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116-408: The post was established by the mountain man Jim Bridger , after whom it is named, and Louis Vasquez . In December 1843, Bridger wrote Pierre Chouteau Jr. , "I have established a small fort, with a blacksmith shop and a supply of iron in the road of emigrants on Black Fork of Green River, which promises fairly." According to Stanley Vestal , "His fort consisted simply of an eight-foot stockade, with

232-410: A bullet behind his right knee. The bullet clipped a part of his popliteal artery , and his boot filled up with blood. No medical personnel were on the scene since Johnston had sent his personal surgeon to care for the wounded Confederate troops and U.S. prisoners earlier in the battle. Within a few minutes, Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting. Among his staff was Isham G. Harris ,

348-588: A colonel in the Confederate States Army. The senior Johnston resigned his commission in 1834 to care for his dying wife in Kentucky, who succumbed two years later to tuberculosis . After serving as Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas in 1838–40, Johnston resigned and went back to Kentucky. In 1843, he married Eliza Griffin , his late wife's first cousin. The couple moved to Texas, where they settled on

464-445: A commission as a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Infantry . Johnston was assigned to New York and Missouri posts. In August 1827, he participated in the expedition to capture Red Bird , the rebellious Winnebago chief. Johnston later wrote: "I must confess that I consider Red Bird one of the noblest and most dignified men I ever saw... He said: 'I have offended. I sacrifice myself to save my country.'" Johnston served in

580-601: A company man was almost militarized. The men had mess groups, hunted and trapped in brigades , and always reported to the head of the trapping party. This man was called a "boosway", a bastardization of the French term bourgeois . He was the leader of the brigade and the head trader. Donald Mackenzie , representing the North West Company , held a rendezvous in the Boise River Valley in 1819. The rendezvous system

696-422: A corral adjoining on the north. Within that stockade stood four log cabins with flat dirt roofs. One of these housed Bridger's forge and carpenter's bench, another his store, the third his family and possibles, while the fourth was the home of his partner." On October 19, 1852, Mrs. Benjamin G. Ferris visited with her husband, and described the fort as "- a long, low, strongly-constructed log building, surrounded by

812-674: A difference in the theater. U.S. Army officers heard that he was bringing 15 regiments with him, but this was an exaggeration of his forces. Based on the assumption that Kentucky neutrality would act as a shield against a direct invasion from the north, circumstances that no longer applied in September 1861, Tennessee initially had sent men to Virginia and concentrated defenses in the Mississippi Valley. Even before Johnston arrived in Tennessee, construction of two forts had been started to defend

928-504: A good living by fur trapping had largely ended. The fur industry was failing because of reduced demand and over trapping. With the rise of the silk trade and quick collapse of the North American beaver -based fur trade in the 1830s–1840s, many of the mountain men settled into jobs as Army scouts, wagon train guides or settled throughout the lands which they had helped open up. Others, like William Sublette , opened fort-trading posts along

1044-624: A high wall of logs, stuck endwise in the ground." On March 9, 1854, Bridger filed a claim with the United States General Land Office , for the 3,800 acres (1,500 hectares) around the fort. Richard Francis Burton visited the fort in August 1860, and later wrote, "Colonel Bridger, when an Indian trader, placed this post upon a kind of neutral ground between the Snakes and the Crows (Hapsaroke) on

1160-641: A large plantation in Brazoria County . Johnston named the property "China Grove". Here they raised Johnston's two children from his first marriage and the first three children born to Eliza and him. A sixth child was born when the family lived in Los Angeles, where they had permanently settled. Johnston moved to Texas in 1836 and enlisted as a private in the Texian Army after the Texas War of Independence from

1276-723: A lifestyle similar to that of historical mountain men. They may live and roam in the mountains of the West or in the swamps of the southern United States. Albert Sidney Johnston Albert Sidney Johnston (February 2, 1803 – April 6, 1862) was an American military officer who served as a general in three different armies: the Texian Army , the United States Army , and the Confederate States Army . He saw extensive combat during his 34-year military career, fighting actions in

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1392-506: A massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces against Grant at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. As the Confederate forces overran the U.S. camps, Johnston personally rallied troops up and down the line on his horse. One of his famous moments in the battle occurred when he witnessed some of his soldiers breaking from the ranks to pillage and loot the U.S. camps and was outraged to see

1508-619: A partisan group, Johnston ordered him to send Brig. Gen. Gideon Pillow and 5,000 men to Fort Donelson. Pillow took up a position at nearby Clarksville, Tennessee , and did not move into the fort until February 7, 1862. Alerted by a U.S. reconnaissance on January 14, 1862, Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify the high ground opposite Fort Henry, which Polk had failed to do despite Johnston's orders. Tilghman failed to act decisively on these orders, which were too late to be adequately carried out in any event. Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at Bowling Green on February 4, 1862, and

1624-513: A promotion to temporary command of the entire Department of Texas. He campaigned aggressively against the Comanche , writing to his daughter that "the Indians harass our frontiers and the 2nd Cavalry and other troops thrash them wherever they catch them." In March 1857, Brigadier General David E. Twiggs was appointed permanent commander of the department and Johnston returned to his position as colonel of

1740-454: A slight from the Texas government. Johnston was shot through the hip and severely wounded, requiring him to relinquish his post during his recovery. Afterward, Johnston said he fought Huston "as a public duty... he had little respect for the practice of dueling." He believed that the "safety of the republic depended upon the efficiency of the army... and upon the good discipline and subordination of

