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149-985: Contained within the 10 block area of the Fulton–Nassau Historic District are eight individual New York City designated landmarks , including 63 Nassau Street , the Keuffel & Esser Company Building , the Bennett Building , the Corbin Building , the Temple Court Building (5 Beekman Street) , the Potter Building (35-38 Park Row), the Morse Building (140 Nassau Street), the New York Times Building (41 Park Row) , and 150 Nassau Street . Notes Citations This article about

298-449: A dame school , conducted at a teacher's home and centered on The New England Primer . He then attended Braintree Latin School under Joseph Cleverly, where studies included Latin, rhetoric, logic, and arithmetic. Adams's early education included incidents of truancy, a dislike for his master, and a desire to become a farmer, but his father commanded that he remain in school. Deacon Adams hired

447-419: A de facto Secretary of War. He kept extensive correspondences with Continental Army officers concerning supplies, munitions, and tactics. Adams emphasized to them the role of discipline in keeping an army orderly. He authored the "Plan of Treaties," laying out Congress's requirements for a treaty with France. He was worn out by the rigor of his duties and longed to return home. His finances were unsteady, and

596-631: A commercial treaty with France. He was appointed, along with Franklin, Dickinson, Benjamin Harrison from Virginia , and Robert Morris from Pennsylvania , "to prepare a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers." While Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, Adams worked on the Model Treaty , which authorized a commercial agreement with France but contained no provisions for formal recognition or military assistance. The treaty adhered to

745-494: A continuing correspondence. He and Abigail started the Adams political family , which includes their son John Quincy Adams , the sixth president. John Adams died on July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. New Englanders Adams and his son are the only presidents of the first twelve who never owned slaves . Historians and scholars have favorably ranked his administration . John Adams

894-451: A decision was made to change the process by which buildings are declared to be landmarks due to some perceived issues with the manner by which the LPC operates as well as the realization that the destruction feared when the LPC was formed was no longer imminent. By 1990, the LPC was cited by David Dinkins as having preserved New York City's municipal identity and enhanced the market perception of

1043-627: A full-time, paid workforce of 80, composed of administrators, legal advisors, architects, historians, restoration experts, and researchers. Students sponsored by the federal government, as well as volunteers, also assist the commission. The full-time staff, students, and volunteers are divided into six departments. The research department performs research of structures and sites that have been deemed potential landmarks. The preservation department reviews and approves permit applications to structures and sites that have been deemed landmarks. The enforcement department reviews reports of alleged violations of

1192-529: A heatedly discussed decision on August 3, 2010, the LPC unanimously declined to grant landmark status to a building on Park Place in Manhattan, and thus did not block the construction of Cordoba House . A major dispute arose over the preservation of theaters in the Theater District during the 1980s. The LPC considered protecting close to 50 legitimate theaters as individual city landmarks in 1982, following

1341-517: A historic property or district in Manhattan , New York City , that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places , is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a building or structure in Manhattan is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . New York City designated landmark The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission ( LPC )

1490-628: A homesick Charles returned home with Adams's friend Benjamin Waterhouse . In August, shortly after being removed from his position of sole head of peace treaty negotiations, Adams had "a major nervous breakdown." That November, he learned that American and French troops had decisively defeated the British at Yorktown . The victory was in large part due to the assistance of the French Navy, which vindicated Adams's stand for increased naval assistance. News of

1639-527: A joke which soon became popular. On May 14, 1789, the Senate decided that the title of " Mr. President " would be used. Privately, Adams conceded that his vice presidency had begun poorly and that perhaps he had been out of the country too long to know the sentiment of the people. Washington quietly expressed his displeasure with the fuss. As vice president, Adams largely sided with the Washington administration and

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1788-452: A lack of news of progress from home. The news he received of tumult at home, such as Shays' Rebellion , heightened his anxiety. He asked Jay to be relieved; in 1788, he took his leave of George III, who promised to uphold his end of the treaty once America did the same. Adams then went to The Hague to take formal leave of his ambassadorship there and to secure refinancing from the Dutch, allowing

1937-606: A larger house in Brattle Square in the center of the city. In 1768, Adams successfully defended the merchant John Hancock , who was accused of violating British acts of trade in the Liberty Affair . With the death of Jeremiah Gridley and the mental collapse of James Otis Jr. , Adams became Boston's most prominent lawyer. Britain's passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767 revived tensions, and an increase in mob violence led

2086-550: A lease for large parts of the Seaport area and desired to redevelop it, generating fears among locals that the New Market Building would be altered or destroyed. The corporation has offered to provide a more modest food market (at 10,000 sq ft (930 m )) into their development plans, but market organizers have not been satisfied as they believe this proposal is not guaranteed or large enough, and would still not ensure

2235-654: A list of people specifically excluded from Howe's pardon-granting authority. Adams was unimpressed with Howe and predicted American success. He was able to return home to Braintree in October before leaving in January 1777 to resume his duties in Congress. Adams advocated in Congress that independence was necessary to establish trade, and conversely, trade was essential for the attainment of independence; he specifically urged negotiation of

2384-536: A minor role in politics as vice president. He attended few cabinet meetings, and the President sought his counsel infrequently. While Adams brought energy and dedication to the office, by mid-1789 he had already found it "not quite adapted to my character ... too inactive, and mechanical." He wrote, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived." Adams's initial behavior in

2533-729: A model for other towns. Adams also reprised his pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger" in opposition to the Stamp Act in August of that year. Included were four articles to the Boston Gazette . The articles were republished in The London Chronicle in 1768 as True Sentiments of America , or A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law . He also spoke in December before the governor and council, pronouncing

2682-411: A new schoolmaster named Joseph Marsh, and his son responded positively. Adams later noted that "As a child I enjoyed perhaps the greatest of blessings that can be bestowed upon men – that of a mother who was anxious and capable to form the characters of her children." At age sixteen, Adams entered Harvard College in 1751, studying under Joseph Mayhew . As an adult, Adams was a keen scholar, studying

2831-517: A number of neighborhoods. This success is believed to be due, in part, to the general acceptance of the LPC by the city's developers. By 2016, the LPC had designated 1,355 individual landmarks, 117 interior landmarks, 138 historic districts, and 10 scenic landmarks. One of the most prominent decisions in which the LPC was involved was the preservation of the Grand Central Terminal with the assistance of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis . In 1978,

2980-480: A packed jury. Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army, but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles." While Adams's defense was helped by a weak prosecution, he "performed brilliantly." Ferling surmises that Adams was encouraged to take the case in exchange for political office; one of Boston's seats opened three months later in the Massachusetts legislature , and Adams

