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63-466: Georgia has 159 counties, each with its own Superior Court. As of 2015, these are organized into 49 named Judicial Circuits, which are further collected into ten numbered Judicial Administrative Districts. The circuits and districts are administrative groupings and do not hear appeals, as the Georgia Court of Appeals is a single statewide court. The ten Judicial Administrative Districts were created by

126-471: A bill to increase the court's size to thirteen judges. The bill failed, but the Legislature did approve another act to add a tenth judge. The court grew again in 1999 when Governor Roy Barnes signed a bill which increased the number of judges to twelve. The court now has 15 members, who serve in five divisions. As of 2020 , a total of 92 judges have served on the court, with twenty having served on both

189-580: A 1864 copyright infringement lawsuit against Benn Pitman in Ohio. Graham died in 1895 and was buried in Montclair's Rosedale Cemetery ; even as late as 1918 his company Andrew J. Graham & Co continued to market his method. In his youth, Woodrow Wilson had mastered the Graham system and even corresponded with Graham in Graham. Throughout his life Wilson continued to develop and employ his own Graham system writing, to

252-549: A common example. The earliest known indication of shorthand systems is from the Parthenon in Ancient Greece , where a mid-4th century BC inscribed marble slab was found. This shows a writing system primarily based on vowels, using certain modifications to indicate consonants. Hellenistic tachygraphy is reported from the 2nd century BC onwards, though there are indications that it might be older. The oldest datable reference

315-582: A fraction of the time to acquire a useful speed of between 70 and 100 words per minute. Non-stenographic systems often supplement alphabetic characters by using punctuation marks as additional characters, giving special significance to capitalised letters, and sometimes using additional non-alphabetic symbols. Examples of such systems include Stenoscript , Speedwriting and Forkner shorthand . However, there are some pure alphabetic systems, including Personal Shorthand , SuperWrite, Easy Script Speed Writing, Keyscript Shorthand and Yash3k which limit their symbols to

378-443: A left-to-right, top-to-bottom writing direction. Several systems incorporate a loop into many of the strokes, giving the appearance of Gregg, Graham, or Cross's Eclectic shorthand without actually functioning like them. The Kotani (aka Same-Vowel-Same-Direction or SVSD or V-type) system's strokes frequently cross over each other and in so doing form loops. Japanese also has its own variously cursive form of writing kanji characters,

441-485: A legal battle ensued. The two systems use very similar, if not identical, symbols; however, these symbols are used to represent different sounds. For instance, on page 10 of the manual is the word d i m 'dim'; however, in the Gregg system, the spelling would actually mean n u k or 'nook'. Andrew J. Graham was a notable phonotypist operating in the period between the emergence of Pitman's and Gregg's systems. In 1854 he published

504-576: A less complex writing system, a syllabic shorthand script was sometimes used. After the decline of the Roman Empire , the Tironian notes were no longer used to transcribe speeches, though they were still known and taught, particularly during the Carolingian Renaissance . After the 11th century, however, they were mostly forgotten. When many monastery libraries were secularized in the course of

567-569: A more common method of writing a language. The process of writing in shorthand is called stenography , from the Greek stenos (narrow) and graphein (to write). It has also been called brachygraphy , from Greek brachys (short), and tachygraphy , from Greek tachys (swift, speedy), depending on whether compression or speed of writing is the goal. Many forms of shorthand exist. A typical shorthand system provides symbols or abbreviations for words and common phrases, which can allow someone well-trained in

630-526: A new appellate court, choosing instead to increase the size of the Supreme Court from three judges to five, then later to six. In 1902, Georgia Supreme Court justice Andrew J. Cobb gave a presentation to the State Bar addressing a number of proposals to alleviate the Supreme Court's workload, including the creation of an intermediate court of appeals. Finally, in 1906, the Legislature approved an amendment to

693-442: A priori alphabetic characters. These have the added advantage that they can also be typed—for instance, onto a computer , PDA , or cellphone . Early editions of Speedwriting were also adapted so that they could be written on a typewriter, and therefore would possess the same advantage. Shorthand systems can also be classified according to the way that vowels are represented. Traditional shorthand systems are written on paper with

