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113-489: The gorge was formed between the Pietralata (889 m) and Paganuccio (976 m) mountains by the river Candigliano, which whooshed in full spate through the district until it was dammed in 1922. Since 2001 it has been included in a State Natural Reserve of the same name. It is often marketed to tourists in the region as the "Grand Canyon of Italy." The Roman emperor Vespasian had a tunnel built here to facilitate passage on

226-571: A border zone. Under his reign, the placement of garrison and the main lines of commerce became permanent. The creation of Roman Dacia had a great effect on Pannonia. In Trajan's Dacian Wars , the Iazyges allied with the Romans, seeking to retain Oltenia where they were expelled by Decebalus. A brief confrontation in 107 was resolved Hadrian , then-governor of Pannonia Inferior and it may have been agreed that

339-465: A divine power that could work miracles . The praefectus Aegypti was Tiberius Julius Alexander , who had been governor since Nero's reign. He proclaimed Vespasian emperor at Alexandria on 1 July 69 AD. The prefect was himself of Hellenized Jewish descent and related to Philo of Alexandria . The importance of the Egyptian grain harvest (Latin: claustra annonae , lit.   'key to

452-514: A month-long siege and occupied a large part of the Sava River valley. This was in accordance with Caesar's plan of creating a base for an invasion of Dacia, not realized due to his assassination . However, Octavian only used the hoax of the "Dacian threat" as a pretense to gain control over a large amount of land in the Second Triumvirate . In 15 BC, the future-emperor Tiberius defeated

565-808: A new Celtic migration wave at the end of the 2nd century BC, the Boii left Northern Italy and established themselves as an important power at the Danube. According to the Posidonius 's record of the Cimbri migration (preserved by Strabo), they were first repulsed by the Boii, then by the Scordisci, and then by the Taurisci towards the Helvetii . This describes the balance of power in the region. In

678-599: A new uprising. The unfolding Bellum Batonianum lasted for three years. The Breuci (under Bato the Breucian ) and Daesitiates (under Bato the Daesitiate and Pinnes ) took the leading role, while the tribes north of the Drava stayed out again. The insurgents attempted to invade Italy and Macedonia , but due to their lack of success they united to besiege Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia). There, Caecina Severus defeated

791-588: A number of omens and oracles that reinforced this belief. Although Vespasian and Titus resolved to challenge for the Principate in February 69, they made no move until later in the year. Throughout the early months of 69, Vespasian convened frequently with the Eastern generals. Gaius Licinius Mucianus was a notable ally. Governor of Syria and commander of three legions, Mucianus also held political connections to many of

904-555: A praetorian legate with a single legion as the garrison; after Marcus Aurelius , it was under a consular legate, but still with only one legion. The frontier on the Danube was protected by the establishment of the two colonies Aelia Mursia and Aelia Aquincum by Hadrian . Under Diocletian and his successors, a fourfold division of the country was made: Diocletian also moved parts of today's Slovenia out of Pannonia and incorporated them in Noricum . In 324 AD, Constantine I enlarged

1017-517: A pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings. Numerous other philosophers and writers had their works seized, destroyed and denounced for being deemed too critical of Vespasian's reign, some even posthumously. Between 71 and 79, much of Vespasian's reign is a mystery. Historians report that Vespasian ordered the construction of several buildings in Rome. Additionally, he survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after

1130-460: A result of which the military emphasis shifted to the Danube frontier. At the end of 85 or the beginning of 86, the reemerging Dacians under Decebalus raided Moesia , killing its governor and eradicating a legion. After a brief stay, Domitian left Cornelius Fuscus to deal with the situation. After clearing the province of raiders, Fuscus undertook a disastrous campaign and lost his life (86). Finally, in 88, Tettius Julianus defeated Decebalus and

1243-401: A short time. Pannonia had sanctuaries for Jupiter , Juno and Minerva , official deities of empire, and also for old Celtic deities. In Aquincum there was one for the mother goddess. The imperial cult was also present. In addition, Judaism and eastern mystery cults also appeared, the latter centered around Mithra , Isis , Anubis and Serapis . Christianity began to spread inside

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1356-527: A third campaign over the Danube at about. This campaign was smaller, and its leader, Tigidius Perennis , achieved a victory. Another victorious expedition was conducted in 188. During the Year of the Five Emperors (193), no attack was made on Pannonia. According to Herodian , Septimius Severus ( r.  193–211 ) calmed the barbarian tribes via negotiations before marching off his troops to Italy and gaining

1469-411: A village north-east of Rome called Falacrinae . His family was relatively undistinguished and lacking in pedigree. Vespasian was the son of Titus Flavius Sabinus , a Roman moneylender, debt collector, and tax collector. His mother, Vespasia Polla , also belonged to the equestrian order in society, with her father rising to the rank of prefect of the camp and her brother becoming a Senator . He

1582-401: A year of civil wars . Galba was murdered by supporters of Otho , who was defeated by Vitellius . Otho's supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on Vespasian. According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces claimed that from Judaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found