3129-409: A part-time basis. By law, the commissioners must include a minimum of six professionals: three architects, a historian, a city planner or landscape architect, and a realtor. In addition, the commissioners must include at least one resident from each of New York City's five boroughs (who may also be a professional). All of the commissioners are unpaid, except for the chairman. The commission also employs

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3278-641: A rapport with delegate Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who had been slower to support independence but by early 1776 agreed that it was necessary. On June 7, 1776, Adams seconded the Lee Resolution , which stated that the colonies were "free and independent states." Prior to independence being declared, Adams organized a Committee of Five charged with drafting a Declaration of Independence . He chose himself, Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman . Jefferson thought Adams should write

3427-618: A small number of low-rise historic buildings from the earlier eras remain. In 2003, Svehlak wrote a manifesto arguing for the landmark designation of "a trilogy" of three contiguous buildings on Washington Street, the thoroughfare that was most closely associated with "Little Syria". These consisted of the Downtown Community House – which hosted the Bowling Green Association to serve the neighborhood's immigrants – 109 Washington Street (an 1885 tenement), and

3576-517: A tie-breaking vote. Early in his term, Adams became deeply involved in a lengthy Senate controversy over the official titles for the president and executive officers of the new government. Although the House agreed that the president should be addressed simply as "George Washington, President of the United States", the Senate debated the issue at some length. Adams favored the style of Highness (as well as

3725-495: A town meeting of Braintree elected Adams as a selectman. With the repeal of the Stamp Act in early 1766, tensions with Britain temporarily eased. Putting politics aside, Adams moved his family to Boston in April 1768 to focus on his law practice. The family rented a house on Brattle Street that was known locally as the "White House". He, Abigail, and the children lived there for a year, then moved to Cold Lane; later they moved again to

3874-627: Is cited as a catalyst for the architectural preservation movement in the United States, particularly in New York City. The Mayor's Committee for the Preservation of Structures of Historic and Esthetic Importance was formed in mid-1961 by mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. This committee had dissolved by early 1962. Wagner formed the Landmarks Preservation Commission on April 21, 1962, with twelve unsalaried members. Soon afterward,

4023-503: Is governed by eleven commissioners. The Landmarks Preservation Law stipulates that a building must be at least thirty years old before the LPC can declare it a landmark. The goal of New York City's landmarks law is to preserve the aesthetically and historically important buildings, structures, and objects that make up the New York City vista. The Landmarks Preservation Commission is responsible for deciding which properties should be subject to landmark status and enacting regulations to protect

4172-472: Is the New York City agency charged with administering the city's Landmarks Preservation Law. The LPC is responsible for protecting New York City's architecturally, historically, and culturally significant buildings and sites by granting them landmark or historic district status, and regulating them after designation. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation. As of July 1, 2020 ,

4321-589: The Andrew Carnegie Mansion , Percy R. Pyne House , and Oliver D. Filley House , all of which ultimately became individual landmarks after the LPC's formation. Other structures such as the Van Cortlandt House , Morris–Jumel Mansion , Edgar Allan Poe Cottage , and Dyckman House were preserved as historic house museums during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Advocates also led efforts to preserve cultural sites such as Carnegie Hall , which in

4470-584: The Boston arrived in France, where Adams learned that France had agreed to an alliance with the United States on February 6. Adams was annoyed by the other two commissioners: Lee, whom he thought paranoid and cynical, and the popular and influential Franklin, whom he found lethargic and overly deferential to the French. He assumed a less visible role but helped manage the delegation's finances and record-keeping. Frustrated by

4619-686: The Boston Massacre . Adams was a Massachusetts delegate to the Continental Congress and became a leader of the revolution. He assisted Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and was its primary advocate in Congress. As a diplomat, he helped negotiate a peace treaty with Great Britain and secured vital governmental loans. Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780, which influenced

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4768-730: The Bowling Green U.S. Custom House , and six buildings at Sailors' Snug Harbor . The first landmark district, the Brooklyn Heights Historic District , was designated in November 1965. Within its first year, the LPC designated 37 landmarks in addition to the Brooklyn Heights Historic District. The LPC's earliest landmarks were mainly selected based on their architecture, and were largely either government buildings, institutions, or structures whose preservation

4917-593: The Founding Fathers , persistently held that while British actions against the colonies had been wrong, open insurrection was unwarranted and peaceful petition with the view of remaining part of Great Britain was preferable. His ideas began to change around 1772, as the British Crown assumed payment of the salaries of Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his judges instead of the Massachusetts legislature. Adams wrote in

5066-651: The Gazette that these measures would destroy judicial independence and place the colonial government in closer subjugation to the Crown. After discontent among members of the legislature, Hutchinson delivered a speech warning that Parliament's powers over the colonies were absolute and that any resistance was illegal. John Adams, Samuel, and Joseph Hawley drafted a resolution adopted by the House of Representatives threatening independence as an alternative to tyranny. The resolution argued that

5215-762: The Jeffersonian Republicans and from some in his own party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton . Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts and built up the Army and Navy in an undeclared naval war with France. He was the first president to reside in the White House . In his bid in 1800 for reelection to the presidency, opposition from Federalists and accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to Adams losing to his vice president and former friend Jefferson, and he retired to Massachusetts. He eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson by initiating

5364-483: The New York City Board of Estimate . Others have been demolished, either through neglect or for development, and revoked by the LPC. Explanatory notes Citations Bibliography 40°42′47″N 74°00′13″W  /  40.71306°N 74.00361°W  / 40.71306; -74.00361 John Adams John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Father who served as

5513-617: The Palace in mid-1987. Ultimately, 28 additional theaters were designated as landmarks, of which 27 were Broadway theaters. The New York City Board of Estimate ratified these designations in March 1988. Of these, both the interior and exterior of 19 theaters were protected, while only the interiors of seven theaters (including the Lyceum, whose exterior was already protected) and the exteriors of two theaters were approved. Several theater owners argued that

5662-523: The Staten Island Peace Conference on September 11. Howe's authority was premised on the states' submission, so the parties found no common ground. When Lord Howe stated he could view the American delegates only as British subjects, Adams replied, "Your lordship may consider me in what light you please, ... except that of a British subject." Adams learned many years later that his name was on