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756-526: A provision of the Georgia Civil Code forbidding women from holding civil office. Until 1916, the Court of Appeals effectively functioned as a second court of last resort for the state of Georgia, there being no provision for appeal from its judgments . This posed two problems for the state: first, despite the constitutional requirement that the Supreme Court's decisions constituted binding precedent over

819-538: A short-lived (only 9 issues) phonotypy journal called The Cosmotype, subtitled "devoted to that which will entertain usefull, instruct, and improve humanity" , and several other monographs about phonography. In 1857 he published his own Pitman-like "Graham's Brief Longhand" that saw wide adoption in the United States in the late 19th century. He published a translation of the New Testament. His method landed him in

882-410: A stenographic pencil or a stenographic pen. Some consider that strictly speaking only handwritten systems can be called shorthand. Machine shorthand is also a common term for writing produced by a stenotype , a specialized keyboard . These are often used for court room transcripts and in live subtitling . However, there are other shorthand machines used worldwide, including: Velotype ; Palantype in

945-411: A system with 500 arbitrary symbols each representing one word. Bright's book was followed by a number of others, including Peter Bales' The Writing Schoolemaster in 1590, John Willis's Art of Stenography in 1602, Edmond Willis's An abbreviation of writing by character in 1618, and Thomas Shelton 's Short Writing in 1626 (later re-issued as Tachygraphy ). Shelton's system became very popular and

1008-588: A total of nine pen shorthands in use. In addition, there is the Yamane pen shorthand (of unknown importance) and three machine shorthands systems (Speed Waapuro, Caver and Hayatokun or sokutaipu). The machine shorthands have gained some ascendancy over the pen shorthands. Japanese shorthand systems ('sokki' shorthand or 'sokkidou' stenography) commonly use a syllabic approach, much like the common writing system for Japanese (which has actually two syllabaries in everyday use). There are several semi-cursive systems. Most follow

1071-575: Is a contract from Middle Egypt , stating that Oxyrhynchos gives the "semeiographer" Apollonios for two years to be taught shorthand writing. Hellenistic tachygraphy consisted of word stem signs and word ending signs. Over time, many syllabic signs were developed. In Ancient Rome , Marcus Tullius Tiro (103–4 BC), a slave and later a freedman of Cicero , developed the Tironian notes so that he could write down Cicero's speeches. Plutarch ( c.  46  – c.  120 AD ) in his "Life of Cato

1134-400: Is binding. In other words, three-judge cases with a dissent or special concurrence published after August 1, 2020, are now binding authority. Some cases may be decided by all 15 judges. The court no longer issues nine-judge cases; appeals are decided by either three judges or all fifteen. The position of Chief Judge is rotated among the 15 sitting judges, generally for a two-year term and upon

1197-411: Is phonetic, but has the simplicity of being "light-line." Pitman's system uses thick and thin strokes to distinguish related sounds, while Gregg's uses only thin strokes and makes some of the same distinctions by the length of the stroke. In fact, Gregg claimed joint authorship in another shorthand system published in pamphlet form by one Thomas Stratford Malone; Malone, however, claimed sole authorship and

1260-504: Is sometimes known as phonography , meaning "sound writing" in Greek. One of the reasons this system allows fast transcription is that vowel sounds are optional when only consonants are needed to determine a word. The availability of a full range of vowel symbols, however, makes complete accuracy possible. Isaac's brother Benn Pitman, who lived in Cincinnati , Ohio, was responsible for introducing

1323-405: Is well known because it was used by Samuel Pepys for his diary and for many of his official papers, such as his letter copy books. It was also used by Sir Isaac Newton in some of his notebooks. Shelton borrowed heavily from his predecessors, especially Edmond Willis. Each consonant was represented by an arbitrary but simple symbol, while the five vowels were represented by the relative positions of