1695-528: Is known specifically, though. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned against Vespasian is not known. Agricola was appointed to the command of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix , stationed in Britain, in place of Marcus Roscius Coelius , who had stirred up a mutiny against the governor, Marcus Vettius Bolanus . Britain had revolted during

1808-455: Is often credited with restoring political stability to Rome following the chaotic reigns of his predecessors. After he died in 79, he was succeeded by his eldest son Titus, thus becoming the first Roman emperor to be succeeded by his natural son and establishing the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian (born Titus Flavius Vespasianus, pronounced [ˈt̪ɪt̪ʊs ˈfɫaːwijʊs wɛs.pasiˈjaːnʊs] ) was born in

1921-600: Is remembered by Josephus (writing as a Roman citizen), in his Antiquities of the Jews , as a fair and humane official, in contrast with the notorious Herod Agrippa II whom Josephus goes to great lengths to demonize. While under the emperor's patronage, Josephus wrote that after the Roman Legio X Fretensis , accompanied by Vespasian, destroyed Jericho on 21 June 68, Vespasian took a group of Jews who could not swim (possibly Essenes from Qumran ), fettered them, and threw them into

2034-517: The cursus honorum , holding an important military command in the Danube . In preparation for a praetorship , Vespasian needed two periods of service in the minor magistracies , one military and the other public. Vespasian served in the military in Thracia for about three years. On his return to Rome in about 30 AD, he obtained a post in the vigintivirate , the minor magistracies, most probably in one of

2147-717: The Bellum Batonianum , Tiberius finally defeated all peoples between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea. No Illyrian resistance is known after this, not due to the natives' compliance with the new status quo , but due to their extreme exhaustion. The eligible Pannonian youth were conscripted and commanded to other provinces. The communities taking part in the uprising were afterward relocated and organized into civitates under military supervision. The military occupation of Pannonia may have been carried out in gradual steps. The Romans felt it necessary to resettle certain tribes to

2260-665: The Dardani (in Dardania ) both became strong powers opposing each other. The Dardani consistently raided Macedon and developed close ties to Rome. Philip V , who was a vehement enemy of the Dardani, allied with the Scordisci and in 179 BC persuaded the Bastarnae (at the Danube Delta ) to break into Italy and subdue them on the way. Despite Philip's defeat at the hands of the Romans in 197 BC and

2373-635: The Dead Sea to test the sea's legendary buoyancy . Indeed, the captives bobbed up to the surface after being thrown in the water from the boats. At the conclusion of the Jewish war, Josephus discussed a prophecy from sacred scripture that about the time when Jerusalem and the Second Temple would be taken, a man from their own nation would become "governor of the habitable earth", as in the Messiah . Josephus interpreted

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2486-461: The Flavian emperors continually moved them to the border. This way they were prevented from interfering in domestic policy , while the conquests were already pacified. Systematic circulation of money in the region situated north of the Drava shows that by this time Roman civilization had firmly taken root there. Domitian 's ( r.  81–96 ) emperorship saw expensive wars with the barbarians, as

2599-623: The Goths highly endangered Rome's clients, who wanted the Empire to give its lands to settlement and extend its protection over the tribes. Rome was unwilling to grant these requests. The Romans may not have been aware of the dangerous situation at the start of the Parthian war of Lucius Verus because they sent a whole legion and many vexillationes away from Pannonia. It is thanks to the diplomatic efforts made by regional governors that tensions were eased until

2712-519: The Nile Valley . By contrast, the Jewish temple at Leontopolis was sacked in 73. In January 70, an uprising occurred in Gaul and Germany, known as the second Batavian Rebellion . This rebellion was headed by Gaius Julius Civilis and Julius Sabinus . Sabinus, claiming he was descended from Julius Caesar , declared himself Emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and absorbed two Roman legions before it

2825-631: The Roman Republic , commanded by Colonel L. Pianciani, fought a skirmish in the pass with the Austrian army. During the Second World War, the Gorge experienced moments of tension, but it was not the scene of fierce clashes. The seventies saw increasing destruction of the natural beauty of the surrounding landscape, as well as the deterioration of the road, due to the intense activity in quarries located within

2938-576: The failure of the Bastarnae, in this time the Dardani's power crumbled under the pressure from the Macedonians and Scordisci. Finally, Perseus annihilated them, giving way to hundred years of Scordisci hegemony in the Balkans . During this time, the tribe started raiding the new province of Macedonia , and — Strabo says— expanded as far as Paeonia , Illyria and Thrace . Aquileia 's foundation in 181 BC

3051-861: The 6th century. The native settlements consisted of pagi (cantons) containing a number of vici (villages), the majority of the large towns being of Roman origin. The cities and towns in Pannonia were: Now in Austria: Now in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Now in Croatia: Now in Hungary: Now in Serbia: Now in Slovakia: Now in Slovenia: The country was fairly productive, especially after

3164-598: The 7th century. In 790s, it was invaded by the Franks , who used the name "Pannonia" to designate the newly formed frontier province, the March of Pannonia . The term Pannonia was also used for Slavic polity like Lower Pannonia that was vassal to the Frankish Empire . Though through roman influence, a dialect of Latin now called Pannonian Latin developed in the region, the several major political shifts would see it extinct around

