessive allele often is indicated with a lower-case letter, and the dominant allele is indicated with an upper-case letter. The phenotype and the genotype of both parents being crossed are noted, including the genotype of the gametes from the parental generation. The predictions of the combinations of the gametes will be constructed on a Punnett square . In conducting

8848-570: The amount of hybridisation is insufficient to completely mix their respective gene pools . A further development of the recognition concept is provided by the biosemiotic concept of species. In microbiology , genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA–DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to

8960-474: The biological species concept, "the several versions" of the phylogenetic species concept, and the idea that species are of the same kind as higher taxa are not suitable for biodiversity studies (with the intention of estimating the number of species accurately). They further suggested that the concept works for both asexual and sexually-reproducing species. A version of the concept is Kevin de Queiroz 's "General Lineage Concept of Species". An ecological species

9072-505: The biological species concept, a cladistic species does not rely on reproductive isolation – its criteria are independent of processes that are integral in other concepts. Therefore, it applies to asexual lineages. However, it does not always provide clear cut and intuitively satisfying boundaries between taxa, and may require multiple sources of evidence, such as more than one polymorphic locus, to give plausible results. An evolutionary species, suggested by George Gaylord Simpson in 1951,

9184-428: The boundaries between closely related species become unclear with hybridisation , in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies , and in a ring species . Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually , the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies. Although none of these are entirely satisfactory definitions, and while the concept of species may not be

9296-437: The breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids ( cytosol ). The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic. Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to react over time. Among alliums, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products, making garlic much more potent than onion, shallot, or leeks . Although many humans enjoy

9408-417: The burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness. Allicin, along with its decomposition products diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide , are major contributors to the characteristic odor of garlic, with other allicin-derived compounds, such as vinyldithiins and ajoene. Identification of the wild progenitor of common garlic is difficult due to

9520-529: The clove. In Korea, heads of garlic are heated over the course of several weeks; the resulting product, called black garlic , is sweet and syrupy, and is exported to the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia. Garlic may be applied to different kinds of bread, usually in a medium of butter or oil, to create a variety of classic dishes, such as garlic bread , garlic toast , bruschetta , crostini , and canapé . The flavor varies in intensity and aroma with

9632-433: The concept of a chronospecies can be applied. During anagenesis (evolution, not necessarily involving branching), some palaeontologists seek to identify a sequence of species, each one derived from the phyletically extinct one before through continuous, slow and more or less uniform change. In such a time sequence, some palaeontologists assess how much change is required for a morphologically distinct form to be considered

9744-416: The concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of eukaryotes is between 8 and 8.7 million. About 14% of these had been described by 2011. All species (except viruses ) are given a two-part name , called a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs. The second part

9856-462: The different cooking methods. It is often paired with onion , tomato , or ginger . Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or "tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than the cloves. They are often used in stir frying or braised like asparagus. Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables. Garlic powder

9968-435: The evidence to support hypotheses about evolutionarily divergent lineages that have maintained their hereditary integrity through time and space. Molecular markers may be used to determine diagnostic genetic differences in the nuclear or mitochondrial DNA of various species. For example, in a study done on fungi , studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising

10080-438: The inheritance of dominant and recessive traits in pea plants, he explains that the “signification” (now termed zygosity ) of an individual for a dominant trait is determined by the expression patterns of the following generation. Rediscovery of Mendel’s work in the early 1900s led to an explosion of experiments employing the principles of test crosses. From 1908-1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan conducted test crosses while determining

10192-522: The inheritance pattern of a white eye-colour mutation in Drosophila . These test cross experiments became hallmarks in the discovery of sex-linked traits . A test cross involves crossing an individual organism with a dominant genotype or phenotype with another organism exhibiting a recessive genotype or phenotype. To better grasp the concept of test crossing, let's explore various types of crosses involving one or more genes of interest. Monohybrid crossing

10304-454: The necessary phenotype. A large number of offspring are also required to have reliable data due to statistics. Test crosses are only useful if dominance is complete. Incomplete dominance is when the dominant allele and recessive allele come together to form a blend of the two phenotypes in the offspring. Test crosses are also not applicable with codominant genes, where both phenotypes of a heterozygote trait will be expressed. Another limitation

10416-478: The numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied. Versions of the phylogenetic species concept that emphasise monophyly or diagnosability may lead to splitting of existing species, for example in Bovidae , by recognising old subspecies as species, despite the fact that there are no reproductive barriers, and populations may intergrade morphologically. Others have called this approach taxonomic inflation , diluting

10528-401: The other. Termed a dihybrid cross or “two-gene test cross”, this experiment was grounded in the principle of segregation . When conducting a dihybrid test cross, two dominant phenotypic characteristics are selected and crossed with parents displaying double recessive traits. The phenotypic characteristics of the F1 generation are then analyzed. In such a test cross, if the individual being tested

10640-585: The paper is accepted for publication. The type material is usually held in a permanent repository, often the research collection of a major museum or university, that allows independent verification and the means to compare specimens. Describers of new species are asked to choose names that, in the words of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , are "appropriate, compact, euphonious, memorable, and do not cause offence". Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully, using

