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54-573: The Ruby Mountains ( Shoshoni : 'Duka Doya', meaning “Snowcapped”) are a mountain range , primarily located within Elko County with a small extension into White Pine County , in Nevada , United States . Most of the range is included within the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest . The range reaches a maximum elevation of 11,387 feet (3,471 m) on the summit of Ruby Dome . To the north

108-604: A "haypile" of cached plants. The impact of human activity on the tundra ecosystems where pikas live has been recorded dating back to the 1970s. Rather than hibernate during winter, pikas forage for grasses and other forms of plant matter and stash these findings in protected dens in a process called "haying". They eat the dried plants during the winter. When pikas mistake humans as predators, they may respond to humans as they do to other species that do prey on pikas. Such interactions with humans have been linked to pikas having reduced amounts of foraging time, consequentially limiting

162-565: A group of canyons above the Te-Moak tribal lands constitute the headwaters of the South Fork of the Humboldt River. Major summits in the central core of the range include Ruby Dome , Thomas Peak , Liberty Peak , Mount Fitzgerald , Verdi Peak , Snow Lake Peak , Mount Silliman, and Mount Gilbert . Prominent peaks further south include King , Lake , Wines, Tipton , and Pearl Peaks. North of

216-408: A typical Numic vowel inventory of five vowels. In addition, there is the common diphthong /ai/ , which functions as a simple vowel and varies rather freely with [e] ; however, certain morphemes always contain [ai] and others always contain [e] . All vowels occur as short or long, but [aiː] / [eː] is rare. Shoshoni has a typical Numic consonant inventory. Shoshoni syllables are of

270-426: A way to attract potential mates. There are also different calls depending on the season. In the spring the songs become more frequent during the breeding season. In late summer the vocalizations become short calls. Through various studies, the acoustic characteristics of the vocalizations can be a useful taxonomic tool. The average lifespan of pikas in the wild is roughly seven years. A pika's age may be determined by

324-473: A wide variety of plant matter, including forbs , grasses , sedges , shrub twigs, moss and lichens. Easily digestible food is processed in the gastrointestinal tract and expelled as regular feces. But in order to get nutrients out of hard to digest fiber, pika ferment fiber in the cecum (in the GI tract) and then expel the contents as cecotropes , which are reingested ( cecotrophy ). The cecotropes are then absorbed in

378-478: A word; however, primary stress tends to fall on the second syllable if that syllable is long. For instance, natsattamahkantɨn [ˈnazattamaxandɨ] "tied up" bears primary stress on the first syllable; however, kottoohkwa [kotˈtoːxˌwa] "made a fire" bears primary stress on the second syllable, with long vowel [oː] , instead of the first syllable with short vowel [o] . As in other Numic languages, stress in Shoshoni

432-559: Is Desmatolagus (middle Eocene to Miocene, 42.5–14.8 Ma ), usually included in the Ochotonidae, sometimes in Leporidae or in neither ochotonid nor leporid stem- lagomorphs . Ochotonids appeared in Asia between the late Eocene and the early Oligocene, and continued to develop along with increased distribution of C 3 grasses in previously forest dominated areas under the "climatic optimum" from

486-627: Is Secret Pass and the East Humboldt Range , and from there the Rubies run south-southwest for about 80 miles (130 km). To the east lies Ruby Valley , and to the west lie Huntington and Lamoille Valleys. The Ruby Mountains are the only range of an introduced bird, the Himalayan snowcock , in North America. The mountain range was named after the garnets found by early explorers. The central core of

540-406: Is a primarily suffixing language. Many nouns in Shoshoni have an absolutive suffix (unrelated to the absolutive case ). The absolutive suffix is normally dropped when the noun is the first element in a compound, when the noun is followed by a suffix or postposition, or when the noun is incorporated into a verb. For instance, the independent noun sɨhɨpin "willow" has the absolutive suffix -pin ;

594-456: Is a small, mountain-dwelling mammal native to Asia and North America. With short limbs, a very round body, an even coat of fur, and no external tail, they resemble their close relative, the rabbit , but with short, rounded ears. The large-eared pika of the Himalayas and nearby mountains lives at elevations of more than 6,000 m (20,000 ft). The name "pika" appears to be derived from

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648-569: Is characterized by archaic ( plesiomorphic ) cheek teeth and small size. The North American species migrated from Eurasia. They invaded the New World twice: Ochotona cf. whartoni and small pikas of the O. pusilla group are also known from Siberia. The extant, endemic North American species appeared in the Pleistocene. The North American collared pika ( O. collaris ) and American pika ( O. princeps ) have been suggested to have descended from