3277-583: The Barbaricum and the line of the limes was stabilized. The Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD) passed with peace in Pannonia. Flavianus declared for Vespasian and led his legions to Italy against Vitellius . Vespasian ( r.  69 – 79 AD ) invested greatly in the construction of the limes . Discarding the Augustan strategy where the legions' role was with maintaining order in their provinces,

3390-526: The Boii and the Taurisci too. Thanks to the ebb of these entities, several local tribes regained their independence and influence. In context of Mithridates VI Eupator 's unfulfilled plan to invade Italy from the north (64 BC), the territory he was to cross is noted to have belonged to the Pannonians. Immediately after Burebista's death ( c.  44 BC ), Dacia 's kingdom dissolved too, leaving no entity in

3503-631: The Breucian delivered Pinnes to the Romans, becoming a vassal king of his tribe. However, the revolt flared up once again as the Daesitiates captured and executed Bato the Breucian, and persuaded his people to continue the resistance. Silvanus reconquered them and ousted Bato the Daesitiate into the Dinaric Alps , where he laid down arms in 9 AD. Illyricum was divided into Dalmatia (initially called Illyricum Superius) and Pannonia (initially Illyricum Inferius) in 8 or 9 AD. According to Suetonius , with

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3616-699: The Celts in Transdanubia disrupted the flow of amber from the Baltic Sea region , through the Amber Road , to the Illyrians. They founded many villages. Those that held prominent economic significance developed into oppida . Independent tribes minted their own coins with the faces of their leaders. These were at first modelled on Macedonian and, later, Roman currency . Upon the Scordisci's withdrawal and settlement, they and

3729-550: The Danube in order to secure it as the imperial border and defend the threatened new land. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus 's (consul 16 BC) operation in 1 AD extended as far as the Elbe. In 10 AD, Cornelius Lentulus Augur was able to debar not just the Dacians, but also the Sarmatians "from access to the Danube", says Florus . Locally more important was the offensive of Marcus Vinicius against

3842-516: The Danubian Germans again under Nerva ( r.  96–98 ). Between 103 and 107, Trajan ( r.  98–117 ) executed the division of the province into Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior . This allowed the Empire to better combat the radically different Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. While Superior had most urbanized areas and a shorter frontier with three legions, Inferior contained one municipium and one legion, virtually being

3955-446: The Drava and almost certainly brought the whole Transdanubia under Roman control even though there's no direct evidence to that. Through Tiberius Nero, then my stepson and legate, I brought under Roman authority Pannonian peoples which no Roman army had approached before I became princeps and advanced the boundaries of lIIyricum to the bank of the Danube. Pannonia was invaded by the Dacians in 10 BC. The Romans launched campaigns through

4068-509: The Emperor's recitals on the lyre , and found himself in the political wilderness. In 66 AD, Vespasian was appointed to suppress the Jewish revolt underway in Judea . The fighting there had killed the previous governor and routed Cestius Gallus , the governor of Syria , when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry squadrons and ten auxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under

4181-735: The Gorge. In the 1930s, a profile of Benito Mussolini was sculpted on the slopes of Mount Pietralata by a local branch of the Guardia Forestale ( State Forestry Corps ), which was destroyed by partisans during World War II . In the 1980s, traffic in the Furlo tunnel was bypassed by the construction of two highway tunnels. 43°38′20″N 12°42′49″E  /  43.638786°N 12.713713°E  / 43.638786; 12.713713 Vespasian Vespasian ( / v ɛ s ˈ p eɪ ʒ ( i ) ən , - z i ən / ; Latin : Vespasianus [wɛspasiˈaːnʊs] ; 17 November AD 9 – 23 June 79)

4294-506: The Iazyges to make peace. In the same year, the land of the Danubian Germans was occupied by a force Cassius Dio claims to be 40,000 men—the number of soldiers stationed in Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior combined. Control over tribes was taken over by prefects. Valerius Maximianus , born in Pannonia, was an important general here. Any possible plans with the creation of two new provinces—Marcomannia and Sarmatia—were aborted after

4407-455: The Scordisci, forcing them to become allies. This was in response to Pannonian and Scordisci incursions the previous year. The following events were part of the Roman Empire 's efforts to reach the Danube and are sometimes known thematically as Bellum Pannonicum . In 14 BC, the Pannonians rose up. Vipsanius Agrippa was sent to the region after another rebellion in 13 BC. After his death

4520-485: The Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Regional autonomy of Greek provinces was repealed. Additionally, Vespasian made significant attempts to control public perception of his rule. We know from Suetonius that the "unexpected and still quite new emperor was lacking auctoritas [English: backing, support ] and a certain maiestas [English: majesty ]". Many modern historians note

4633-707: The Via Flaminia at the narrowest point of the gorge (hence the name, from the Latina forulum , meaning "small hole"). Next to it is a similar but smaller tunnel dating from Etruscan times. The tunnel has a length of 38.30 meters and a height of 5.95 meters. During the Gothic Wars (6th century) , the Ostrogoth King Totila had the pass fortified, but his troops were ousted by the Roman general Belisarius . The Lombards conquered