1856-514: A small picket yard of logs set in the ground, and about eight feet high." Nine native lodges were located nearby. With the arrival of the Mormon pioneers in 1847, disputes arose between Bridger and the new settlers. By 1853, a militia of Mormons was sent to arrest him for selling alcohol and firearms to the Native Americans , a violation of Federal Law. He escaped capture and temporarily returned to

1972-409: A small ravine near the "Hornets Nest", and desperately tried to aid the general, who had lost consciousness. Harris then sent an aide to fetch Johnston's surgeon but did not apply a tourniquet to Johnston's wounded leg. A few minutes later, Johnston died from blood loss before a doctor could be found. It is believed that Johnston may have lived for as long as one hour after receiving his fatal wound. It

2088-571: A state. The historical Fort Bridger has several interesting old buildings still standing: the old Pony Express barn and the Mormon protective wall. On June 27, 1928, the site of the fort, and remaining buildings, were sold to the Historical Landmark Commission of Wyoming. Dedication ceremonies were held on June 25, 1933 establishing Fort Bridger as a Wyoming Historical Landmark and Museum. The Annual Fort Bridger Muzzle Loading Rendezvous

2204-425: A strategy that worked for several months. Johnston's tactics had so annoyed and confused U.S. Brig. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in Kentucky that he became paranoid and mentally unstable. Sherman overestimated Johnston's forces and was relieved by Brig. Gen. Don Carlos Buell on November 9, 1861. However, in his Memoirs , Sherman strongly rebutted this account. East Tennessee (a heavily pro-union region of

2320-538: A trickle of settlers in 1841 to a steady stream in 1844–46 and then became a flood as the highly organized Mormon migration exploited the road to the Great Salt Lake discovered by mountain man Jim Bridger in 1847–48. The migration would explode in 1849's " The Forty-Niners " in response to the discovery of gold in California in 1848. The life of a mountain man was rugged, and many did not last more than several years in

2436-410: A vulnerable land side and did not have enough heavy artillery to defend against gunboats. Maj. Gen. Polk ignored the problems of the forts when he took command. After Johnston took command, Polk at first refused to comply with Johnston's order to send an engineer, Lt. Joseph K. Dixon, to inspect the forts. After Johnston asserted his authority, Polk had to allow Dixon to proceed. Dixon recommended that

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2552-418: A young lieutenant among them. "None of that, sir", Johnston roared at the officer, "we are not here for plunder." Then, realizing he had embarrassed the man, he picked up a tin cup from a table and announced, "Let this be my share of the spoils today", before directing his army onward. At about 2:30 pm, while leading one of those charges against a U.S. camp near the "Peach Orchard", he was wounded, taking

2668-515: Is held every Labor Day weekend. Mountain man A mountain man is an explorer who lives in the wilderness and makes his living from hunting and trapping . Mountain men were most common in the North American Rocky Mountains from about 1810 through to the 1880s (with a peak population in the early 1840s). They were instrumental in opening up the various emigrant trails (widened into wagon roads) allowing Americans in

2784-524: Is today New Mexico . This trade attracted numerous French Americans from Louisiana and some French Canadian trappers, in addition to Anglo-Americans. Some New Mexican residents also pursued the beaver trade, as Mexican citizens initially had some legal advantages. Trappers and traders in the Southwest covered territory that was generally inaccessible to the large fur companies. It included parts of New Mexico, Nevada, California and central and southern Utah. After

2900-795: The United States Army to install a new governor, Alfred Cumming to replace Brigham Young . As the army of 2,500 advanced in November 1857, the Mormons set fire to the Fort Bridger buildings. Johnston kept his supplies, with a garrison, within the stone walls which remained, while the army wintered at Camp Scott nearby. In June 1858, as the majority of Johnston's Army set off for Salt Lake City , two companies of troops remained behind. The other troops continued on and eventually established Camp Floyd south of Salt Lake City . Major William Hoffman commanded

3016-665: The American Fur Company owned by John Jacob Astor , entered the field. The annual rendezvous was often held at Horse Creek on the Green River , now called the Upper Green River Rendezvous Site , near present-day Pinedale, Wyoming . Another popular site in the same general area was Pierre's Hole . By the mid-1830s, it attracted 450 to 500 men annually: essentially all the American trappers and traders working in

3132-799: The Black Hawk War , the Texas-Indian Wars , the Mexican–American War , the Utah War , and the American Civil War , where he died on the battlefield. Considered by Confederate States President Jefferson Davis to be the finest general officer in the Confederacy before the later emergence of Robert E. Lee , he was killed early in the Civil War at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. Johnston

3248-571: The Governor of Tennessee , who had ceased to make any real effort to function as governor after learning that Abraham Lincoln had appointed Andrew Johnson as military governor of Tennessee. Seeing Johnston slumping in his saddle and his face turning deathly pale, Harris asked: "General, are you wounded?" Johnston glanced down at his leg wound, then faced Harris and said his last words in a weak voice: "Yes... and I fear seriously." Harris and other staff officers removed Johnston from his horse, carried him to

3364-723: The Oregon Trail at Fort Bridger, pass through the Wasatch Range across the Great Salt Lake Desert (an 80-mile waterless drive), loop around the Ruby Mountains , and rejoin the California Trail about seven miles west of modern Elko, Nevada (now Emigrant Pass ). The ill-fated Donner-Reed Party followed that route, along which they were met by a rider sent by Hastings to deliver letters to traveling emigrants. On July 12,