702-438: Is commonly marked through reduplication of the first syllable of the verb stem, so that singular kimma "come" becomes kikimma in the dual (and remains kima in the plural). A suppletive form is often used for the dual or plural forms of the verb; for instance, singular yaa "carry" becomes hima in both the dual and plural. Suppletion and reduplication frequently work in tandem to express number: singular nukki "run" becomes

756-423: Is distributed based on mora-counting. Short Shoshoni vowels have one mora, while long vowels and vowel clusters ending in [a] have two morae. Following the primary stress, every other mora receives secondary stress. If stress falls on the second mora in a long vowel, the stress is transferred to the first mora in the long vowel and mora counting continues from there. For example, natsattamahkantɨn "tied up" bears

810-492: Is extant within the family, covering 37 species , though many fossil genera are known. Another species, the Sardinian pika , belonging to the separate genus Prolagus , has become extinct within the last 2000 years owing to human activity. Pikas prefer rocky slopes and graze on a range of plants, primarily grasses, flowers, and young stems. In the autumn they pull hay, soft twigs, and other stores of food under rocks to eat during

864-420: Is marked by suffixes on all human nouns and optionally on other animate nouns. The regular suffixes for number are listed in the table below. The Shoshoni singular is unmarked. Case is also marked by suffixes, which vary depending on the noun. Subjective case is unmarked. Many nouns also have a zero objective case marker; other possible objective markers are -tta , -a , and -i . These suffixes correspond with

918-421: Is relatively free but shows a preference toward SOV order. The endonyms newe ta̲i̲kwappe and Sosoni' ta̲i̲kwappe mean "the people's language" and "the Shoshoni language," respectively. Shoshoni is classified as threatened, although attempts at revitalization are underway. Shoshoni is the northernmost member of the large Uto-Aztecan language family, which includes nearly sixty living languages, spoken in

972-574: Is that the bottom of their paws are covered with fur and lack paw pads. Rock-dwelling pikas have small litters of fewer than five young, whilst the burrowing species tend to give birth to more young and to breed more frequently, possibly owing to a greater availability of resources in their native habitats. The young are born altricial (eyes and ears closed, no fur) after a gestation period of between 25 and 30 days. Pikas are active during daylight ( diurnal ) or twilight hours ( crepuscular ), with higher-elevation species generally being more active during

1026-412: Is the typical word order for Shoshoni. nɨ I hunanna badger puinnu see nɨ hunanna puinnu I badger see "I saw a badger" nɨwɨ person sakkuhtɨn there paittsɨkkinna was hollering nɨwɨ sakkuhtɨn paittsɨkkinna person there {was hollering} "the person was making a fuss there" In ditransitive sentences, the direct and indirect object are marked with

1080-523: Is used with verb stems to form nouns used for the purpose of the verb: katɨnnompɨh "chair" is derived from katɨ "sit"; puinompɨh "binoculars" is derived from pui "see". The characterization suffix -kantɨn be used with a root noun to derive a noun characterized by the root: hupiakantɨn "singer" is derived from hupia "song"; puhakantɨn "shaman" is derived from puha "power", as one characterized by power. Shoshoni verbs may mark for number, mainly through reduplication or suppletion . The dual

1134-541: The Bible were translated in 1986. As of 2012, Idaho State University offers elementary, intermediate, and conversational Shoshoni language classes, in a 20-year project to preserve the language. Open-source Shosoni audio is available online to complement classroom instruction, as part of the university's long-standing Shoshoni Language Project. The Shoshone-Bannock Tribe teaches Shoshoni to its children and adults as part of its Language and Culture Preservation Program. On

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1188-591: The North American Plate . Normal faults on the eastern and western flanks of the range separate it from the basins on either side of it. The Ruby Mountains are an example of a metamorphic core complex that formed during the Cretaceous-Paleogene time when the oceanic Farallon Plate was subducting underneath the North American plate causing crustal thickening throughout Nevada and Utah. The weight from

1242-648: The Tungus pika , and the scientific name Ochotona is derived from the Mongolian word ogotno, оготно , which means pika. It is used for any member of the Ochotonidae ( / ɒ k ə t oʊ n ɪ d eɪ / ), a family within the order of lagomorphs , the order which also includes the Leporidae (rabbits and hares ). They are the smallest animal in the lagomorph group. Only one genus , Ochotona ( / ɒ k ə ˈ t oʊ n ə / or / ɒ tʃ ə ˈ t oʊ n ə / ),