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4746-412: The ancients, it is probable that it contained iron and silver mines. Slavery held a less important role in Pannonia's economy than in earlier established provinces. Rich civilians had domestic slaves do the housework while soldiers who had been awarded with land had their slaves cultivate it. Slaves worked in workshops primarily in western cities for rich industrialist. In Aquincum, they were freed in

4859-611: The borders of Roman Pannonia to the east, annexing the plains of what is now eastern Hungary, northern Serbia and western Romania up to the limes that he created: the Devil's Dykes . In the 4th-5th century, one of the dioceses of the Roman Empire was known as the Diocese of Pannonia . It had its capital in Sirmium and included all four provinces that were formed from historical Pannonia, as well as

4972-619: The circle of courtiers and servants around the Emperor, may have contributed to his success. Upon the accession of Claudius as emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed legate of Legio II Augusta , stationed in Germania , thanks to the influence of the Imperial freedman Narcissus . In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the Roman invasion of Britain , and he distinguished himself under

5085-443: The civil war. He added the temple of Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius. In 75, he erected a colossal statue of Apollo , begun under Nero , and he dedicated a stage of the theatre of Marcellus. He also began construction of the Colosseum , using funds from the spoils of the Jewish Temple after the Siege of Jerusalem . Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with "constant conspiracies" against him. Only one conspiracy

5198-431: The command of Vespasian while his elder son, Titus, arrived from Alexandria with another. During this time he became the patron of Flavius Josephus , a Jewish resistance leader captured at the Siege of Yodfat , who would later write his people's history in Greek. Ultimately, thousands of Jews were killed and the Romans destroyed many towns in re-establishing control over Judea; they also took Jerusalem in 70. Vespasian

5311-452: The country around Reate , where he spent every summer; however, his illness worsened and he developed severe diarrhea . With the feeling of death overwhelming him on his deathbed, he incited: "Vae, puto deus fio." ("Dear me, I think I'm becoming a god"). Then, according to Suetonius ' The Twelve Caesars : Taken on a sudden with such an attack of diarrhoea that he all but swooned, he said: "An emperor ought to die standing," and while he

5424-432: The dangerous Dacians. At first, the primary goal of the Roman administration was the conclusion of the barbarian conflicts outside the province. In Nero 's time ( r.  54 – 68 AD ) as many as 100,000 barbarians were moved from Pannonia to Moesia by Plautius Silvanus Aelianus , and 50,000 may have been settled in Pannonia by Tampius Flavianus . During his important governorship, money began to circulate in

5537-417: The death of Marcus in 180. Commodus returned to the old border and client system, to which new residents were seemingly willing to join. As the barbarians pillaged during the war, taking cattle and captives away en masse, the destruction and loss of life in Pannonia was huge. Commodus vigorously started to strengthen the limes with new fortifications. Minor raids on the province continued to occur, prompting

5650-415: The death of governor of Moesia Superior and Dacia Claudius Fronto and praetorian prefect Macrinius Vindex . Claudius Pompeianus and future-emperor Pertinax returned part of the spoils taken by the enemy and led the offensive starting from 172. Against severe losses, the Romans forced first the Quadi, then the Marcomanni to surrender (172-173), while the military emphasis shifted to the Iazyges. Despite

5763-406: The disloyal Danubian Germans. When the Romans started supporting the Lugii against them, they made a pact with the Iazyges. This produced another war, almost completely unknown except for another catastrophe and destruction of a legion at the hands of the nomads. In 92 or 93, he finished the war, but held only an ovation , indicating he probably had further plans in Pannonia. We hear of war with

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5876-446: The dispatched forces could get back. When the threat became fully clear, Marcus even raised new legions. The first attack came in the winter of 166-167, from the Lombards and Ubii , between Brigetio and Arrabona . It was quickly repulsed by two auxiliary units. Cassius Dio tells of a legation of 11 tribes led by the Marcomanni subsequently petitioning the governor of Pannonia Superior, Iallius Bassus to concede. This may have been

5989-469: The early 1st century BC, the Dacians emerged as a new dominant power. While their hold on the area between the Danube and the Tisza river was loose, they had considerable influence in the territories beyond. In 88 BC, Scipio Asiaticus (consul 83 BC) defeated the Scordisci so badly that they retreated to the eastern part of Syrmia. Taking advantage of this situation, the Dacian king Burebista vanquished them sometime between 65 and 50 BC, and subsequently

6102-412: The emperor on 1 July 69. In his bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with Mucianus , the governor of Syria , and Primus , a general in Pannonia , leaving his son Titus to command the besieging forces at Jerusalem . Primus and Mucianus led the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian took control of Egypt. On 20 December 69, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day Vespasian

6215-399: The ending of a new campaign but the reestablishment of foederatus relationship by the investiture of a new Quadi king. Discharges and detachments of troops happened. Findings of hoards of coins likely buried during the rule of Marcus Aurelius ( r.  161–180 ) evidence turmoil due to barbarian attacks. Large-scale population movements in Northern and Eastern Europe related to