3480-591: The Oregon Trail to serve the remnant fur trade and the settlers heading west. Mountain men were most common in the North American Rocky Mountains from about 1810 through to the 1880s (with a peak population in the 1830s). About 3,000 of them ranged the mountains between 1820 and 1840, the peak beaver-harvesting period. John Colter's solo exploration of 1807-1808 made him one of the first Mountain men. While there were many free trappers , most mountain men were employed by major fur companies. The life of

3596-688: The Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers, which provided avenues into the State from the north. Both forts were located in Tennessee to respect Kentucky neutrality, but these were not in ideal locations. Fort Henry on the Tennessee River was in an unfavorable low-lying location, commanded by hills on the Kentucky side of the river. Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River, although in a better location, had

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3712-510: The U.S. Army as a major and was made a paymaster in December 1849 for a district of Texas encompassing the military posts from the upper Colorado River to the upper Trinity River. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours and traveling more than 4,000 miles (6,400 km) annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier at Fort Mason and elsewhere in

3828-622: The 'Mormons' in September, 1857, on the approach of Col. Johnston's army." On November 18, 1857, Bridger leased his surveyed land to the United States, though payment was withheld until Bridger could establish title. Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston was to use the land for his army during the Utah War . Relations had deteriorated between Mormon leaders in Utah Territory and federal authorities in Washington, D.C. President James Buchanan ordered

3944-460: The 2nd Cavalry. As a key figure in the Utah War , Johnston took command of the U.S. forces dispatched to crush the Mormon rebellion in November 1857. Their objective was to install Alfred Cumming as governor of the Utah Territory, replacing Brigham Young , and restore U.S. legal authority in the region. As Johnston had replaced Brigadier General William S. Harney in command, he only joined

4060-815: The American Fur Company and the Rocky Mountain Fur Company were in ruins. By 1846, only some 50 American trappers still worked in the Snake River country, compared to 500 to 600 in 1826. Soon after the strategic victory by the HBC, the Snake River route was used by emigrants as the Oregon Trail, which brought a new form of competition. Former trappers earned money as guides or hunters for the emigrant parties. A second fur trading and supply center grew up in Taos in what

4176-821: The Cherokee War of 1838–39. At the Battle of the Neches , Johnston and Vice President David G. Burnet were both cited in the commander's report "for active exertions on the field" and "having behaved in such a manner as reflects great credit upon themselves." In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky. When the United States declared war on Mexico in May 1846, Johnston rode 400 miles from his home in Galveston to Port Isabel to volunteer for service in Brigadier General Zachary Taylor 's Army of Occupation. Johnston

4292-695: The Confederacy's western armies in the area often called the Western Department or Western Military Department. Johnston's appointment as a full general by his friend and admirer Jefferson Davis had already been confirmed by the Confederate Senate on August 31, 1861. The appointment had been backdated to rank from May 30, 1861, making him the second-highest-ranking general in the Confederate States Army. Only Adjutant General and Inspector General Samuel Cooper ranked ahead of him. After his appointment, Johnston immediately headed for his new territory. He

4408-406: The Confederate states' declarations of secession. The War Department accepted it on May 6, 1861, effective May 3. On April 28, he moved to Los Angeles, the home of his wife's brother John Griffin . Considering staying in California with his wife and five children, Johnston remained there until May. A sixth child was born in the family home in Los Angeles. His eldest son, Capt. Albert S. Johnston, Jr.

4524-552: The Department of the Pacific. Johnston was a slave owner and a strong supporter of slavery. By 1846, he owned four slaves in Texas. In 1855, having discovered that a slave was stealing from the Army payroll, Johnston refused to have him physically punished and instead sold him for $ 1,000 to recoup the losses. Johnston explained that "whipping will not restore what is lost and it will not benefit

4640-491: The Donners and Reeds were given one of these letters, in which among other messages, Hastings claimed to have "worked out a new and better road to California", and said he would be waiting at Fort Bridger to guide the emigrants along the new cutoff. On July 7, 1847, Orson Pratt was amongst the first party of Mormons to arrive at the fort. He described the fort as, "Bridger's post consists of two adjoining log houses, dirt roofs, and

4756-583: The East. Near the existing fort, the Mormons established their own Fort Supply the same year. In 1855, Mormons took over Fort Bridger, reportedly having bought it for $ 8,000 in gold coins. The Mormons claimed, over Bridger's denials, they had purchased the fort from Vasquez. There was a deed dated August 3, 1855, recorded October 21, 1858, in Salt Lake City in Records Book B. p. 128, that ostensibly sold Fort Bridger to

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4872-467: The HBC forced American trappers to remain in the Rocky Mountains, which gave rise to the term "mountain men". Mountain men were instrumental in opening up the various emigrant trails (widened into wagon roads) allowing Americans in the east to settle the new territories of the far west by organized wagon trains traveling over roads explored and in many cases, physically improved by the mountain men and

4988-538: The Indians referred to, of having any knowledge of the robberies or any share in the plunder." The only evidence of the massacre is the account of Elijah Nicholas Wilson (written in 1910, about 51 years after the incident) and oral histories. In late February 1860, Johnston received orders from the War Department recalling him to Washington D.C. to prepare for a new assignment. He spent 1860 in Kentucky until December 21, when he sailed for California to take command of