1296-812: The Wind River Reservation in Wyoming, elders have been active in digital language archiving. Shoshoni is taught using Dr. Steven Greymorning's Accelerated Second Language Acquisition techniques. A summer program known as the Shoshone/Goshute Youth Language Apprenticeship Program (SYLAP), held at the University of Utah 's Center for American Indian Languages since 2009, has been featured on NPR 's Weekend Edition . Shoshoni youth serve as interns, assisting with digitization of Shoshoni language recordings and documentation from

1350-901: The Asiatic extant northern pika O. hyperborea in one location in the middle Pleistocene United States. While Ochotona is the only currently living genus of Ochotonidae, extinct genera of ochotonids include † Albertona , † Alloptox , † Amphilagus , † Australagomys , † Austrolagomys , † Bellatona , † Bellatonoides , † Bohlinotona , † Cuyamalagus , † Desmatolagus , † Eurolagus , † Gripholagomys , † Gymnesicolagus , † Hesperolagomys , † Heterolagus , † Kenyalagomys , † Lagopsis , † Marcuinomys , † Ochotonoides , † Ochotonoma , † Oklahomalagus , † Oreolagus , † Paludotona , † Piezodus , † Plicalagus , † Pliolagomys , † Prolagus , † Proochotona ( syn. Ochotona ), † Pseudobellatona , † Ptychoprolagus , † Russellagus , † Sinolagomys and † Titanomys . The earliest one

1404-923: The Central Numic languages Timbisha and Comanche . Timbisha, or Panamint, is spoken in southeastern California by members of the Timbisha Shoshone Tribe , but it is considered a distinct language from Shoshoni. The Comanche split from the Shoshone around 1700, and consonant changes over the past few centuries have limited mutual intelligibility of Comanche and Shoshoni. Principal dialects of Shoshoni are Western Shoshoni in Nevada, Gosiute in western Utah, Northern Shoshoni in southern Idaho and northern Utah, and Eastern Shoshoni in Wyoming. The main differences between these dialects are phonological. The number of people who speak Shoshoni has been steadily dwindling since

1458-649: The Western United States down through Mexico and into El Salvador . Shoshoni belongs to the Numic subbranch of Uto-Aztecan. The word Numic comes from the cognate word in all Numic languages for "person". For example, in Shoshoni the word is neme [nɨw̃ɨ] or, depending on the dialect, newe [nɨwɨ] , in Timbisha it is nümü [nɨwɨ] , and in Southern Paiute, nuwuvi [nuwuβi] . Shoshoni's closest relatives are

1512-592: The Wick R. Miller collection, in order to make the materials available for tribal members. The program released the first Shoshone language video game in August 2013. In July 2012, Blackfoot High School in Southeastern Idaho announced it would offer Shoshoni language classes. The Chief Tahgee Elementary Academy, a Shoshone-Bannock charter school teaching English and Shoshoni, opened at Fort Hall in 2013. Shoshoni has

1566-713: The amount of food they can stockpile for winter months. Pikas prefer foraging in temperatures below 25 °C (77 °F), so they generally spend their time in shaded regions and out of direct sunlight when temperatures are high. A link has also been found between temperature increases and lost foraging time, where for every increase of 1 °C (1.8 °F) to the ambient temperature in alpine landscapes home to pikas, those pikas lose 3% of their foraging time. Eurasian pikas commonly live in family groups and share duties of gathering food and keeping watch. Some species are territorial. North American pikas ( O. princeps and O. collaris ) are asocial , leading solitary lives outside

1620-421: The breeding season. Pikas have distinct calls , which vary in duration. The call can be short and quick, a little longer and more drawn out or long songs. The short calls are an example of geographic variation. The pikas determine the appropriate time to make short calls by listening for cues for sound localization. The calls are used for individual recognition, predator warning signals, territory defense, or as

1674-428: The central core, significant peaks include Old-Man-of-the-Mountain and Soldier Peak. Glaciers gouged out basins that are now alpine lakes. The larger of these, all located in the central core of the range, include Echo , Liberty , Favre , Lamoille , Castle , and Griswold lakes, while smaller tarns also in the central core include the scenic Island , Dollar , Verdi , Snow , Box , and Seitz lakes. Further to

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1728-402: The daytime. They show their peak activity just before the winter season. Pikas do not hibernate and remain active throughout the winter by traveling in tunnels under rocks and snow and eating dried plants that they have stored. Rock-dwelling pikas exhibit two methods of foraging: the first involves direct consumption of food, and the second is characterized by the gathering of plants to store in