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1386-710: The Duployé system, adapted to write the Kamloops Wawa (used for Chinook Jargon ) writing system. Script shorthands are based on the motions of ordinary handwriting. The first system of this type was published under the title Cadmus Britanicus by Simon Bordley, in 1787. However, the first practical system was the German Gabelsberger shorthand of 1834. This class of system is now common in all more recent German shorthand systems, as well as in Austria , Italy , Scandinavia ,

1449-512: The Georgia state constitution to create a three-judge court of appeals, to be placed on the ballot for approval by the citizens. The measure was approved by voters on October 3, 1906. The first election of judges took place on November 6, 1906. Arthur G. Powell , Richard Russell Sr. , and Benjamin H. Hill (the son of former U.S. Senator Benjamin Harvey Hill ) were the first judges elected to

1512-511: The Netherlands , Russia , other Eastern European countries, and elsewhere. Script-geometric , or semi-script , shorthands are based on the ellipse. Semi-script can be considered a compromise between the geometric systems and the script systems. The first such system was that of George Carl Märes in 1885. However, the most successful system of this type was Gregg shorthand , introduced by John Robert Gregg in 1888. Gregg had studied not only

1575-549: The geometric English systems, but also the German Stolze stenography, a script shorthand. Other examples include Teeline Shorthand and Thomas Natural Shorthand . The semi-script philosophy gained popularity in Italy in the first half of the 20th century with three different systems created by Giovanni Vincenzo Cima, Erminio Meschini, and Stenital Mosciaro. Some shorthand systems attempted to ease learning by using characters from

1638-630: The 11th Circuit, Tripp Self , to the United States District Court for the Middle District of Georgia, and William M. Ray II , to the United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia. The court hears all cases in which exclusive appellate jurisdiction is not reserved to the Supreme Court of Georgia, such as first-impression constitutional issues, murder, and petitions for writs of habeas corpus. Cases come to

1701-412: The 16th-century Protestant Reformation , long-forgotten manuscripts of Tironian notes were rediscovered. In imperial China , clerks used an abbreviated, highly cursive form of Chinese characters to record court proceedings and criminal confessions. These records were used to create more formal transcripts. One cornerstone of imperial court proceedings was that all confessions had to be acknowledged by

1764-457: The Court of Appeals and the Supreme Court of Georgia. In 1994, Judge Clarence Cooper was nominated by President Bill Clinton and confirmed by the Senate to serve as a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia. Three more Court of Appeals judges were appointed to the federal bench in 2018: Elizabeth L. Branch , to the U.S. Court of Appeals for

1827-443: The Court of Appeals either by direct appeals -- appeals as of right -- or by granted applications for discretionary appeal -- appeals the court agrees to hear. Applications for discretionary review will only be granted if reversible error appears to exist, establishment of precedent is desirable, or further development of the law is desirable, such as in divorce cases. (Court of Appeals Rule 31 (b)) In addition, certain rulings made by

1890-428: The Court of Appeals, providing that all appeals of criminal cases be heard in one division, and the remaining civil cases be divided up so as to equalize their work. The Legislature increased the size of the court to seven judges in 1960, and then to nine judges in three divisions in 1961. The requirement for all criminal cases to be heard in one division was repealed in 1967. In 1996, Governor Zell Miller submitted

1953-657: The Judicial Administration Act of 1976, and were based on Congressional district boundaries at the time they were created, but do not subsequently change with Congressional redistricting. A single judge may serve more than one county. A chief judge handles the administrative tasks for each circuit. There is also a business court in the Fulton County (Atlanta) Superior Court, the Metro Atlanta Business Case Division. This business court track

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2016-488: The Latin alphabet. Such non-stenographic systems have often been described as alphabetic , and purists might claim that such systems are not 'true' shorthand. However, these alphabetic systems do have value for students who cannot dedicate the years necessary to master a stenographic shorthand. Alphabetic shorthands cannot be written at the speeds theoretically possible with symbol systems—200 words per minute or more—but require only