5104-717: The LDS Church. Bridger and Vasquez's names were signed by H. F. Morrell in the presence of Alinerin Grow and William Adams Hickman , purportedly pursuant to a power of attorney . Bridger was absent from the area in 1855, acting as guide for Sir St George Gore. Andrew Jenson noted, "From 1853 to 1857, Fort Bridger was quite an important 'Mormon' outpost." Orson Hyde arrived at the fort on November 13, 1853, with 39 Mormon settlers. They established Fort Supply on Willow Creek, about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of Fort Bridger. Jenson goes on to state, "Fort Bridger and Fort Supply were deserted by

5220-553: The Mississippi River east to the Allegheny Mountains. Aged 58 when the war began, Johnston was old by Army standards. He came east to offer his service for the Confederacy without having been promised anything, merely hoping for an assignment. The most sensitive, and in many ways, the most crucial areas, along the Mississippi River and in western Tennessee along the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers were placed under

5336-510: The Mississippi name under which Beauregard had organized it on March 5. Johnston's only hope was to crush Grant before Buell and others could reinforce him. He started his army in motion on April 3, intent on surprising Grant's force as soon as the next day. It was not an easy undertaking; his army had been hastily thrown together, two-thirds of the soldiers had never fired a shot in battle, and drill, discipline, and staff work were so poor that

5452-559: The Mormons. However, a peaceful resolution was reached after the army had endured the harsh winter at Fort Bridger. In late June 1858, Johnston led the army through Salt Lake City without incident to establish Camp Floyd some 50 miles distant. In a report to the War Department, Johnston reported that "horrible crimes… have been perpetrated in this territory, crimes of a magnitude and of an apparently studied refinement in atrocity, hardly to be conceived of, and which have gone unwhipped of justice." Nevertheless, Johnston's army peacefully occupied

5568-544: The Native American tribes of the area, Major Porter reported that "Colonel Johnston took every occasion to bring the Indians within knowledge and influence of the army, and induced numerous chiefs to come to his camp... Colonel Johnston was ever kind, but firm, and dignified to them... The Utes, Pi-Utes, Bannocks, and other tribes, visited Colonel Johnston, and all went away expressing themselves pleased, assuring him that so long as he remained they would prove his friends, which

5684-576: The Ohio during the night and led a successful counter-attack the following day, driving the Confederates from the field and winning the battle. As the Confederate army retreated to Corinth, Johnston's body was taken to the home of Colonel William Inge, which had been his headquarters in Corinth. It was covered in the Confederate flag and lay in state for several hours. It is possible that a Confederate soldier fired

5800-458: The President to give Johnston command of one of the ten new regiments. Johnston took no part in politics; but his eminent brother, Josiah Stoddard Johnston , long a senator from Louisiana, was Mr. Clay's most intimate friend in public life, and General Taylor's letter was not even answered. He remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by later 12th president Zachary Taylor to

5916-444: The Republic of Mexico. He was named Adjutant General as a colonel in the Republic of Texas Army on August 5, 1836. On January 31, 1837, he became senior brigadier general in command of the Texas Army. On February 5, 1837, Johnston fought in a duel with Texas Brigadier General Felix Huston , who was angered and offended by Johnston's promotion. Huston had been the acting commander of the army and perceived Johnston's appointment as

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6032-473: The Rockies as well as numerous Native Americans. After achieving an American monopoly by 1830, Astor got out of the fur business before its decline. In the late 1830s, the Canadian-based Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) instituted several policies to undercut the American fur trade. During the same years, fashion in Europe shifted away from the formerly popular beaver hats; at the same time, the animal had become over-hunted. The HBC's annual Snake River Expedition

6148-450: The Rocky Mountains, especially in the upper Snake River country. After the HBC took over operations in the Pacific Northwest in 1821, American fur traders in the Snake River country quickly went out business and moved on. This halted American expansion into the region. After 1825, few American trappers worked west of the Rocky Mountains, and those who did generally found it unprofitable. According to historian Richard Mackie, this policy of

6264-437: The U.S. camp. Polk and Pillow's action gave U.S. Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant an excuse to take control of the strategically located town of Paducah, Kentucky , without raising the ire of most Kentuckians and the pro-U.S. majority in the State legislature. On September 10, 1861, Johnston was assigned to command the huge area of the Confederacy west of the Allegheny Mountains, except for coastal areas. He became commander of

6380-492: The United States after the occupation of Columbus by Polk. By September 18, Johnston had Brig. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner with another 4,000 men blocking the railroad route to Tennessee at Bowling Green, Kentucky . Johnston had fewer than 40,000 men spread throughout Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri. Of these, 10,000 were in Missouri under Missouri State Guard Maj. Gen. Sterling Price . Johnston did not quickly gain many recruits when he first requested them from

6496-425: The Utah Territory. U.S. Army Commander-in-Chief, Major General Winfield Scott , was delighted with Johnston's performance during the campaign and recommended his promotion to brevet brigadier general : "Colonel Johns[t]on is more than a good officer – he is a God send to the country thro' the army." The Senate confirmed Johnston's promotion on March 24, 1858. With regard to the relations established by Johnston with

6612-408: The [culprit], whom a lifetime of kind treatment has failed to make honest." In 1856, he called abolitionism "fanatical, idolatrous, negro worshipping" in a letter to his son, fearing that the abolitionists would incite a slave revolt in the Southern states. Upon moving to California, Johnston sold one slave to his son and freed another, Randolph Hughes, or "Ran", who agreed to accompany the family on

6728-422: The ablest commanders ever sent from the Military Academy, could not obtain a commission from the General Government. In the war between Mexico and Texas, by which the latter had secured its independence, Johnston had held high command, and was perhaps the best equipped soldier, both by education and service, to be found in the entire country outside the regular army at the time of the Mexican war. General Taylor urged