5811-654: The United States Constitution , as did his essay Thoughts on Government . Adams was elected to two terms as vice president under President George Washington and was elected as the United States' second president in 1796 . He was the only president elected under the banner of the Federalist Party . Adams's term was dominated by the issue of the French Revolutionary Wars , and his insistence on American neutrality led to fierce criticism from both

5960-612: The United States Supreme Court upheld the law in Penn Central Transportation Co., et al. v. New York City, et al. , stopping the Penn Central Railroad from altering the structure and placing a large office tower above it. This success is often cited as significant due to the LPC's origins following the destruction of Pennsylvania Station, referred to by some as architectural vandalism. In 1989,

6109-615: The debate over the Revolution within Britain. Adams corresponded with his sons John Quincy and Charles, both of whom were at Harvard, cautioning the former against the "smell of the midnight lamp" while admonishing the latter to devote sufficient time to study. Jefferson visited Adams in 1786 while serving as Minister to France; the two toured the countryside and saw many historical sites. While in London, Adams met his old friend Jonathan Sewall , but

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6258-493: The " Braintree Instructions " in 1765, in a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in the Massachusetts legislature. It explained that the Act should be opposed since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen (and which all free men deserved): to be taxed only by consent and to be tried by a jury of one's peers. The instructions were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties, and served as

6407-502: The "New Amsterdam Market", a regular gathering with vendors selling regional and "sustainable" foodstuffs outside the old Fish Market buildings. The group's chartered organization planned eventually to attempt to reconstitute the "New Market Building", a 1939 structure with an Art Deco façade and that was owned by the city, into a permanent food market. However, a real estate company, the Howard Hughes Corporation , possessed

6556-580: The "Save Our Seaport" community group, the New Amsterdam Market, and the Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance. The "Save Our Seaport" group specifically argued that New Market Building was culturally important for its maintenance of the historic fish market for 66 years, and that it offers a "fine example of WPA Moderne municipal architecture (an increasingly rare form throughout the nation)." They had encouraged others to write letters to

6705-404: The "Save Washington Street" group led by St. Francis College student Carl "Antoun" Houck — have continued, especially, to advocate for a hearing on the Downtown Community House , arguing that its history demonstrates the multi-ethnic heritage of the neighborhood, and that its Colonial Revival architecture intentionally links the immigrants to the foundations of the country, and that preserving

6854-532: The 1670s Conference House in Staten Island , where Benjamin Franklin and John Adams attended a conference aimed at ending the Revolutionary War. The LPC helps preserve the city's landmark properties by regulating changes to their significant features. The role of the LPC has evolved over time, especially with the changing real estate market in New York City. Potential landmarks are first nominated to

7003-441: The 1950s, there was growing support for preservation of architecturally significant structures. For example, a 1954 study found approximately two hundred structures that could potentially be preserved. At the same time, older structures, especially those constructed before World War I , were being perceived as an impediment to development. The demolition of Pennsylvania Station between 1963 and 1966, in spite of widespread outcry,

7152-556: The American cause. Securing a Dutch loan could increase American independence from France and pressure Britain into peace. At first, Adams had no official status, but in July he was formally given permission to negotiate for a loan and took up residence in Amsterdam in August. Adams was originally optimistic and greatly enjoyed the city, but soon became disappointed. The Dutch, fearing British retaliation, refused to meet Adams. Before he had arrived,

7301-518: The American legislatures. It required payment of a direct tax by the colonies for stamped documents, and was designed to pay for the costs of Britain's war with France. Power of enforcement was given to British vice admiralty courts , rather than common law courts. These Admiralty courts acted without juries and were greatly disliked. The Act was despised for both its monetary cost and implementation without colonial consent, and encountered violent resistance, preventing its enforcement. Adams authored

7450-591: The American triumph at Yorktown convulsed Europe. In January 1782, after recovering, Adams arrived at The Hague to demand that the States General answer his petitions. His efforts stalled, and he took his cause to the people, successfully capitalizing on popular pro-American sentiment. Several provinces began recognizing American independence. On April 19, the States General formally recognized American independence and acknowledged Adams as ambassador. On June 11, with

7599-469: The British at Saratoga was expected to help induce France to agree to an alliance. In November 1777, Adams learned that he was to be named commissioner to France, replacing Silas Deane and joining Franklin and Arthur Lee in Paris to negotiate an alliance with the French. James Lovell invoked Adams's "inflexible integrity" and the need to have a youthful man who could counterbalance Franklin's age. On November 27, Adams accepted, wasting no time. Abigail

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7748-403: The British at the Battles of Lexington and Concord made Adams hope that independence would soon become a reality. Three days after the battle, he rode into a militia camp and, while reflecting positively on the high spirits of the men, was distressed by their poor condition and lack of discipline. A month later, Adams returned to Philadelphia for the Second Continental Congress as the leader of

7897-435: The British found out about secret aid the Dutch had sent to the Americans and authorized reprisals against their ships, which only increased their apprehension. Word had also reached Europe of American battlefield defeats. After five months of not meeting with a single Dutch official, Adams in early 1781 pronounced Amsterdam "the capital of the reign of Mammon ." He was finally invited to present his credentials as ambassador to

8046-441: The British that France did not feel compelled to "sustain [these] pretentious ambitions." Overruling Franklin and distrustful of Vergennes, Jay and Adams decided not to consult with France, instead dealing directly with the British. During these negotiations, Adams mentioned to the British that his proposed fishing terms were more generous than those offered by France in 1778 and that accepting would foster goodwill between Britain and

8195-495: The British to dispatch more troops to the colonies. On March 5, 1770, when a lone British sentry was accosted by a mob, eight of his fellow soldiers reinforced him, and the crowd around them grew to several hundred. The soldiers were struck with snowballs, ice, and stones, and in the chaos the soldiers opened fire, killing five civilians, in the infamous Boston Massacre . The accused soldiers were arrested on charges of murder. When no other attorneys would come to their defense, Adams

8344-440: The Dutch government at The Hague on April 19, 1781, but they did not promise any assistance. In the meantime, Adams thwarted an attempt by neutral European powers to mediate the war without consulting the United States. In July, Adams consented to the departure of both of his sons; John Quincy went with Adams's secretary Francis Dana to Saint Petersburg as a French interpreter, in an effort to seek recognition from Russia , and

8493-409: The Franco-American alliance pessimistically. The French, he believed, were involved for their own self-interest, and he grew frustrated by what he saw as their sluggishness in providing substantial aid. The French, Adams wrote, meant to keep their hands "above our chin to prevent us from drowning, but not to lift our heads out of water." In March 1780, Congress, trying to curb inflation, voted to devalue