2079-611: The UK, in the U.S., its popularity has been largely superseded by Gregg shorthand , developed by John Robert Gregg in 1888. In the UK, the spelling-based (rather than phonetic) Teeline shorthand is now more commonly taught and used than Pitman, and Teeline is the recommended system of the National Council for the Training of Journalists with an overall speed of 100 words per minute necessary for certification. Other less commonly used systems in

2142-571: The UK; Grandjean Stenotype, used extensively in France and French-speaking countries; Michela Stenotype, used extensively in Italy; and Stenokey, used in Bulgaria and elsewhere. One of the most widely used forms of shorthand is still the Pitman shorthand method described above, which has been adapted for 15 languages. Although Pitman's method was extremely popular at first and is still commonly used, especially in

2205-613: The Younger" (95–46 BC) records that Cicero, during a trial of some insurrectionists in the senate, employed several expert rapid writers, whom he had taught to make figures comprising numerous words in a few short strokes, to preserve Cato's speech on this occasion. The Tironian notes consisted of Latin word stem abbreviations ( notae ) and of word ending abbreviations ( titulae ). The original Tironian notes consisted of about 4,000 signs, but new signs were introduced, so that their number might increase to as many as 13,000. In order to have

2268-529: The accused's signature, personal seal, or thumbprint, requiring fast writing. Versions of this technique survived in clerical professions into the modern day and, influenced by Western shorthand methods, some new methods were invented. An interest in shorthand or "short-writing" developed towards the end of the 16th century in England . In 1588, Timothy Bright published his Characterie; An Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character which introduced

2331-542: The basis of seniority of tenure on the Court. By statutory authorization, the Chief Judge appoints a Presiding Judge for each of the five divisions, usually the most senior judges. The other judges are assigned to the five panels annually, and serve together for three full terms of court. As of May 2024, the judges on the Court were: Stenographer Shorthand is an abbreviated symbolic writing method that increases speed and brevity of writing as compared to longhand ,

2394-431: The court of appeals, conflicts began arising between the rulings of the two courts; secondly, the workloads of both courts continued to increase steadily. The Legislature remedied these problems by approving a constitutional amendment to enlarge the subject matter jurisdiction of the Court of Appeals and limit that of the Supreme Court. The Legislature also approved a statute to create an additional three-judge division of

2457-457: The court. Hill was the first chief judge of the court; he received the position largely due to age and seniority (over Russell's objections). The first Clerk of Court was Logan Bleckley Jr., the son of former Georgia Supreme Court Chief Justice Logan Edwin Bleckley . One of the first stenographers of the court was Marian Bloodworth, whose appointment was consented to by the three judges despite

2520-740: The divisions, with the constraint that the number of active cases in each division is kept close to equal. Its courtroom is on the second floor of the Nathan Deal Judicial Center . The genesis of the Court of Appeals began with a report by the State Bar of Georgia in 1895, suggesting that the Georgia State Legislature create a new intermediate appellate court to relieve the Georgia Supreme Court of some of its rapidly growing caseload. The Legislature declined to create

2583-537: The geometrical shapes that were common in the English stenographic tradition. Taylor's system was superseded by Pitman shorthand , first introduced in 1837 by English teacher Sir Isaac Pitman , and improved many times since. Pitman's system has been used all over the English-speaking world and has been adapted to many other languages, including Latin . Pitman's system uses a phonemic orthography . For this reason, it

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2646-565: The highest speed in capturing spoken words with a pen. Major pen shorthand systems are Shuugiin, Sangiin, Nakane and Waseda [a repeated vowel shown here means a vowel spoken in double-length in Japanese, sometimes shown instead as a bar over the vowel]. Including a machine-shorthand system, Sokutaipu, we have 5 major shorthand systems now. The Japan Shorthand Association now has 1,000 members. There are several other pen shorthands in use (Ishimura, Iwamura, Kumassaki, Kotani, and Nissokuken), leading to

2709-507: The hiragana syllabary; foreign words may not have a kanji form and are spelled out using katakana. The new sokki were used to transliterate popular vernacular story-telling theater (yose) of the day. This led to a thriving industry of sokkibon (shorthand books). The ready availability of the stories in book form, and higher rates of literacy (which the very industry of sokkibon may have helped create, due to these being oral classics that were already known to most people) may also have helped kill