6844-496: The army after it had already departed for Utah. Johnston's adjutant general, and future U.S. general in the Civil War, Major Fitz John Porter wrote: "Experienced on the Plains and of established reputation for energy, courage, and resources, [Johnston's] presence restored confidence at all points, and encouraged the weak-hearted and panic-stricken multitude. The long chain of wagons, kinked, tangled, and hard to move, uncoiled and went forward smoothly." Johnston worked tirelessly over

6960-596: The army depot of Fort Bridger from 7 June 1858, until 17 August, when he was relieved by Brevet Lieutenant Colonel Edward Canby . Elements of the Sixth and Tenth Infantry, and First Cavalry, erected storehouses and troop quarters. On July 14, 1859, orders established a military reservation at Fort Bridger amounting to 500 square miles (1,300 km). Major Richard C. Gatlin took over command on 7 March 1860. Captain Alfred Cumming took command on 4 June 1860, followed by Captain Franklin Gardner on 7 August 1860. Captain Jesse Gove commanded from 29 May 1861 until 9 August, when

7076-402: The army just after the battle of Monterrey in October 1846. He had promised his wife, Eliza, that he would only volunteer for six months' service. In addition, President James K. Polk 's administration's preference for officers associated with the Democratic Party prevented the promotion of those, such as Johnston, who were perceived as Whigs: Authorized to appoint a large number of officers in

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7192-437: The army. He resumed leading the Confederate assault, which continued advancing and pushed the U.S. forces back to a final defensive line near the Tennessee river. With his army exhausted and daylight almost gone, Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack around 1900 hours, figuring he could finish off the U.S. army the following morning. However, Grant was reinforced by 20,000 fresh troops from Don Carlos Buell 's Army of

7308-437: The battle was so inept that subordinates accused him of being drunk. The Confederate troops who escaped were assigned to other units as General Crittenden faced an investigation of his conduct. After the Confederate defeat at Mill Springs, Davis sent Johnston a brigade and a few other scattered reinforcements. He also assigned him Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard , who was supposed to attract recruits because of his victories early in

7424-413: The best general in the country. Johnston was survived by his wife, Eliza, and six children. His wife and five younger children, including one born after he went to war, chose to live out their days at home in Los Angeles with Eliza's brother, Dr. John Strother Griffin . Johnston's eldest son, Albert Sidney Jr. (born in Texas), had already followed him into the Confederate States Army. In 1863, Albert Jr.

7540-476: The big fur companies originally to serve the mule train based inland fur trade. By the time two new international treaties in early 1846 and early 1848 officially settled new western coastal territories on the United States and spurred a large upsurge in migration, the days of mountain men making a good living by fur trapping had largely ended. The fur industry was failing because of over-trapping. Fortuitously, America's ongoing western migration by wagon trains with

7656-483: The brief Black Hawk War of 1832 as chief of staff to Brevet Brigadier General Henry Atkinson . The commander praised Johnston for "talents of the first order, a gallant soldier by profession and education and a gentleman of high standing and integrity." In 1829, he married Henrietta Preston, sister of Kentucky politician and future Civil War general William Preston . They had three children, of whom two survived to adulthood. Their son, William Preston Johnston , became

7772-424: The capital of Tennessee and an increasingly important Confederate industrial center, beginning on February 11, 1862. Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with 12,000 more men, including those under Floyd and Pillow, a curious decision given his thought that the U.S. gunboats alone could take the fort. He ordered the fort commanders to evacuate the troops if the fort could not be held. The senior generals sent to

7888-426: The center of the post's activities for his lifetime. When William A. Carter died in November 1881, his wife, Mary Elizabeth Hamilton Carter, became sutler, then renamed as the post trader until 1890. Judge Carter was a probate judge who had served in the army during the Seminole Wars . He managed both his sutler's store, and the post office, under one roof. Chief Washakie signed the Fort Bridger Treaty of 1868 at

8004-432: The colonel told them would be best for them. Thus he effectively destroyed all influence of the Mormons over them, and insured friendly treatment to travelers to and from California and Oregon." In August 1859, parts of Johnston's Army of Utah were implicated as participants in an alleged massacre at Spring Valley , a retaliation against an Indian massacre of an emigrant train to California. There are conflicting reports of

8120-442: The command of Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk and Brig. Gen. Gideon J. Pillow . The latter had initially been in command in Tennessee as that State's top general. Their impolitic occupation of Columbus, Kentucky , on September 3, 1861, two days before Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital of Richmond, Virginia , after his cross-country journey, drove Kentucky from its stated neutrality. The majority of Kentuckians allied with

8236-451: The condition of a $ 12/month contract for five more years of servitude. Ran accompanied Johnston throughout the American Civil War until the latter's death. At the outbreak of the American Civil War , Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army Department of the Pacific in California . Like many regular army officers from the Southern United States, he opposed secession. Nevertheless, Johnston resigned his commission soon after he heard of

8352-600: The decline in beaver and the fur trade, with some emigrants to the West using the Mormon Trail , former trappers found work as guides and hunters for the traveling parties. After the short-lived Pacific Fur Company was liquidated , British-Canadian companies controlled the fur trade in the Pacific Northwest , first under the North West Company (NWC) and then the HBC. Both companies undertook numerous measures to prevent American fur traders from competing with them west of