1782-413: The form (C)V(V)(C). For instance: nɨkka "dance" (CVC CV), ɨkkoi "sleep" (VC CVV), and paa "water" (CVV). Shoshoni does not allow onset clusters. Typical Shoshoni roots are of the form CV(V)CV(V). Examples include kasa "wing" and papi "older brother." Stress in Shoshoni is regular but not distinctive. Primary stress usually falls on the first syllable (more specifically, the first mora ) of

1836-409: The heavy Pleistocene glaciation and still supports a wide variety of flora and fauna. Lower elevations are covered by aspen trees, while higher up the whitebark and limber pines predominate. Mountain goats , bighorn sheep , mule deer, mountain lions , marmots , beaver , and pikas are common residents. A population of Himalayan snowcock was introduced from Pakistan, and is thriving among

1890-492: The high cliffs. Streams, particularly on the western slopes have populations of native Lahontan or Humboldt cutthroat trout , but many of these populations are hybridized with rainbow trout or have been displaced by brown and brook trout , all stocked for angling purposes before impacts on native trout species were well understood. The Ruby Mountains are part of the Basin and Range Province that formed partly due to extension of

1944-399: The late 20th century. In the early 21st century, fluent speakers number only several hundred to a few thousand people, while an additional population of about 1,000 know the language to some degree but are not fluent. The Duck Valley and Gosiute communities have established programs to teach the language to their children. Ethnologue lists Shoshoni as "threatened" as it notes that many of

1998-521: The late Oligocene to middle Miocene. They thrived in Eurasia, North America, and even Africa. The peak of their diversity occurred during the period from the early Miocene to middle Miocene. Most of them became extinct during the transition from the Miocene to Pliocene, which was accompanied by an increase in diversity of the leporids . It has been proposed that this switch between ochotonids and larger leporids

2052-823: The long, cold winter. The pika is also known as the whistling hare because of its high-pitched alarm call it gives when alarmed. The two species found in North America are the American pika , found primarily in the mountains of the western United States and far southwestern Canada, and the collared pika of northern British Columbia , the Yukon , western Northwest Territories and Alaska . Pikas are native to cold climates in Asia and North America . Most species live on rocky mountainsides, where numerous crevices are available for their shelter, although some pikas also construct crude burrows. A few burrowing species are native to open steppe land. In

2106-478: The mountains of Eurasia , pikas often share their burrows with snowfinches , which build their nests there. Changing temperatures have forced some pika populations to restrict their ranges to even higher elevations. Pikas are small mammals, with short limbs and rounded ears. They are about 15 to 23 cm (5.9 to 9.1 in) in body length and weigh between 120 and 350 g (4.2 and 12.3 oz), depending on species. These animals are herbivores and feed on

2160-553: The north are Cold , Hidden , Soldier , and Robinson lakes, while to the south are North Furlong and Overland lakes. Water collected by the southern section of the Rubies seeps into the adjacent Ruby Valley to form the Ruby Lake National Wildlife Refuge. The eastern Great Basin is wetter than the western part in the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada range. Moisture collected by this high range promoted

2214-1067: The number of adhesion lines on the periosteal bone on the lower jaw. The lifespan does not differ between the sexes. The 34 species currently recognized are: Many fossil forms of Ochotona are described in the literature, from the Miocene epoch to the early Holocene ( extinct species) and present (16.4-0 Ma ). They lived in Europe, Asia, and North America.Some species listed below are common for Eurasia and North America ( O. gromovi , O. tologoica , O. zazhigini , and probably O. whartoni ). Paleontologists have also described multiple forms of pika not referred to specific species ( Ochotona indet.) or not certainly identified ( O. cf. antiqua , O. cf. cansus , O. cf. daurica , O. cf. eximia , O. cf. gromovi , O. cf. intermedia , O. cf. koslowi , O. cf. lagrelii , O. cf. nihewanica ). The statuses of Ochotona ( Proochotona ) kirgisica and O. spelaeus are uncertain. The " pusilla " group of pikas

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2268-576: The objective case. The indirect object can occur before the direct object, or vice versa. For example, in nɨ tsuhnippɨha satiia uttuhkwa "I gave the bone to the dog", tsuhnippɨh "bone" and satii "dog" take the objective case suffix -a . The subject is not a mandatory component of a grammatical Shoshoni sentence. Therefore, impersonal sentences without subjects are allowed; those sentences have an object-verb word order. ɨtɨinna Pika See text A pika ( / ˈ p aɪ k ə / PEYE -kə or / ˈ p iː k ə / PEE -kə )

2322-572: The possessive case markers -n , -ttan or -n , -an , or -n (in Western Shoshoni; this last suffix also appears as -an in Gosiute and is replaced by -in in Northern Shoshoni). These case markers can be predicted only to a degree based on phonology of the noun stem. Nominal derivational morphology is also often achieved through suffixing. For instance, the instrumental suffix -(n)nompɨh