6328-596: The first of his family to do so. Vespasian's renown came from his military success; he was legate of Legio II Augusta during the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 and subjugated Judaea during the Jewish rebellion of 66. While Vespasian was fighting against a Jewish rebellion , emperor Nero committed suicide and plunged Rome into a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After Galba and Otho perished in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in April 69. The Roman legions of Roman Egypt and Judaea reacted by declaring Vespasian, their commander,

6441-476: The following year, the campaign was taken over by Tiberius, who celebrated his triumph in 11 BC. The province of Illyricum was established between the Sava and the Adriatic Sea . In 10 BC, Tiberius returned to quell a new uprising of the Pannonians and Dalmatae. After winning in 9 BC, he sold the youth of the Breuci and Amantini as slaves in Italy and held an ovation . His operations between 12 and 9 BC included constant expeditions into territories north of

6554-410: The grain supply') to Rome helped Vespasian assert control over the whole empire. Vespasian was the first emperor (and pharaoh ) since Augustus to appear in Egypt. At the hippodrome of Alexandria he was hailed as pharaoh ; recalling the welcome of Alexander the Great at the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon of the Siwa Oasis , Vespasian was proclaimed the son of the creator-deity Amun (Zeus-Ammon), in

6667-409: The great forests had been cleared by Probus and Galerius . Before that time, timber had been one of its most important exports. Its chief agricultural products were oats and barley , from which the inhabitants brewed a kind of beer named sabaea. Vines and olive trees were little cultivated. Pannonia was also famous for its breed of hunting dogs. Although no mention is made of its mineral wealth by

6780-515: The hostile Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes, and captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably hill forts , including Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset ). He also invaded Vectis (now the Isle of Wight ), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at Isca Dumnoniorum ( Exeter ). During this time he injured himself and had not fully recovered until he went to Egypt. These successes earned him triumphal regalia ( ornamenta triumphalia ) on his return to Rome. His success as

6893-457: The increased amount of propaganda that appeared during Vespasian's reign. A component of the propaganda was the theology of victory , which legitimized the right to rule through successful conquest. This revolved around Vespasian's victory in Judea. Stories of a supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the empire. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace. The word vindex

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7006-429: The insurgents, who retreated into the Fruška gora Mountains . He annihilated them the following year when they tried to intercept him on his way to join Tiberius at Siscia. Tiberius competently initiated a scorched-earth policy which was unsatisfactory for Augustus, who sent more generals, including Germanicus and Plautius Silvanus (consul 2 BC) to the war theatre . A capitulation was forced out in 8 AD, and Bato

7119-437: The last attempt at making peace, as next, a barbarian coalition formed to fight Rome. In 168, Marcus and Verus returned to Aquileia and set up their base there. The Marcomanni and Quadi broke through the border and the Alps' crosses, besieging the city and burning the small town of Opitergium . The peak of the Antonine Plague in the peninsula was at this time, causing Verus's death. The next years' heavy fighting resulted in

7232-442: The last years of Hadrian's reign, which his adopted son and joint governor of the Pannonian provinces, Aelius Caesar successfully handled until he died in 138. Command of Pannonia Superior was taken over by Haterius Nepos , who ended the war with a Roman victory, becoming the last person to be awarded with ornamenta triumphalia . Under Antoninus Pius 's ( r.  138–161 ) quiet reign, some coins were issued propagating not

7345-447: The leadership of Marcus Antonius Primus . They defeated Vitellius' army (which had awaited him in Mevania ) at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), sacked Cremona and advanced on Rome. Vitellius hastily arranged a peace with Antonius, but the Emperor's Praetorian Guard forced him to retain his seat. After furious fighting, Antonius' army entered Rome. In the resulting confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and Vespasian's brother Sabinus

7458-426: The legate of a legion earned him a consulship in 51, after which he retired from public life, having incurred the enmity of Claudius ' wife, Agrippina , who was the most powerful and influential figure in her husband's reign. He came out of retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to Africa Province . According to Tacitus (ii.97), his rule was "infamous and odious" but according to Suetonius ( Vesp. 4), he

7571-405: The local limes . Systematic integration into the Empire accompanied by the establishment of settled Roman life progressed subsequently. In 50 AD, Vannius was overthrown by Vangio and Sido , who enjoyed the emperor's support. By this date, the nomadic Sarmatian population of the Iazyges had taken possession of the Danube–Tisza Interfluve , helping the Romans by being a buffer state against

7684-582: The most powerful Roman military commanders from Illyricum to Britannia by virtue of his service to the famous Neronian general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo . In May 69, Mucianus formally implored Vespasian to challenge Vitellius. His appeal was followed by Vespasian's official proclamation as Emperor in early July. Under instructions from the prefect Tiberius Alexander, the legions at Alexandria took an oath of loyalty to Vespasian on 1 July. They were swiftly followed by Vespasian's Judaean legions on 3 July and thereafter by Mucianus' Syrian legions on 15 July. Vitellius ,