8468-406: The different divisions kept stumbling into each other on the march. Beauregard felt that this offensive was a mistake and could not possibly succeed, but Johnston replied "I would fight them if they were a million" as he drove his army on to Pittsburg Landing. His army was finally in position within a mile or two of Grant's force, undetected, by the evening of April 5, 1862. Johnston launched

8584-414: The east to settle the new territories of the far west by organized wagon trains traveling over roads explored and in many cases, physically improved by the mountain men and the big fur companies, originally to serve the mule train -based inland fur trade . Mountain men arose in a geographic and economic expansion that was driven by the lucrative earnings available in the North American fur trade , in

8700-406: The event and Johnston only referenced it in a November 1859 report to Scott. He wrote: "I have ascertained that three [emigrant] parties were robbed, and ten or twelve of their members, comprising men, women, and children, murdered... The perpetrators of the robbery of the first party were severely chastised by a detachment of dragoons, under the command of Lieutenant Gay. The troops failed to discover

8816-469: The fatal round, as many Confederates were firing at the U.S. lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. Alonzo Ridley of Los Angeles commanded the bodyguard "the Guides" of Gen. A. S. Johnston and was by his side when he fell. Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war on either side and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. At the time, Davis considered him

8932-778: The force under his personal command, the Army of Central Kentucky , from the vicinity of Nashville. With Beauregard's help, Johnston decided to concentrate forces with those formerly under Polk and now already under Beauregard's command at the strategically located railroad crossroads of Corinth, Mississippi , which he reached by a circuitous route. Johnston kept the U.S. forces, now under the overall command of Maj. Gen. Henry Halleck , confused and hesitant to move, allowing Johnston to reach his objective undetected. He scraped together reinforcements from Louisiana, as well as part of Polk's force at Island No. 10, and 10,000 additional troops under Braxton Bragg brought up from Mobile. Bragg at least calmed

9048-412: The fort as a base camp during a geological expedition. The fort was also host to the geological survey conducted by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden from 12 September to 1 October 1870. Ultimately, the expansion of the railroads in the west made this and other forts obsolete. Fort Bridger was first abandoned in 1878 but then was re-established two years later. The Army closed the post in 1890 when Wyoming became

9164-692: The fort on 3 July, which ceded the Shoshone and Bannock lands in southwestern Wyoming, and created the Wind River Indian Reservation . Lieutenant Colonel Henry Morrow was in command from 9 November 1867 until 17 April 1869. During this time, Fort Bridger troops helped guard construction of the Overland Route (Union Pacific Railroad) and the Overland Stage and Mail route. In the summer of 1870, Yale College Professor Othniel Charles Marsh used

9280-711: The fort to command the enlarged garrison, Gideon J. Pillow and John B. Floyd, squandered their chance to avoid having to surrender most of the garrison and on February 16, 1862, Brig. Gen. Simon Buckner, having been abandoned by Floyd and Pillow, surrendered Fort Donelson. Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped with his cavalry force of about 700 men before the surrender. The Confederates suffered about 1,500 casualties, with an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner. U.S. casualties were 500 killed, 2,108 wounded, and 224 missing. Johnston, who had little choice in allowing Floyd and Pillow to take charge at Fort Donelson based on seniority after he ordered them to add their forces to

9396-441: The forts be maintained and strengthened, although they were not in ideal locations, because much work had been done on them, and the Confederates might not have time to build new ones. Johnston accepted his recommendations. Johnston wanted Major Alexander P. Stewart to command the forts, but President Davis appointed Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman as commander. To prevent Polk from dissipating his forces by allowing some men to join

9512-417: The fur trade declined, mountain man Robert Newell told Jim Bridger : "[W]e are done with this life in the mountains—done with wading in beaver dams, and freezing or starving alternately—done with Indian trading and Indian fighting. The fur trade is dead in the Rocky Mountains, and it is no place for us now if ever it was." At the same time the great push west along the newly opened Oregon Trail built up from

9628-468: The garrison, took the blame and suffered calls for his removal because a full explanation to the press and public would have exposed the weakness of the Confederate position. His passive defensive performance while positioning himself in a forward position at Bowling Green, spreading his forces too thinly, not concentrating his forces in the face of U.S. advances, and appointing or relying upon inadequate or incompetent subordinates subjected him to criticism at

9744-459: The gear they had earned. They might sell to the same company when the price was agreeable or convenient. Historical reenactment of the dress and lifestyle of a mountain man, sometimes known as buckskinning , allows people to recreate aspects of this historical period. Today's Rocky Mountain Rendezvous and other reenacted events are both history-oriented and social occasions. Some modern men choose

9860-491: The goal of claiming cheap lands in the west was building rapidly from a trickle of settlers from 1841's opening of the Oregon Trail to a flood of emigrants headed west by 1847–49 and thereafter well into the later 1880s. By the time the fur trade began to collapse in the 1840s, motivating them to change jobs, the trails they had explored and turned into reliable mule trails and improved gradually into wagon-capable freight roads combined to allow them to work as guides and scouts. As

9976-518: The good ones of my life. But I couldn't challenge Congress; and President Houston , although a duelist, was too far above me in rank. Well, thank God I didn't kill him." On December 22, 1838, Mirabeau B. Lamar , the second president of the Republic of Texas , appointed Johnston as Secretary of War. He defended the Texas border against Mexican attempts to recover the state in rebellion. In 1839, he campaigned against Native Americans in northern Texas during

10092-412: The governors, but his more serious problem was lacking sufficient arms and ammunition for the troops he already had. As the Confederate government concentrated efforts on the units in the East, they gave Johnston small numbers of reinforcements and minimal amounts of arms and material. Johnston maintained his defense by conducting raids and other measures to make it appear he had larger forces than he did,