8642-417: The French. The alliance had been made over two years before. During that period, an army under the comte de Rochambeau had been sent to assist Washington, but it had yet to do anything of significance and America was expecting French warships. These were needed, Adams wrote, to contain the British armies in the port cities and contend with the powerful British Navy. However, the French Navy had been sent not to

8791-428: The LPC began designating buildings as landmarks. That July, Wagner issued an executive order that compelled municipal agencies to notify the LPC of any "proposed public improvements". The early version of the LPC initially held little power over enforcement, and failed to avert Pennsylvania Station's demolition. As a result, in April 1964, LPC member Geoffrey Platt drafted a New York City Landmarks Law. Outcry over

8940-494: The LPC designated the Ladies' Mile Historic District . The next year marked the first time in the LPC's history that a proposed landmark, the Guggenheim Museum (one of the youngest declared landmarks), received a unanimous vote by the LPC members. The vast majority of the LPC's actions are not unanimously supported by the LPC members or the community; a number of cases including St. Bartholomew's Episcopal Church , Bryant Park , and Broadway theatres have been challenged. One of

9089-407: The LPC from citizens, property owners, city government staff, or commissioners or other staff of the LPC. Subsequently, the LPC conducts a survey of properties, visiting sites to determine which structures or properties should be researched further. The selected properties will then be discussed at public hearings where support or opposition to a proposed landmark designation are recorded. According to

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9238-418: The LPC has designated more than 37,800 landmark properties in all five boroughs . Most of these are concentrated in historic districts, although there are over a thousand individual landmarks, as well as numerous interior and scenic landmarks. Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. first organized a preservation committee in 1961, and the following year, created the LPC. The LPC's power was greatly strengthened after

9387-432: The LPC to designate landmarks for eighteen months after the law became effective, followed by alternating cycles of three-year hiatuses and six-month "designating periods". In 1973, mayor John Lindsay signed legislation that allowed the LPC to consider landmarks on a rolling basis. The bill also introduced new scenic and interior landmark designations. The first scenic landmark was Central Park in April 1974, while

9536-404: The LPC to support formal designation or district protection. However, in 2013, the LPC declined to hold a hearing to consider this landmark designation or to expand the district. Community Board 1 supports protecting and repurposing the New Market Building, and the Municipal Art Society argued in a report that "[it] has both architectural and cultural significance as the last functioning site of

9685-488: The LPC's designations of these theaters the next year. The three theatrical operators challenged the ruling with the U.S. Supreme Court, which refused to hear the lawsuit in 1992, thus upholding the designations. An LPC-designated historic district for the South Street Seaport has been active since 1977 and was extended on July 11, 1989. After the Fulton Fish Market relocated to the Bronx in 2005, community members, with leadership from organizer Robert Lavalva, developed

9834-404: The Landmarks Law was passed in April 1965, one and a half years after the destruction of Pennsylvania Station . The LPC has been involved in several prominent preservation decisions, including that of Grand Central Terminal . By 1990, the LPC was cited by David Dinkins as having preserved New York City's municipal identity and enhanced the market perception of a number of neighborhoods. The LPC

9983-421: The Landmarks Law were sworn in during June 1965. Platt was the first chairman, serving until 1968. The LPC's first public hearing occurred in September 1965, and the first twenty landmarks were designated the next month. The Wyckoff House in Brooklyn was the first landmark numerically, and was designated simultaneously with structures such as the Astor Library , the Brooklyn Navy Yard's Commandant's House ,

10132-488: The Landmarks Law, which includes alterations to a landmark. In 2016, the preservation commission consolidated its archaeological collection of artifacts and launched a reconstructed archaeology department, known as the NYC Archaeological Repository: The Nan A. Rothschild Research Center. Archaeologists work for the center reviewing the impact of proposed subsurface projects, as well as overseeing any archaeological discoveries. The environmental review department uses data from

10281-415: The Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the LPC can declare it a landmark. Approval of a landmark designation requires six commissioners to vote in favor. Approved designations are then sent to the New York City Council , which receives reports from other city agencies including the New York City Planning Commission , and decides whether to confirm, modify, or veto

10430-411: The Massachusetts colonial elite. Adams was initially less well known than his older cousin Samuel Adams , but his influence emerged from his work as a constitutional lawyer, his analysis of history, and his dedication to republicanism . Adams often found his own irascible nature a constraint in his political career. In the late 1750s, Adams fell in love with Hannah Quincy; he was poised to propose but

10579-459: The Massachusetts delegation was largely passive, Adams criticized conservatives such as Joseph Galloway , James Duane , and Peter Oliver who advocated a conciliatory policy towards the British or felt that the colonies had a duty to remain loyal to Britain, although his views at the time aligned with those of conservative John Dickinson . Adams sought the repeal of objectionable policies, but at this stage he continued to see benefits in maintaining

10728-435: The Massachusetts delegation. He moved cautiously at first, noting that the Congress was divided between Loyalists , those favoring independence, and those hesitant to take any position. He became convinced that Congress was moving in the proper direction – away from Great Britain. Publicly, Adams supported "reconciliation if practicable," but privately agreed with Benjamin Franklin 's confidential observation that independence

10877-454: The Massachusetts legislature, including John Adams, who agreed to attend, despite an emotional plea from his friend, Attorney General Jonathan Sewall , not to. Shortly after he arrived in Philadelphia , Adams was placed on the 23-member Grand Committee tasked with drafting a letter of grievances to King George III . The committee soon split into conservative and radical factions. Although

11026-690: The NRHP. As of 2007 , the vast majority of interior landmarks are also exterior landmarks or are part of a historic district. The preservation movement in New York City dates to at least 1831, when the New York Evening Post expressed its opposition to the demolition of a 17th-century house on Pearl Street in Lower Manhattan . Before the LPC's creation, buildings and structures were preserved mainly through advocacy, either from individuals or from groups. Numerous residences were saved this way, including

11175-690: The Resolution unanimously in the Affirmative." Adams ultimately helped engineer a compromise between the conservatives and the radicals. The Congress disbanded in October after sending the petition to the King and showing its displeasure with the Intolerable Acts by endorsing the Suffolk Resolves , which called for a boycott of British goods. Adams's absence was hard on Abigail, who was left alone to care for

11324-510: The Same Language, a Similar Religion and kindred Blood," and the King agreed to "receive with Pleasure, the Assurances of the friendly Dispositions of the United States." The King added that although "he had been the last to consent" to American independence, he had always done what he thought was right. He startled Adams by commenting that "There is an Opinion, among Some People, that you are not