7797-432: The nomads would instead take possession of the region between the Tisza and the Apuseni Mountains , not incorporated into the new province. However, taking advantage of Trajan's death and the preoccupation of the Empire with the Parthian war , they joined forces with the relative Roxolani and attacked again in 117, to which Dacia's governor, Julius Quadratus Bassus fell victim. Hadrian ( r.  117–138 ) traveled to

7910-412: The occupant of the throne, had the veteran legions of Gaul and the Rhineland . But the feeling in Vespasian's favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies of Moesia , Pannonia , and Illyricum soon declared for him, and made him the de facto master of half of the Roman world. While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its grain supply , his troops entered Italy from the northeast under

8023-503: The overall command of Aulus Plautius . After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers Medway and Thames , he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through the modern counties of Hampshire , Wiltshire , Dorset , Somerset , Devon and Cornwall with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset. Vespasian marched from Noviomagus Reginorum ( Chichester ) to subdue

8136-427: The pass between 570 and 578, and destroyed the fortifications. In the following centuries Via Flaminia was nearly abandoned. In 1502 Lucrezia Borgia used it on a journey to Ferrara and in 1506 Julius II took the road on his way to Bologna. In the beginning of the 18th century the transit remained difficult and dangerous, and only in 1776 was the tunnel and the road re-opened. Between May 23 and June 12, 1849, soldiers of

8249-613: The passage of the Lex de imperio Vespasiani ; the Egyptians had declared him emperor in the summer. In the short-term, administration of the empire was given to Mucianus , who was aided by Vespasian's son, Domitian . Mucianus started off Vespasian's rule with tax reform that was to restore the empire's finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible. Vespasian and Mucianus renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased

8362-597: The period such as Tacitus , Suetonius and Josephus speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors who came before him. Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and saviour. Meanwhile, Pliny the Elder dedicated his Natural Histories to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome. Helvidius Priscus ,

8475-421: The posts in charge of street cleaning. His early performance was so unsuccessful that Emperor Caligula reportedly stuffed handfuls of muck down his toga to correct the uncleaned Roman streets, formally his responsibility. During the period of the ascendancy of Sejanus , there is no record of Vespasian engaging in any significant political activity. After completion of a term in the vigintivirate, Vespasian

8588-400: The prophecy as denoting the government of Vespasian. Tacitus agreed that the prophecy discussed Vespasian (as well as Titus), but that "the common people, with the usual blindness of ambition, had interpreted these mighty destinies of themselves, and could not be brought even by disasters to believe the truth." After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors and

8701-547: The province as foederati . The Eastern Roman Empire controlled southern parts of Pannonia in the 6th century, during the reign of Justinian I . The Byzantine province of Pannonia with its capital at Sirmium was temporarily restored, but it included only a small southeastern part of historical Pannonia. Afterwards, it was again invaded by the Avars in the 560s, and the Slavs , who first may settled c. 480s but became independent only from

8814-409: The province benefited from many constructions. The road network was fully repaired, civilian and military buildings were inaugurated, military camps were improved and cities were protected with walls thus increasing their rank. Pannonia Superior was under the consular legate, who had formerly administered the single province, and had three legions under his control. Pannonia Inferior was at first under

8927-602: The provinces of Dalmatia , Noricum Mediterraneum and Noricum Ripense. In the 4th century, the Romans (especially under Valentinian I ) fortified the villas and relocated barbarians to the border regions. In 358 they won a great victory over the Sarmatians , but raids didn't stop. In 401 the Visigoths fled to the province from the Huns , and the border guarding peoples fled to Italia from them, but were beaten by Uldin in exchange for

9040-561: The region that Rome would make allowances for. The Pannonians were driven into conflict due to their support of the Dalmatae in their strife against Rome, but weren't long-term and known enemies. The tribes north of the Drava River didn't participate in nor this, nor the subsequent fights. In 35 BC, Octavian led a campaign against the Iapydes and the Pannonians, in which he captured Siscia in

9153-583: The restoration and beautification of Rome: the Temple of Peace (also known as the Forum of Vespasian), new public baths and the great show piece, the Colosseum . Vespasian debased the denarius during his reign, reducing the silver purity from 93.5% to 90%. The silver weight dropped from 2.97 grams to 2.87 grams. Pannonia Pannonia ( / p ə ˈ n oʊ n i ə / , Latin: [panˈnɔnia] )

9266-477: The sides agreed to make peace. Vangio and Sido were most likely dead by now, the Marcomanni and Quadi denied vassal duties. When the emperor's punitive expedition (partially sent through Dacian territory) was repelled in 89, he—despite the damages suffered—settled for mild terms with Decebalus, instead committing his forces elsewhere. In the same year, he held his triumphs over the Dacians and Chatti , but not over

9379-588: The spot and invested Marcius Turbo as governor of both Dacia and Pannonia Inferior to defeat the barbarians. The Roxolani were pacified first. Turbo's authorization was over in 119 as Iazyx peace envoys appeared in Rome. The postal connection between the two provinces through the Danube–Tisza Interfluve—which aggravated relations with the Sarmatians—was completed. War with the Quadi broke out again in