10208-563: The increased military force, raised directly by the United States, an unjust discrimination was made in favor of Democrats... Not one Whig was included, and not one of the Democratic appointees had seen service in the field, or possessed the slightest pretension to military education. Such able graduates of West Point as Henry Clay, jun. , and William R. McKee, were compelled to seek service through State appointments in volunteer regiments, while Albert Sidney Johnston, subsequently proved to be one of

10324-538: The men needed keen senses and knowledge of herbal remedies and first aid, among other skills. In summer, they could catch fish, build shelter, and hunt for food and skins. The mountain men dressed in suits made of deer skin that had stiffened after being left outdoors for a time, which gave them some protection against the weapons of particular enemies. There were no doctors in the regions where mountain men worked, and they had to set their own broken bones, tend their wounds, and nurse themselves back to health. A fur trapper

10440-409: The nerves of Beauregard and Polk, who had become agitated by their apparent dire situation in the face of numerically superior forces, before Johnston's arrival on March 24, 1862. Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates a combined force of about 40,000 to 44,669 men at Corinth. On March 29, 1862, Johnston officially took command of this combined force, which continued to use the Army of

10556-401: The next few months to maintain the effectiveness of his army in the harsh winter environment at Fort Bridger, Wyoming. Major Porter wrote to an associate: "Col. Johnston has done everything to add to the efficiency of the command – and put it in a condition to sustain the dignity and honor of the country – More he cannot do… Don't let any one come here over Col. Johnston – It would be much against

10672-629: The north, the Oglalas and other Sioux to the east, the Arapahoes and Cheyennes on the south, and various tribes of Yutas (Utahs) on the southwest." Bridger, perhaps the most picturesque figure in early Wyoming, was often called the " Daniel Boone " of the Rockies. Bridger Pass , which he discovered, was also named for him. In 1845, Lansford Hastings published a guide entitled The Emigrant's Guide to Oregon and California , which advised California emigrants to leave

10788-499: The number of troops was reduced due to demands of the American Civil War . Captain M. G. Lewis took over command in December 1862, followed by Major Noyes Baldwin in 1865. Captain Anson Mills assumed command from November 1866 until August 1867. In 1858, William A. Carter was appointed as post sutler at Fort Bridger. Perhaps more than any other individual, the history of the post revolves around this civilian merchant who remained at

10904-491: The rear, and Johnston assumed an active leadership role in the division. Future U.S. general, Joseph Hooker , was with Johnston at Monterrey and wrote: "It was through [Johnston's] agency, mainly, that our division was saved from a cruel slaughter... The coolness and magnificent presence [that he] displayed on this field... left an impression on my mind that I have never forgotten." General Taylor considered Johnston "the best soldier he had ever commanded." Johnston resigned from

11020-453: The robbers of the last two parties that were attacked. They are supposed to be vagabonds from the Shoshonee (sic) or Snake and Bannack (sic) Indians, whose chiefs deny any complicity with these predatory bands. There is abundant evidence to prove that these robber bands are accompanied by white men, and probably instigated and led by them. On that account I am inclined to believe the disclaimer of

11136-513: The southern U.S. during the Civil War) was occupied for the Confederacy by two unimpressive brigadier generals appointed by Jefferson Davis: Felix Zollicoffer , a brave but untrained and inexperienced officer, and soon-to-be Maj. Gen. George B. Crittenden , a former U.S. Army officer with apparent alcohol problems. While Crittenden was away in Richmond, Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank of

11252-565: The time and by later historians. The fall of the forts exposed Nashville to an imminent attack, and it fell without resistance to U.S. forces under Brig. Gen. Buell on February 25, 1862, two days after Johnston had to pull his forces out to avoid having them captured as well. Johnston was in a perilous situation after the fall of Ft. Donelson and Henry; with barely 17,000 men to face an overwhelming concentration of Union force, he hastily fled south into Mississippi by way of Nashville and then into northern Alabama. Johnston himself retreated with

11368-428: The troops, which could only be secured by their obedience to their legal commander. General Huston embodied the lawless spirit in the army, which had to be met and controlled at whatever personal peril." Many years later, Huston said that the duel was "a shameful piece of business, and I wouldn't do it again under any circumstances... Why, when I reflect upon the circumstances, I hate myself... that one act blackened all

11484-484: The two parts of Thomas's command at Logan's Cross Roads near Mill Springs before the U.S. forces could unite. At the Battle of Mill Springs on January 19, 1862, the ill-prepared Confederates, after a night march in the rain, attacked the U.S. soldiers with some initial success. As the battle progressed, Zollicoffer was killed and the Confederates were turned back and routed by a U.S. bayonet charge, their force of 4,000 suffering 533 casualties, while Crittenden's conduct in

11600-399: The upper Cumberland River near Mill Springs (now Nancy, Kentucky ), putting the river to his back and his forces into a trap. Zollicoffer decided it was impossible to obey orders to return to the other side of the river because of the scarcity of transport and proximity of U.S. troops. When U.S. Brig. Gen. George H. Thomas moved against the Confederates, Crittenden decided to attack one of

11716-572: The wake of the various 1806–1807 published accounts of the Lewis and Clark Expedition findings about the Rockies and the Oregon Country where they flourished economically for over three decades. By the time two new international treaties in early 1846 and early 1848 officially settled new western coastal territories in the United States and spurred a large upsurge in migration, the days of mountain men making