11473-413: The Senate made him a target for critics of the Washington administration. Toward the end of his first term, he grew accustomed to a marginal role, and rarely intervened in debate. Adams never questioned Washington's courage or patriotism, but Washington did join Franklin and others as the object of Adams's ire or envy. "The History of our Revolution will be one continued lie," Adams declared. "The essence of

11622-542: The Senate. In 1790, Jefferson, James Madison , and Hamilton struck a bargain guaranteeing Republican support for Hamilton's debt assumption plan in exchange for the capital being temporarily moved from New York to Philadelphia , and then to a permanent site on the Potomac River to placate Southerners. In the Senate, Adams cast a tie-breaking vote against a last-minute motion to keep the capital in New York. Adams played

11771-428: The Stamp Act invalid in the absence of Massachusetts representation at Parliament. He noted that many protests were sparked by a popular sermon of Boston minister Jonathan Mayhew , invoking Romans 13 to justify insurrection. While Adams strongly opposed the Act in writing, he rebuffed attempts by Samuel Adams, a leader in the popular protest movements, to involve him in mob actions and public demonstrations. In 1766,

11920-480: The United States , serving from 1789 to 1797. He was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with important contemporaries, including his wife and adviser Abigail Adams and his friend and political rival Thomas Jefferson . A lawyer and political activist prior to the Revolution, Adams was devoted to the right to counsel and presumption of innocence . He defied anti-British sentiment and successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising from

12069-558: The United States but to the West Indies to protect French interests there. France, Adams believed, needed to commit itself more fully to the alliance. Vergennes responded that he would deal only with Franklin, who sent a letter back to Congress critical of Adams. Adams then left France of his own accord. In mid-1780, Adams traveled to the Dutch Republic . One of the few other republics at the time, Adams thought it might be sympathetic to

12218-419: The United States to meet obligations on earlier loans. On June 17, 1788, Adams returned to a triumphant welcome in Massachusetts. He returned to farming life in the months after. The nation's first presidential election was soon to take place. Because George Washington was widely expected to win the presidency, many felt that the vice presidency should go to a northerner. Although he made no public comments on

12367-537: The United States while putting pressure on France. Britain agreed, and the two sides worked out other provisions afterward. Vergennes was angered when he learned from Franklin of the American duplicity, but did not demand renegotiation. He was surprised at how much the Americans could extract. The independent negotiations also allowed the French to plead innocence to their Spanish allies, whose demands for Gibraltar might have caused significant problems. On September 3, 1783,

12516-581: The aesthetic and historic nature of these properties. The LPC preserves not only architecturally significant buildings, but the overall historical sense of place of neighborhoods that are designated as historic districts . The LPC is responsible for overseeing a range of designated landmarks in all five boroughs ranging from the Fonthill Castle in the North Bronx , built in 1852 for the actor Edwin Forrest , to

12665-528: The aid of the Dutch Patriotten leader Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol , Adams negotiated a loan of five million guilders. In October, he negotiated a treaty of amity and commerce. The house that Adams bought during this stay in the Netherlands became the first American embassy on foreign soil. After negotiating the loan with the Dutch, Adams was re-appointed as the American commissioner to negotiate

12814-514: The already-long list of British actions against the colonies, he wrote, "In my opinion Powder and Artillery are the most efficacious, Sure, and infallibly conciliatory Measures We can adopt." After his failure to prevent the petition from being enacted, he wrote a private letter derisively referring to Dickinson as a "piddling genius." The letter was intercepted and published in Loyalist newspapers. The well-respected Dickinson refused to greet Adams and he

12963-482: The apparent slight, he departed France with John Quincy on March 8, 1779. On August 2, they arrived in Braintree. In late 1779, Adams was appointed as the sole minister charged with negotiations to establish a commercial treaty with Britain and end the war. Following the Massachusetts constitutional convention, he departed for France in November, accompanied by his sons John Quincy and 9-year-old Charles. A leak forced

13112-541: The area became well known as Little Syria , hosting immigrants from today's Lebanon , Syria , and Palestine , as well those of many other ethnic groups including Greeks, Armenians, Irish, Slovaks, and Czechs. Due to eminent domain actions associated with the construction of the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel and the World Trade Center , in addition to significant highrise construction in the 1920s and 30s, only

13261-709: The colonists had never been under the sovereignty of Parliament : their charter, as well as their allegiance, was exclusive to the King. The Boston Tea Party , a demonstration against the Tea Act and the British East India Company 's tea monopoly over American merchants, took place on December 16, 1773. Protestors demolished 342 chests of tea worth about ten thousand pounds on the British schooner Dartmouth , anchored in Boston harbor. The Dartmouth owners briefly retained Adams as legal counsel regarding their liability for

13410-655: The designation. Before 1990, the New York City Board of Estimate held veto power, rather than the City Council. After the City Council's final approval, a landmark designation may be overturned if an appeal is filed within 90 days. The New York Landmarks Preservation Foundation is a not-for-profit organization, established in 1980 to support the Commission. They sponsor plaques, historic district signs, and street signs. The Landmarks Preservation Commission consists of 11 commissioners, who are unpaid and serve three-year terms on

13559-673: The destroyed shipment. Adams applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement, and writing in his diary that it was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action. In 1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams, the First Continental Congress was convened in response to the Intolerable Acts , a series of deeply unpopular measures intended to punish Massachusetts, centralize authority in Britain, and prevent rebellion in other colonies. Four delegates were chosen by

13708-513: The destruction of the Helen Hayes and Morosco theaters. An advisory panel under mayor Koch voted to allow the LPC consider theaters not only on their historical significance but also on their architectural merits. In response to objections from some of the major theatrical operators, several dozen scenic and lighting designers offered to work on the LPC for creating guidelines for potential landmarks. Theaters were landmarked in alphabetical order;

13857-416: The dictates of our passion, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence." Adams won an acquittal for six of the soldiers. Two, who had fired directly into the crowd, were convicted of manslaughter. Adams was paid a small sum by his clients. According to biographer John E. Ferling , during jury selection Adams "expertly exercised his right to challenge individual jurors and contrived what amounted to

14006-589: The distinctions were necessary because the highest office of the United States must be marked with "dignity and splendor". He was widely derided for his combative nature and stubbornness, especially as he actively debated and lectured the senators. "For forty minutes he harangued us from the chair," wrote Senator William Maclay of Pennsylvania. Maclay became Adams's fiercest opponent and repeatedly expressed personal contempt for him in public and private. He likened Adams to "a monkey just put into breeches." Ralph Izard suggested that Adams be referred to as "His Rotundity,"