9492-568: The style of the ancient pharaohs, and an incarnation of Serapis in the manner of the Ptolemies. As Pharaonic precedent demanded, Vespasian demonstrated his divine election by the traditional methods of spitting on and trampling a blind and crippled man, miraculously healing him, according to Egyptian religious elites. Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt on 21 December 69 through

9605-493: The territory of the peoples north of the Drava, which, for them, had no economic, but strategic significance. Augustus formed a kind of alliance where the Romans would act as supervisors, and it was not until his death (14 AD) that legions would be moved over from South Pannonia. The second emperor Tiberius ( r.  17 – 37 AD ) founded multiple coloniae in the province and developed its road network. However, due to these land's unsuitability for cultivation, it

9718-503: The throne. In the coming years, the arrival of foreign groups led to new conflicts, but these were centered on Dacia and Pannonia only experienced collateral effects. The Severans' rule was supported by the Pannonian military and other provinces of the collective "Illyricum" region, which became politically important. In 202, a thorough visit to Pannonia by the imperial house was organized. Partly during this tour and throughout Severus' reign,

9831-678: The transferring of Eastern Pannonia. In 433 Rome completely handed over the territory to Attila for the subjugation of the Burgundians attacking Gaul . During the Migration Period in the 5th century, some parts of Pannonia were ceded to the Huns in 433 by Flavius Aetius , the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire . After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers of Ostrogoths were settled by Emperor Marcian in

9944-550: The treasury. Vespasian's policy was not well received by his son. Writing about Vespasian in their history books, Dio Cassius and Suetonius mentioned "When [Vespasian's] son Titus blamed him for even laying a tax upon urine, he applied to his nose a piece of the money he received in the first instalment, and asked him if it stunk. And he replying no, 'And yet,' said he, 'it is derived from urine". Since then, this phrase "Money does not stink" has been used to whitewash dubious or illegal origin of money . In early 70 Vespasian

10057-695: The tribes east of the Danube Bend , showing an intent of "monopolizing" the Northern Transdanubian region politically. The last decade of the century saw the Marcomanni under their king Maroboduus —settling north of Pannonia. Augustus planned a two-sided attack on them, with one army approaching their territory from the Rhine and another one under Tiberius crossing the Danube at Carnuntum . Before witnessing any result, Tiberius had to rush back in 6 AD and face

10170-452: The tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb Pecunia non olet ("Money does not stink") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. Before Vespasian, this tax was imposed by Emperor Nero under the name of vectigal urinae in the 1st century AD. However, the tax was removed after a while; it was re-enacted by Vespasian around AD 70 in order to fill

10283-585: The uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the rest of the empire in 70. Judea had been rebelling since 66 . Vespasian's son, Titus , finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70. According to Eusebius , Vespasian then ordered all descendants of the royal line of David to be hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province. Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been told by Josephus that he

10396-500: The winter incursion of the Iazyges was crushed (173-174), the Quadi overthrew their Roman-installed king and started to support the nomads. While the two nations tried to negotiate, Marcus eventually defeated both of them in separate campaigns. The second phase of the war started in 177. The attacking barbarians were kept in check, with Marcus and his son, the newly acclaimed Commodus ( r.  177–192 ) coming to Pannonia. A decisive campaign by Tarrutenius Paternus in 179 convinced

10509-581: The year of civil war, and Bolanus was a mild governor. Agricola reimposed discipline on the legion and helped to consolidate Roman rule. In 71, Bolanus was replaced by a more aggressive governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis , and Agricola was able to display his talents as a commander in campaigns against the Brigantes in northern England. In his ninth consulship Vespasian had a slight illness in Campania and, returning at once to Rome, he left for Aquae Cutiliae and

10622-530: The years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother. To revive his fortunes he turned to the mule trade and gained the nickname mulio (muleteer). Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured Greece in Nero 's retinue, but lost Imperial favor after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest he fell asleep) during one of

10735-403: Was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The last emperor to reign in the Year of the Four Emperors , he founded the Flavian dynasty , which ruled the Empire for 27 years. His fiscal reforms and consolidation of the empire brought political stability and a vast building program. Vespasian was the first emperor from an equestrian family who rose only later in his lifetime into the senatorial rank as

10848-587: Was "upright and, highly honourable". On one occasion, Suetonius writes, Vespasian was pelted with turnips . Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually, governorships were seen by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain the wealth they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was so rife that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North Africa making friends instead of money, something that would be far more valuable in

10961-474: Was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube , on the west by Noricum and upper Italy , and on the southward by Dalmatia and upper Moesia . It included the modern regions western Hungary , western Slovakia , eastern Austria , northern Croatia , north-western Serbia , northern Slovenia , and northern Bosnia and Herzegovina . In the Early Iron Age , Transdanubia

11074-474: Was a hard task to persuade veterans to comply with settling there, and he had to silence a mutiny right when assuming power. He sent his son Drusus Julius Caesar to create tranquility and depose Maroboduus, who needed Roman support for his war against Arminius . This ultimately caused the rise of Vannius (20 AD), who ruled over an extended realm. It was Claudius ( r.  41 – 54 AD ) who finished Pannonia's occupation and began to construct of