2772-507: The idea of whole or partial semantic ideographic writing like that used in the Chinese characters, and the phonetic approach being mostly peripheral to writing in general. Even today, Japanese writing uses the syllabaries to pronounce or spell out words, or to indicate grammatical words. Furigana are written alongside kanji, or Chinese characters, to indicate their pronunciation especially in juvenile publications. Furigana are usually written using

2835-503: The languages are not the same. Prior to the Meiji era, Japanese did not have its own shorthand (the kanji did have their own abbreviated forms borrowed alongside them from China). Takusari Kooki was the first to give classes in a new Western-style non-ideographic shorthand of his own design, emphasis being on the non-ideographic and new. This was the first shorthand system adapted to writing phonetic Japanese, all other systems prior being based on

2898-479: The method to America. The record for fast writing with Pitman shorthand is 350 wpm during a two-minute test by Nathan Behrin in 1922. In the United States and some other parts of the world, it was largely superseded by Gregg shorthand , which was first published in 1888 by John Robert Gregg . This system was influenced by the handwriting shapes that Gabelsberger had introduced. Gregg's shorthand, like Pitman's,

2961-440: The most extremely simplified of which is known as Sōsho . The two Japanese syllabaries are themselves adapted from the Chinese characters: both of the syllabaries, katakana and hiragana, are in everyday use alongside the Chinese characters known as kanji; the kanji, being developed in parallel to the Chinese characters, have their own idiosyncrasies, but Chinese and Japanese ideograms are largely comprehensible, even if their use in

3024-522: The next panel. The court increased to twelve judges in 1999, and to fifteen in 2016. Cases with a dissent were determined by nine judges, including the assigned division and the next two divisions in succession. Before August 1, 2020, a case became binding precedent on all courts in Georgia except the Georgia Supreme Court only if all three panel judges agreed with the reasoning and result. If one of

3087-402: The number of judges to ten also changed the process by which cases would be decided in the event of a dissent. Before 1996, cases in which there was a dissent in one division were decided en banc (by the whole court). After this law was passed, cases involving a dissent were determined by seven judges, including the assigned division, the next division in succession, and the presiding judge of

3150-694: The point that by 1950s, when the Graham method had all but disappeared Wilson scholars had trouble interpreting his shorthand. In 1960 an 84-year-old anachronistic shorthand expert Clifford Gehman managed to crack Wilson's shorthand, demonstrating on a translation of Wilson's acceptance speech for the 1912 presidential nomination. Our Japanese pen shorthand began in 1882, transplanted from the American Pitman-Graham system. Geometric theory has great influence in Japan. But Japanese motions of writing gave some influence to our shorthand. We are proud to have reached

3213-462: The potential creation of such business case divisions in other local superior and state courts. Superior Court judges are elected to four-year terms in nonpartisan , circuit-wide races. To qualify as a Superior Court judge, a candidate must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of Georgia for at least three years, and have practiced law for at least seven years. Superior Court judges who have retired and taken senior status may hear cases in any circuit at

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3276-409: The request of a local judge, an administrative judge, or the governor. Georgia Court of Appeals The Georgia Court of Appeals is the intermediate-level appellate court for the U.S. state of Georgia . The court is a single entity with 15 judges. The judges are assigned into five divisions of three judges each, with the assignments changed annually. Cases are randomly assigned to one of

3339-484: The surrounding consonants. Thus the symbol for B with symbol for T drawn directly above it represented "bat", while B with T below it meant "but"; top-right represented "e", middle-right "i", and lower-right "o". A vowel at the end of a word was represented by a dot in the appropriate position, while there were additional symbols for initial vowels. This basic system was supplemented by further symbols representing common prefixes and suffixes. One drawback of Shelton's system

3402-438: The system to write as quickly as people speak. Abbreviation methods are alphabet-based and use different abbreviating approaches. Many journalists use shorthand writing to quickly take notes at press conferences or other similar scenarios. In the computerized world, several autocomplete programs, standalone or integrated in text editors, based on word lists, also include a shorthand function for frequently used phrases. Shorthand