14155-407: The document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson. Many years later, Adams recorded his reasoning to Jefferson: "Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than I can." The Committee left no minutes, and

14304-472: The dollar. Vergennes summoned Adams for a meeting. In a letter sent in June, he insisted that fluctuation of the dollar value without an exception for French merchants was unacceptable and requested that Adams write to Congress asking it to "retrace its steps." Adams bluntly defended the decision, not only claiming that the French merchants were doing better than Vergennes implied but voicing other grievances he had with

14453-556: The drafting process itself remains uncertain. Accounts written years later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are often contradictory. Although the first draft was written primarily by Jefferson, Adams assumed a major role. On July 1, the resolution was debated in Congress. It was expected to pass, but opponents such as Dickinson made a strong effort to oppose it. Jefferson, a poor debater, remained silent while Adams argued for its adoption. Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams as "the pillar of [the Declaration's] support on

14602-402: The emerging Federalist Party . He supported Washington's policies against opposition from anti-Federalist Republicans . He cast 29 tie-breaking votes , and is one of only three vice presidents who have cast more than 20 during their tenure. He voted against a bill sponsored by Maclay that would have required Senate consent for the removal of executive branch officials who had been confirmed by

14751-458: The family. She still encouraged her husband in his task, writing: "You cannot be, I know, nor do I wish to see you an inactive Spectator, but if the Sword be drawn I bid adieu to all domestick felicity, and look forward to that Country where there is neither wars nor rumors of War in a firm belief that thro the mercy of its King we shall both rejoice there together." News of the opening hostilities with

14900-458: The final negotiations, securing fishing rights off Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island proved both very important and very difficult. In response to very strict restrictions proposed by the British, Adams insisted that not only should American fishermen be allowed to travel as close to shore as desired, but that they should be allowed to cure their fish on the shores of Newfoundland. This, and other statements, prompted Vergennes to secretly inform

15049-633: The first half of 1776, Adams grew increasingly impatient with what he perceived to be the slow pace of declaring independence. In the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, he helped push through a plan to outfit armed ships to launch raids on enemy vessels. Later in the year, he drafted the first set of regulations for the provisional navy. Adams drafted the preamble to the Lee Resolution of colleague Richard Henry Lee . He developed

15198-491: The first interior landmark was part of the neighboring New York Public Library Main Branch in November 1974. In its first twenty-five years, the LPC designated 856 individual landmarks, 79 interior landmarks, and 9 scenic landmarks, while declaring 52 neighborhoods with more than 15,000 buildings as historic districts . In 1989, when the LPC and its process was under review following a panel created by mayor Edward Koch in 1985,

15347-474: The first man in the House." In June 1776, Adams became head of the Board of War and Ordnance , charged with recording the officers in the army and their ranks, the disposition of troops throughout the colonies, and ammunition. He was referred to as a "one man war department," working up to eighteen-hour days and mastering the details of raising, equipping and fielding an army under civilian control. Adams functioned as

15496-512: The first theaters to be designated under the 1982 plan were the Neil Simon , Ambassador , and Virginia (now August Wilson) in August 1985. The landmark plan was then deferred temporarily until some landmark guidelines were enacted; the guidelines, implemented in December 1985, allowed operators to modify theaters for productions without having to consult the LPC. Landmark designations of theaters increased significantly in 1987, starting with

15645-453: The floor of Congress, [its] ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it encountered." On July 2, Congress officially voted for independence. Twelve colonies voted in the affirmative, while New York abstained. Dickinson was absent. On July 3, Adams wrote to Abigail that "yesterday was decided the greatest question which was ever debated in America, and a greater perhaps never

15794-399: The government systems of the American states. Adams's tenure in Britain was complicated by both countries failing to follow their treaty obligations. The American states had been delinquent in paying debts owed to British merchants, and in response, the British refused to vacate forts in the northwest as promised. Adams's attempts to resolve this dispute failed, and he was often frustrated by

15943-520: The important commercial and shipping hub at South Street Seaport." After the September 11 attacks in 2001, New York City tour guide Joseph Svehlak and other local historians became concerned that government-encouraged development in Downtown Manhattan would lead to the disappearance of the last physical heritage of the once "low-rise" Lower West Side of Manhattan. Also known as "Little Syria" in

16092-593: The ladies; in short, he has none of those essential arts or ornaments which constitute a courtier. There are thousands who, with a tenth of his understanding and without a spark of his honesty, would distance him infinitely in any court in Europe. While in London Adams wrote his three-volume A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America , a response to those he had met in Europe who criticized

16241-478: The landmark designations impacted them negatively, despite Koch's outreach to theater owners. The Shubert Organization , the Nederlander Organization , and Jujamcyn Theaters collectively sued the LPC in June 1988 to overturn the landmark designations of 22 theaters on the merit that the designations severely limited the extent to which the theaters could be modified. The New York Supreme Court upheld

16390-472: The last 8-10 years". Several changes to the Landmarks Law were made by the City Council committee that was reviewing the legislation; for example, the committee removed a clause mandating a 400 ft (120 m) protective zone around proposed landmarks. The bill passed the City Council on April 7, 1965, and was signed into law by Wagner on April 20. The first eleven commissioners to take office under

16539-702: The late 1950s was slated for replacement with an office tower. However, early preservation movements often focused on preserving Colonial-style houses, while paying relatively little attention to other architectural styles or building types. There was generally little support for the preservation movement until World War II . Structures such as the City Hall Post Office and Courthouse , Madison Square Presbyterian Church (1906) , and Madison Square Garden (1890) were demolished if they had fallen out of architectural favor. Others, such as St. John's Chapel , were destroyed in spite of support for preservation. By

16688-409: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, the area between Battery Park and the World Trade Center site , east of West Street and west of Broadway , had been a residential area for the shipping elite of New York in the early 19th century, and turned into a substantial neighborhood of ethnic immigration in the mid-19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, centered on Washington Street ,

16837-470: The legality of British writs of assistance , which allowed British officials to search a home without notice or reason. Otis's argument against the writs inspired Adams to the cause of the American colonies . In 1763, Adams explored aspects of political theory in seven essays written for Boston newspapers. Under the pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger", he ridiculed the selfish thirst for power he perceived among