10752-674: The person who named the species, while the antonym sensu lato ("in the broad sense") denotes a wider usage, for instance including other subspecies. Other abbreviations such as "auct." ("author"), and qualifiers such as "non" ("not") may be used to further clarify the sense in which the specified authors delineated or described the species. Species are subject to change, whether by evolving into new species, exchanging genes with other species, merging with other species or by becoming extinct. The evolutionary process by which biological populations of sexually-reproducing organisms evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species

10864-799: The presence of S-allylcysteine. Some people suffer from allergies to garlic and other species of Allium . Symptoms can include irritable bowel , diarrhea , mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea , breathing difficulties, and, in rare cases, anaphylaxis . Garlic-sensitive people show positive tests to diallyl disulfide , allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan, and allicin, all of which are present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies are often sensitive to many other plants, including onions, chives , leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger , and bananas . Several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied topically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and acne treatment, indicate care must be taken for these uses, usually testing

10976-487: The result of misclassification leading to questions on whether there really are any ring species. The commonly used names for kinds of organisms are often ambiguous: "cat" could mean the domestic cat, Felis catus , or the cat family, Felidae . Another problem with common names is that they often vary from place to place, so that puma, cougar, catamount, panther, painter and mountain lion all mean Puma concolor in various parts of America, while "panther" may also mean

11088-573: The ring. Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation. However, ring species are at best rare. Proposed examples include the herring gull – lesser black-backed gull complex around the North pole, the Ensatina eschscholtzii group of 19 populations of salamanders in America, and the greenish warbler in Asia, but many so-called ring species have turned out to be

11200-416: The round and yellow seeds were dominant with the purebred crossing, and that is what he observed. Test crosses have a variety of applications. Model organisms , such as Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster , are commonly used for test crosses. Basic procedures for performing test crosses in these organisms are provided below: To perform a test cross with C. elegans , place worms with

11312-508: The same species. This concept was narrowed in 2006 to a similarity of 98.7%. The average nucleotide identity (ANI) method quantifies genetic distance between entire genomes , using regions of about 10,000 base pairs . With enough data from genomes of one genus, algorithms can be used to categorize species, as for Pseudomonas avellanae in 2013, and for all sequenced bacteria and archaea since 2020. Observed ANI values among sequences appear to have an "ANI gap" at 85–95%, suggesting that

11424-529: The same species. When two species names are discovered to apply to the same species, the older species name is given priority and usually retained, and the newer name considered as a junior synonym, a process called synonymy . Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting . Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognising differences or commonalities between organisms. The circumscription of taxa, considered

11536-441: The same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath. Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward. Plain water, mushrooms, and basil may also reduce the odor; the mix of fat and water found in milk, however, was the most effective. Garlic breath is allegedly alleviated by eating fresh parsley . When eaten in quantity, garlic may be strongly evident in

11648-502: The species concept and making taxonomy unstable. Yet others defend this approach, considering "taxonomic inflation" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as "taxonomic conservatism"; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding. Unlike

11760-500: The sterility of its many cultivars , which limits the ability to cross test with wild relatives. Genetically and morphologically, garlic is most similar to the wild species Allium longicuspis , which grows in central and southwestern Asia. However, because A. longicuspis is also mostly sterile, it is doubtful that it is the ancestor of A. sativum . Other candidates that have been suggested include A. tuncelianum , A. macrochaetum , and A. truncatum , all of which are native to

11872-410: The sulfur-containing compound alliin reacts with common amino acids to make pyrroles , clusters of carbon-nitrogen rings. These rings can be linked together into polypyrrole molecules. Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of light and thus appear colored. The two-pyrrole molecule looks red, the three-pyrrole molecule looks blue, and the four-pyrrole molecule looks green (like chlorophyll ,

11984-537: The sweat and breath for the following day. This is because garlic's sulfur compounds are metabolized, forming AMS, which cannot be digested and is passed into the blood. It is carried to the lungs and the skin, where it is excreted. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time. Abundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking. Under these conditions ( i.e. , acidity, heat)

12096-440: The taste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals such as birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant. A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermo- transient receptor potential channels that are responsible for

12208-442: The tender skins intact. The root cluster attached to the basal plate of the bulb is the only part not typically considered palatable in any form. An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling olive oil (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and roast them in an oven. Garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of

12320-537: The wild. It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms. The debate about species concepts is called the species problem. The problem was recognised even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in On the Origin of Species : I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties. He went on to write: No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of

12432-529: Was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (c. 1325 BC ). It was consumed by ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors, and rural classes ( Virgil , Eclogues ii. 11), and, according to Pliny the Elder ( Natural History xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for Hecate ( Theophrastus , Characters, The Superstitious Man ). Garlic

12544-546: Was rare in traditional English cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) but has been a common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe. Translations of the c.  1300 Assize of Weights and Measures , an English statute generally dated to the 13th century, indicate a passage as dealing with standardized units of garlic production, sale, and taxation—the hundred of 15 ropes of 15 heads each—but

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