3465-471: The target letter forms as geometric, script, and semi-script or elliptical. Geometric shorthands are based on circles, parts of circles, and straight lines placed strictly horizontally, vertically or diagonally. The first modern shorthand systems were geometric. Examples include Pitman shorthand , Boyd's syllabic shorthand , Samuel Taylor's Universal Stenography, the French Prévost-Delaunay, and

3528-409: The three judges concurred specially (agreed with the result but not the reasoning), the ruling became "physical precedent only" – that is, it decided that particular case but could only be cited as persuasive authority, not as binding authority in subsequent cases. Effective August 1, 2020, if a majority of judges in a published opinion fully concur in the decision's rationale and judgment, the opinion

3591-505: The trial court may be appealable even before the case is over. These interlocutory appeals can only proceed if trial court judge agrees to allow a party to petition for an appeal, and if the Court of Appeals agrees to accept the case. (Court of Appeals Rule 30) The Court of Appeals of Georgia is one of the busiest state appellate courts in the nation. In 2019, the court disposed of 2,445 direct appeals and 836 applications, or requests to file direct appeals. The 1996 statute that increased

3654-615: The yose theater, as people no longer needed to see the stories performed in person to enjoy them. Sokkibon also allowed a whole host of what had previously been mostly oral rhetorical and narrative techniques into writing, such as imitation of dialect in conversations (which can be found back in older gensaku literature; but gensaku literature used conventional written language in between conversations, however). Shorthands that use simplified letterforms are sometimes termed stenographic shorthands, contrasting with alphabetic shorthands, below. Stenographic shorthands can be further differentiated by

3717-579: Was in its "55th edition" by 1721, and Jeremiah Rich 's system of 1654, which was published under various titles including The penns dexterity compleated (1669). Rich's system was used by George Treby chairman of the House of Commons Committee of Secrecy investigating the Popish Plot . Another notable English shorthand system creator of the 17th century was William Mason ( fl. 1672–1709) who published Arts Advancement in 1682. Modern-looking geometric shorthand

3780-556: Was introduced with John Byrom 's New Universal Shorthand of 1720. Samuel Taylor published a similar system in 1786, the first English shorthand system to be used all over the English-speaking world. Thomas Gurney published Brachygraphy in the mid-18th century. In 1834 in Germany , Franz Xaver Gabelsberger published his Gabelsberger shorthand . Gabelsberger based his shorthand on the shapes used in German cursive handwriting rather than on

3843-589: Was originally created in 2005 by the judges of the Fulton County Superior Court as approved by Georgia's Supreme Court, via Judicial Circuit Rule 1004. The Business Case Division is distinct from the later constitutionally created Georgia State-wide Business Court . The constitutional amendment creating the State-wide Business Court in 2018, expressly provides authority for the Metro Atlanta Business Case Division's ongoing operation, and for

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3906-593: Was that there was no way to distinguish long and short vowels or diphthongs; so the b-a-t sequence could mean "bat", or "bait", or "bate", while b-o-t might mean "boot", or "bought", or "boat". The reader needed to use the context to work out which alternative was meant. The main advantage of the system was that it was easy to learn and to use. It was popular, and under the two titles of Short Writing and Tachygraphy , Shelton's book ran to more than 20 editions between 1626 and 1710. Shelton's chief rivals were Theophilus Metcalfe 's Stenography or Short Writing (1633) which

3969-729: Was used more widely in the past, before the invention of recording and dictation machines . Shorthand was considered an essential part of secretarial training and police work and was useful for journalists. Although the primary use of shorthand has been to record oral dictation and other types of verbal communication, some systems are used for compact expression. For example, healthcare professionals might use shorthand notes in medical charts and correspondence. Shorthand notes were typically temporary, intended either for immediate use or for later typing, data entry, or (mainly historically) transcription to longhand . Longer-term uses do exist, such as encipherment : diaries (like that of Samuel Pepys ) are

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