11187-595: Was declared emperor by the Senate. Little information survives about the government during Vespasian's ten-year rule. He reformed the financial system of the Roman Empire after the campaign against Judaea ended successfully, and initiated several ambitious construction projects, including the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known today as the Roman Colosseum . Through his general Agricola , Vespasian increased imperial expansion in Britain. Vespasian

11300-465: Was educated in the countryside, in Cosa , near what is today Ansedonia , Italy , under the guidance of his paternal grandmother, so much so that even when he became emperor, he often returned to the places of his childhood, having left the former villa exactly as it had been. Early in his life he was somewhat overshadowed by his older brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus , who had entered public life and pursued

11413-605: Was entitled to stand for election as quaestor ; a senatorial office. But his lack of political or family influence meant that Vespasian served as quaestor in one of the provincial posts in Crete , rather than as assistant to important men in Rome. Next he needed to gain a praetorship, carrying the Imperium , but non- patricians and the less well-connected had to serve in at least one intermediary post as an aedile or tribune . Vespasian failed at his first attempt to gain an aedileship but

11526-468: Was especially generous to men of letters and rhetors , several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold pieces a year. Quintilian is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor. Pliny the Elder 's work, the Natural History , was written during Vespasian's reign, and dedicated to Vespasian's son Titus. Vespasian distrusted philosophers in general. It

11639-591: Was inhabited by the Pannonians or Pannonii, a collection of Illyrian tribes. The Celts invaded in the Late Iron Age and Gallo-Roman historian Pompeius Trogus writes that the Celts met with heavy resistance from the locals and were not able to overrun the southern part of Transdanubia. Some tribes advanced as far as Delphi , with the Scordisci settling in Syrmia (279 BC) upon being forced to withdraw. The arrival of

11752-503: Was killed by a mob. At Alexandria , on receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death, the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently-needed grain to Rome, along with an edict assuring he would reverse the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason . While in Egypt, he visited the Temple of Serapis where he reportedly experienced a vision . Later, he was confronted by two labourers, who were convinced that he possessed

11865-610: Was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was probably reacting to other widely known Messianic prophecies circulating at the time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty. Titus attended the consecration of a new Apis bull at Memphis in 70, and Vespasian's reign saw imperial patronage given to Egyptian temples: at the Dakhla Oasis in the Western Desert as well as Esna , Kom Ombo , Medinet Habu , Silsila in

11978-419: Was removed from coins so as not to remind the public of rebellious Vindex . Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors. A temple of peace was constructed in the forum as well. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against him were removed. Vespasian also gave financial rewards to writers. The ancient historians who lived through

12091-418: Was still criticizing him, he sent the exiled philosopher the message: "You are doing everything to force me to kill you, but I do not slay a barking dog." According to Suetonius, Vespasian "bore the frank language of his friends, the quips of pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest patience". He was also noted for his benefactions to the people. Much money was spent on public works and

12204-604: Was still in Egypt, the source of Rome's grain supply, and had not yet left for Rome. According to Tacitus , his trip was delayed due to bad weather. Modern historians theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing. Stories of a divine Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt. During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain shipments to Rome resumed. In addition to

12317-575: Was struggling to get on his feet, he died in the arms of those who tried to help him, on the ninth day before the Kalends of July [June 23], at the age of sixty-nine years, seven months and seven days. He died on June 23, 79 AD, and was succeeded by his sons Titus and then Domitian . Vespasian was known for his wit and his amiable manner alongside his commanding personality and military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished Senators and equestrians and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity. He

12430-436: Was successful in his second attempt, becoming an aedile in 38. Despite his lack of significant family connections or success in office, he achieved praetorship in either 39 or 40, at the youngest age permitted (30), during a period of political upheaval in the organisation of elections. His long-standing relationship with freed-woman Antonia Caenis , confidential secretary to Antonia Minor (the Emperor's grandmother) and part of

12543-430: Was suppressed by Vespasian's son-in-law, Quintus Petillius Cerialis , by the end of 70. In mid-70, Vespasian first went to Rome, dating his tribunician years from 1 July 69. Vespasian immediately embarked on a series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to many in the military and much of the public. Soldiers loyal to Vitellius were dismissed or punished. Vespasian also restructured

12656-555: Was the first step towards the Roman takeover of Pannonia. The town functioned as the starting station of the Amber Road and the starting point of attacks in that direction. The Scordisci, in alliance with the Dalmatae were in armed conflict with the Romans as early as 156 BC and 119 BC. In both wars, the Romans failed to take Siscia (now Sisak , Croatia), which laid in a key position. After these setbacks, Rome instead turned towards Noricum which had both iron and silver mines. As part of

12769-472: Was the talk of philosophers, who liked to glorify the Republic , that provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws against this profession as a precautionary measure. Only Helvidius Priscus was put to death after he repeatedly affronted the Emperor with studied insults which Vespasian initially tried to ignore. The philosopher Demetrius was banished to an island and when Vespasian heard that Demetrius

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