2376-430: The range shows extensive evidence of glaciation during recent ice ages , including U-shaped canyons , moraines , hanging valleys , and steeply carved granite mountains , cliffs , and cirques . Major valleys include Lamoille Canyon (and its branches Thomas and Right Fork Canyons ), Seitz Canyon , Box Canyon and Kleckner Canyon. Canyons to the north drain into the main stem of the Humboldt River above Elko, while

2430-534: The reduplicated nunukki in the dual and the suppleted nutaa in the plural; singular yɨtsɨ "fly" is reduplicated, suppleted dual yoyoti and suppleted plural yoti . Shoshoni uses prefixes to add a specific instrumental element to a verb. For instance, the instrumental prefix to"- "with the hand or fist" can be used with the verb tsima "scrape" to yield tottsima "wipe," as in pɨn puihkatti tottsimma yakaitɨn "he wiped at his eyes, crying". Common instrumental prefixes include: Subject-object-verb (SOV)

2484-443: The root loses this suffix in the form sɨhɨykwi "to gather willows". The correlation between any particular noun stem and which of the seven absolutive suffixes it has is irregular and unpredictable. The absolutive suffixes are as follows: Shoshoni is a nominative-accusative language. Shoshoni nouns inflect for three cases ( subjective , objective , and possessive ) and for three numbers (singular, dual, and plural). Number

2538-490: The same ancestor as the steppe pika ( O. pusilla ). The range of Ochotona was larger in the past, with both extinct and extant species inhabiting Western Europe and Eastern North America, areas that are currently free of pikas. Pleistocene fossils of the extant steppe pika O. pusilla currently native to Asia have been found also in many countries of Europe from the United Kingdom to Russia and from Italy to Poland, and

2592-419: The small intestine to utilize the nutrients. Collared pikas have been known to store dead birds in their burrows for food during winter and eat the feces of other animals. As with other lagomorphs, pikas have gnawing incisors and no canines , although they have fewer molars than rabbits. They have a dental formula of: 2.0.3.2 1.0.2.3 = 26. Another similarity that pikas share with other lagomorphs

2646-605: The south. The higher altitude sections of the range were designated as the 90,000 acres (36,000 ha) Ruby Mountains Wilderness Area in 1989. The isolated Seitz and Echo Canyons are further preserved as an ecologically special Research Natural Area. The Ruby Crest National Recreation Trail winds from Harrison Pass northward about 40 mi (64 km) to the Road's End Trailhead high in Lamoille Canyon. Principal recreational access can be found at Lamoille and Soldier Canyons on

2700-511: The speakers are 50 and older. UNESCO has classified the Shoshoni language as "severely endangered" in Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. The language is still being taught to children in a small number of isolated locations. The tribes have a strong interest in language revitalization, but efforts to preserve the language are scattered, with little coordination. However, literacy in Shoshoni is increasing. Shoshoni dictionaries have been published and portions of

2754-586: The stress pattern [ˈnazatˌtamaˌxandɨ] , with stress falling on every other mora. With some dialectical variation, mora counting resets at the border between stems in compound words. Final syllables need not be stressed and may undergo optional final vowel devoicing. Given here are a few examples of regular, well-documented phonological rules in Shoshoni: Shoshoni is a synthetic , agglutinative language, in which words, especially verbs, tend to be complex with several morphemes strung together. Shoshoni

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2808-530: The surface as part of the Basin and Range Province along the footwall of a large detachment fault . A mylonitic shear zone can be traced along the fault on the western margin of the Ruby Mountains, marking the contact between the igneous and metamorphic rocks in the core complex and the undeformed sedimentary rocks around it. Generally deeper rocks are exposed in the northern part of the Ruby Mountains than in

2862-478: The thickening crust increased temperatures and pressures up to 40 km at depth and caused regional metamorphism to occur, as well as the formation of some migmatic igneous bodies. During the Oligocene to Eocene, active subduction was no longer occurring and the upper crust relaxed causing the stress to change from compressional to extensional. The extensional force caused the middle and lower crustal rocks to be exhumed to

2916-515: The west side of the range, and at the Overland Lake Trailhead to the east. Shoshoni language The consonant inventory of Shoshoni is rather small, but a much wider range of surface forms of these phonemes appear in the spoken language. The language has six vowels, distinguished by length. Shoshoni is a strongly suffixing language, and it inflects for nominal number and case and for verbal aspect and tense using suffixes. Word order

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