16986-488: The manipulation but not Hamilton's role in it, Adams wrote to Benjamin Rush that his election was "a curse rather than a blessing." Although his term started on March 4, 1789, Adams did not begin serving as vice president until April 21, because he did not arrive in New York in time. The sole constitutionally prescribed responsibility of the vice president is to preside over the U.S. Senate , where they were empowered to cast

17135-412: The matter, Adams was the primary contender. Each state's presidential electors gathered on February 4, 1789, to cast their two votes for the president . The person with the most votes would be president and the second would become vice president. Adams received 34 electoral college votes in the election, second behind Washington, who was a unanimous choice with 69 votes. As a result, Washington became

17284-590: The money that he received as a delegate failed to cover his expenses. However, the crisis caused by the defeat of the American soldiers kept him at his post. After defeating the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776, British Admiral Richard Howe determined that a strategic advantage was at hand, and requested that Congress send representatives to negotiate peace. A delegation consisting of Adams, Franklin, and Edward Rutledge met with Howe at

17433-450: The most attached of all Your Countrymen, to the manners of France." Adams replied, "That Opinion sir, is not mistaken... I have no Attachments but to my own Country." King George responded, "An honest Man will never have any other." Adams was joined by Abigail in London. Suffering the hostility of the King's courtiers, they escaped when they could by seeking out Richard Price , minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church and instigator of

17582-474: The most controversial properties was 2 Columbus Circle , which remained at the center of a discussion over its future for a number of years. Cultural landmarks, such as Greenwich Village 's Stonewall Inn , are recognized as well not for their architecture, but rather for their location in a designated historic district. In 2015, Stonewall became the first official New York City landmark to be designated specifically based on its LGBT cultural significance. In

17731-461: The nation's first president , and Adams became its first vice president . Adams finished well ahead of all others except Washington, but was still offended by Washington receiving more than twice as many votes. In an effort to ensure that Adams did not accidentally become president and that Washington would have an overwhelming victory, Alexander Hamilton convinced at least 7 of the 69 electors not to cast their vote for Adams. After finding out about

17880-502: The necessary architectural and historical significance and that better examples of the settlement house movement and tenements exist in other parts of the city." The activists have said they hope that the LPC under the new mayor will be more receptive to preservation in the neighborhood. Very rarely, a landmark status granted by the LPC has been revoked. Some have been revoked by vote of the New York City Council or before 1990,

18029-477: The opposition of Abigail's mother. The pair shared a love of books and proved honest in their praise and criticism of each other. After his father's death in 1761, Adams had inherited a 9 + 1 ⁄ 2 -acre (3.8 ha) farm and a house where they lived until 1783. John and Abigail had six children: Abigail (known as "Nabby") in 1765, John Quincy in 1767, Susanna in 1768, Charles in 1770, Thomas in 1772, and Elizabeth in 1777. Susanna died when she

18178-480: The perceived lack of commitment on the part of the French, Adams wrote a letter to French foreign minister Vergennes in December, arguing for French naval support in North America. Franklin toned down the letter, but Vergennes ignored it. In September 1778, Congress increased Franklin's powers by naming him minister plenipotentiary to France while Lee was sent to Spain. Adams received no instructions. Frustrated by

18327-586: The proposed destruction of the Brokaw Mansion on Manhattan's Upper East Side , identified by the LPC as a possible landmark, inspired Wagner to send the legislation to the New York City Council in mid-1964. The law, introduced in the City Council that October, would significantly increase the LPC's powers. The City Council cited concerns that "the City has been and is undergoing the loss and destruction of its architectural heritage at an alarming rate, especially so in

18476-486: The protection of the historic building. A group of community activists formed the "Save Our Seaport Coalition" to advocate that the New Market Building be incorporated into the historic district set by the Landmarks Preservation Commission, in addition to calling for the protection of public space in the neighborhood and for support for the seaport's museum. This group included the Historic Districts Council ,

18625-461: The provision that " free ships make free goods ," allowing neutral nations to trade reciprocally while exempting an agreed-upon list of contraband. By late 1777, America's finances were in tatters, and that September a British army had defeated General Washington and captured Philadelphia. More Americans came to determine that mere commercial ties between the U.S. and France would not be enough, and that military assistance would be needed. The defeat of

18774-773: The research and archaeology departments to collect reports for governmental agencies that require environmental review for their projects. Finally, the Historic Preservation Grant Program distributes grants to owners of landmark properties designated by the LPC or on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). As of May 1, 2024 , there are more than 37,900 landmark properties in New York City, most of which are located in 150 historic districts in all five boroughs. The total number of protected sites includes 1,460 individual landmarks, 121 interior landmarks, and 12 scenic landmarks. Some of these are also National Historic Landmark (NHL) sites, and many are on

18923-409: The rural and "vulgar" Braintree as a home for his family – in August 1772, he moved them back to Boston. He purchased a large brick house on Queen Street , not far from his office. In 1774, Adams and Abigail returned the family to the farm due to the increasingly unstable situation in Boston, and Braintree remained their permanent Massachusetts home. Adams, who had been among the more conservative of

19072-525: The second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. Before his presidency , he was a leader of the American Revolution that achieved independence from Great Britain . During the latter part of the Revolutionary War and in the early years of the new nation, he served the U.S. government as a senior diplomat in Europe. Adams was the first person to hold the office of vice president of

19221-572: The ship to land in Ferrol, Spain , and Adams and his party spent six weeks travelling overland to Paris. Constant disagreement between Lee and Franklin eventually resulted in Adams assuming the role of tie-breaker in almost all votes on commission business. He increased his usefulness by mastering French. Lee was eventually recalled. Adams closely supervised his sons' education while writing to Abigail about once every ten days. In contrast to Franklin, Adams viewed

19370-593: The terra-cotta St. George's Syrian Catholic Church . After years of advocacy, in January 2009, the LPC held a hearing about the landmark designation of the Melkite church, which did succeed. However, under Chairman Robert Tierney, the LPC had declined to hold hearings on the Downtown Community House or 109 Washington Street. Community and preservation groups — including the "Friends of the Lower West Side" and

19519-473: The three buildings together would tell a coherent story of an overlooked, but important ethnic neighborhood. In addition to national Arab-American organizations, Manhattan Community Board 1 and City Councilperson Margaret Chin have also advocated for the LPC to hold a hearing on the Downtown Community House . According to the Wall Street Journal , however, the LPC argues that "the buildings lack