11832-400: The war and act as a competent subordinate for Johnston. The brigade was led by Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd , considered incompetent. He took command at Fort Donelson as the senior general present just before U.S. Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant attacked the fort. Historians believe the assignment of Beauregard to the west stimulated U.S. commanders to attack the forts before Beauregard could make

11948-617: The western United States. In 1855, 14th president Franklin Pierce appointed him colonel of the new 2nd U.S. Cavalry (the unit that preceded the modern 5th U.S. ), a new regiment, which he organized, his lieutenant colonel being Robert E. Lee, and his majors William J. Hardee and George H. Thomas . Other subordinates in this unit included Earl Van Dorn , Edmund Kirby Smith , Nathan G. Evans , Innis N. Palmer , George Stoneman , R.W. Johnson, John B. Hood , and Charles W. Field , all future Civil War generals. On March 31, 1856, Johnston received

12064-402: The wilderness. They faced many hazards, especially when exploring unmapped areas: biting insects and other wildlife, bad weather, diseases of all kinds, injuries, and the opposition of Indigenous people, presented constant physical dangers. Grizzly bears were one of the mountain men's greatest enemies. Winters could be brutal, with heavy snowstorms and low temperatures. In order to stay alive,

12180-644: The wishes and hopes of everyone here – who would gladly see him a Brigadier General." Even the Mormons commended Johnston's actions, with the Salt Lake City Deseret News reporting that "It takes a cool brain and good judgment to maintain a contented army and healthy camp through a stormy winter in the Wasatch Mountains." Johnston and his troops hoped for war. They had learned of the Mountain Meadows Massacre and wanted revenge against

12296-428: Was a mountain man who, in today's terms, would be called a free agent. He was independent and traded his pelts to whoever would pay him the best price. That contrasts with a "company man", typically indebted to one fur company for the cost of his gear, who traded only with that company and was often under the direct command of company representatives. Some company men who paid off their debt could become free traders, using

12412-588: Was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in Texas , which he considered his home. He was first educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky , where he met fellow student Jefferson Davis . Both were appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York , Davis two years behind Johnston. In 1826, Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with

12528-414: Was commanded by Alonzo Ridley , Undersheriff of Los Angeles, who remained at Johnston's side until he was killed. Early in the Civil War, Confederate President Jefferson Davis decided that the Confederacy would attempt to hold as much territory as possible, distributing military forces around its borders and coasts. In the summer of 1861, Davis appointed several generals to defend Confederate lines from

12644-416: Was elected as colonel of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers but the enlistments of his soldiers ran out just before the army's advance on Monterrey , so Taylor appointed him as the inspector general of Brigadier General William O. Butler's division of volunteers. Johnston convinced a few volunteers of his former regiment to stay on and fight. During the Battle of Monterrey , Butler was wounded and carried to

12760-592: Was given overall command of Polk's force at the western end of Johnston's line at Columbus, Kentucky. On February 6, 1862, U.S. gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of ill-sited Fort Henry, inflicting 21 casualties on the small remaining Confederate force. Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men of his approximately 3,000-man force, which had not been sent to Fort Donelson, before Grant's U.S. forces could even take up their positions. Johnston knew he could be trapped at Bowling Green if Fort Donelson fell, so he moved his force to Nashville ,

12876-435: Was later discovered that Johnston had a tourniquet in his pocket when he died. Harris and the other officers wrapped General Johnston's body in a blanket to not damage the troops' morale with the sight of the dead general. Johnston and his wounded horse, Fire Eater, were taken to his field headquarters on the Corinth road, where his body remained in his tent for the remainder of the battle. P. G. T. Beauregard assumed command of

12992-669: Was later implemented by William Henry Ashley of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company , whose company representatives would haul supplies to specific mountain locations in the spring, engage in trading with trappers, and bring pelts back to communities on the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, like St. Louis , in the fall. Ashley sold his business to the outfit of Smith , Jackson , and Sublette . He continued to earn revenue by selling that firm their supplies. This system of rendezvous with trappers continued when other firms, particularly

13108-664: Was later killed in an accidental explosion on a steamer ship while on liberty in Los Angeles in 1863. Soon, Johnston enlisted in the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles (a pro-Southern militia unit) as a private, leaving Warner's Ranch on May 27. He participated in their trek across the Southwestern deserts to Texas, crossing the Colorado River into the Confederate Territory of Arizona on July 4, 1861. His escort

13224-403: Was permitted to call on Arkansas, Tennessee, and Mississippi governors for new troops. However, politics largely stifled this authority, especially concerning Mississippi. On September 13, 1861, Johnston ordered Brig. Gen. Felix Zollicoffer with 4,000 men to occupy Cumberland Gap in Kentucky to block U.S. troops from coming into eastern Tennessee. The Kentucky legislature had voted to side with

13340-457: Was the highest-ranking officer on either side killed during the war. Davis believed the loss of General Johnston "was the turning point of our fate." Johnston was unrelated to Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston . Johnston was born in Washington, Kentucky , the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail (Harris) Johnston. His father was a native of Salisbury, Connecticut . Although Albert Johnston

13456-432: Was transformed into a trading enterprise. Beginning in 1834, it visited the American rendezvous to buy furs at low prices. The HBC was able to offer manufactured trade goods at prices far below that with which American fur companies could compete. The last rendezvous was held in 1840, when the HBC, along with a decline in demand for and supply of beaver, had effectively put all American fur traders out of business. By 1841,

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