19668-491: The ties with Britain. He renewed his push for the right to a jury trial. He complained of what he considered the pretentiousness of the other delegates, writing to Abigail, "I believe if it was moved and seconded that We should come to a Resolution that Three and two make five We should be entertained with Logick and Rhetorick, Law, History, Politicks and Mathematicks, concerning the Subject for two whole Days, and then We should pass

19817-494: The title of Protector of Their [the United States'] Liberties ) for the president. Some senators favored a variant of Highness or the lesser Excellency . Anti-federalists in the Senate objected to the monarchical sound of them all; Jefferson described them as "superlatively ridiculous." They argued that these "distinctions," as Adams called them, violated the Constitution's prohibition on titles of nobility . Adams said that

19966-544: The treaty was signed and American independence was recognized. Adams was appointed the first American ambassador to Great Britain in 1785. After arriving in London from Paris, Adams had his first audience with King George III on June 1, which he meticulously recorded in a letter to Foreign Minister Jay the next day. The pair's exchange was respectful; Adams promised to do all that he could to restore friendship and cordiality "between People who, tho Seperated [ sic ] by an Ocean and under different Governments have

20115-403: The two discovered that they had grown too far apart to renew their friendship. Adams considered Sewall one of the war's casualties, and Sewall critiqued him as an ambassador: His abilities are undoubtedly equal to the mechanical parts of his business as ambassador, but this is not enough. He cannot dance, drink, game, flatter, promise, dress, swear with the gentlemen, and small talk and flirt with

20264-559: The war-ending treaty, the Treaty of Paris . Vergennes and France's minister to the United States, Anne-César de La Luzerne , disapproved of Adams, so Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay , and Henry Laurens were appointed to collaborate with Adams, although Jefferson did not initially go to Europe and Laurens was posted to the Dutch Republic following his imprisonment in the Tower of London. In

20413-476: The works of ancient writers such as Thucydides , Plato , Cicero , and Tacitus in their original languages. Though his father expected him to be a minister, after his 1755 graduation with an A.B. degree , he taught school temporarily in Worcester , while pondering his permanent vocation. In the next four years, he began to seek prestige, craving "Honour or Reputation" and "more defference from [his] fellows", and

20562-752: Was born on October 30, 1735, to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston . He had two younger brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams was born on the family farm in Braintree , Massachusetts. His mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts . His father was a deacon in the Congregational Church , a farmer, a cordwainer , and a lieutenant in the militia . Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship. Adams's great-great-grandfather Henry Adams immigrated to Massachusetts from Braintree, Essex , England, around 1638. Adams's formal education began at age six at

20711-469: Was determined to be "a great Man". He decided to become a lawyer, writing his father that he found among lawyers "noble and gallant achievements" but, among the clergy, the "pretended sanctity of some absolute dunces". He had reservations about his self-described "trumpery" and failure to share the "happiness of [his] fellow men". When the French and Indian War began in 1754, Adams, aged nineteen, felt guilty he

20860-643: Was for a time largely ostracized. Ferling writes, "By the fall of 1775 no one in Congress labored more ardently than Adams to hasten the day when America would be separate from Great Britain." In October 1775, Adams was appointed chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court, but he never served, and resigned in February 1777. In response to queries from other delegates, Adams wrote the 1776 pamphlet Thoughts on Government , which laid out an influential framework for republican constitutions. Throughout

21009-625: Was impelled to do so despite the risk to his reputation. He believed no person should be denied the right to counsel and a fair trial. The trials were delayed so that passions could cool. The week-long trial of the commander, Captain Thomas Preston , began on October 24 and ended in his acquittal, because it was impossible to prove that he had ordered his soldiers to fire. The remaining soldiers were tried in December when Adams made his famed argument regarding jury decisions: "Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or

21158-481: Was inevitable. In June 1775, with a view of promoting union among the colonies against Great Britain, he nominated George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief of the army then assembled around Boston. He praised Washington's "skill and experience" as well as his "excellent universal character." Adams opposed various attempts, including the Olive Branch Petition , aimed at finding peace. Invoking

21307-406: Was interrupted by friends, and the moment was lost. In 1759, he met 15-year-old Abigail Smith , his third cousin, through his friend Richard Cranch, who was courting Abigail's older sister. Adams initially was not impressed with Abigail and her two sisters, writing that they were not "fond, nor frank, nor candid". In time, Adams grew close to Abigail. They were married on October 25, 1764, despite

21456-552: Was left in Massachusetts to manage their home, but it was agreed that 10-year-old John Quincy would go with Adams, for the experience was "of inestimable value" to his maturation. On February 17, 1778, Adams set sail aboard the frigate Boston , commanded by Captain Samuel Tucker . The trip was stormy and treacherous. The ship was pursued by British vessels, with Adams personally taking up arms to help capture one. A cannon malfunction wounded several sailors and killed one. On April 1,

21605-422: Was nor will be decided among men." He predicted that "[t]he second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America," and would be celebrated annually. Congress approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4. During the congress, Adams sat on ninety committees, chairing twenty-five, an unmatched workload among the congressmen. As Benjamin Rush reported, he was acknowledged "to be

21754-547: Was one year old, while Elizabeth was stillborn. All three of Adams's sons became lawyers. Charles and Thomas were unsuccessful, became alcoholics, and died at a relatively young age. In contrast, John Quincy excelled and launched a political career, eventually becoming president himself. Adams rose to prominence leading widespread opposition to the Stamp Act . The Act was imposed by the British Parliament without consulting

21903-477: Was the first in his family not to be a militia officer; he said "I longed more ardently to be a Soldier than I ever did to be a Lawyer". In 1756, Adams began reading law under James Putnam, a leading lawyer in Worcester. In 1758, he earned an A.M. from Harvard, and in 1759 was admitted to the bar. He developed an early habit of diary writing; this included his impressions of James Otis Jr. 's 1761 challenge to

22052-411: Was the town's choice to fill the vacancy. The prosperity of his law practice increased from this exposure, as did the demands on his time. In 1771, Adams moved his family to Braintree, Massachusetts , but kept his office in Boston ; he noted "Now my family is away, I feel no Inclination at all, no Temptation, to be any where but at my Office." After some time in the capital, he became disenchanted with

22201-811: Was unlikely to be controversial. As a result, several prominent buildings were destroyed in the first several years of the LPC's existence, such as the Singer Building and the New York Tribune Building . Other structures, such as the Villard Houses and Squadron A Armory , were saved only partially. The LPC was headquartered in the Mutual Reserve Building from 1967 to 1980, and in the Old New York Evening Post Building from 1980 to 1987. The original legislation enabled

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