Succession of states is a concept in international relations regarding a successor state that has become a sovereign state over a territory (and populace) that was previously under the sovereignty of another state. The theory has its roots in 19th-century diplomacy . A successor state often acquires a new international legal personality , which is distinct from a continuing state, also known as a continuator or historical heir, which despite changes to its borders retains the same legal personality and possess all its existing rights and obligations (such as a rump state ).
176-480: [REDACTED] Chechen Republic of Ichkeria Foreign volunteers : [REDACTED] Russia 1994–1995 1996 The First Chechen War , also referred to as the First Russo-Chechen War , was a struggle for independence waged by the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria against the Russian Federation from 11 December 1994 to 31 August 1996. This conflict was preceded by the battle of Grozny in November 1994 , during which Russia covertly sought to overthrow
352-519: A Cypriot passenger jet was hijacked by Chechen sympathisers while flying toward Germany . Both of these incidents were resolved through negotiations, and the hijackers surrendered without any fatalities being inflicted. According to the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces , 3,826 troops were killed, 17,892 troops were wounded, and 1,906 troops are missing in action . According to
528-729: A state of emergency and threatened general mobilization if the Russian troops did not withdraw from the Chechen border. To prevent the invasion of Chechnya, he did not provoke the Russian troops. After staging another coup d'état attempt in December 1993, the opposition organized themselves into the Provisional Council of the Chechen Republic as a potential alternative government for Chechnya, calling on Moscow for assistance. In August 1994,
704-554: A Chechen weapons cache. On 29 December, in a rare instance of a Russian outright victory, the Russian airborne forces seized the military airfield next to Grozny and repelled a Chechen counter-attack in the Battle of Khankala ; the next objective was the city itself. With the Russians closing in on the capital, the Chechens began to set up defensive fighting positions and grouped their forces in
880-409: A Kremlin-backed publication, Komsomolskaya Pravda , and reprinted in early 1992 by The Guardian , Dudayev allegedly signed a decree outlawing the extradition of criminals to any country which did not recognize Chechnya. After being informed that the Russian government would not recognize Chechnya's independence, he declared that he would not recognize Russia. Grozny became an organized crime haven, as
1056-464: A burned-out house holding a dead baby. Trucks with bodies piled in the back rolled through the streets on the way to the cemetery. While treating the wounded, I heard stories of young men – gagged and trussed up – dragged with chains behind personnel carriers. I heard of Russian aviators who threw Chechen prisoners, screaming, out of their helicopters. There were rapes, but it was hard to know how many because women were too ashamed to report them. One girl
1232-461: A burned-out house holding a dead baby. Trucks with bodies piled in the back rolled through the streets on the way to the cemetery. While treating the wounded, I heard stories of young men – gagged and trussed up – dragged with chains behind personnel carriers. I heard of Russian aviators who threw Chechen prisoners, screaming, out their helicopters. There were rapes, but it was hard to know how many because women were too ashamed to report them. One girl
1408-810: A few days." Of course, I was outraged by these manipulations. The Chechen formations also suffered fairly high losses. According to the militants, they lost 3,000 fighters. According to official Russian data, Chechen militants lost 17,391 people killed. According to the World Peace Foundation at Tufts University , Chechen Republic of Ichkeria The Chechen Republic of Ichkeria ( / ɪ tʃ ˈ k ɛr i ə / itch- KERR -ee-ə ; Chechen : Нохчийн Республик Ичкери , romanized: Nóxçiyn Respublik Içkeri ; Russian : Чеченская Республика Ичкерия , romanized : Chechenskaya Respublika Ichkeriya ; abbreviated as " ChRI " or " CRI "), known simply as Ichkeria , and also known as Chechnya ,
1584-601: A guerrilla campaign, even as Russia cemented its control by establishing a loyal administration in the region. In June 2000, Kremlin appointee, supreme mufti and head of the Spiritual Administration of the Muslims of the Chechen Republic Akhmad Kadyrov became the new controversial head of the official administration of Chechnya. Kadyrov, who has been criticised as the object of a cult of personality,
1760-482: A guerrilla commander fatally shot each other in an argument. The internal violence in Chechnya peaked on 16 July 1998, when fighting broke out between Maskhadov's National Guard force led by Sulim Yamadayev (who joined pro-Moscow forces in the second war) and militants in the town of Gudermes ; over 50 people were reported killed and the state of emergency was declared in Chechnya. Maskhadov proved unable to guarantee
1936-492: A high proportion of initial civilian casualties were inflicted against ethnic Russians who were unable to find viable escape routes. The villages were also attacked from the first weeks of the conflict (Russian cluster bombs , for example, killed at least 55 civilians during the 3 January 1995 Shali cluster bomb attack ). Russian soldiers often prevented civilians from evacuating areas of imminent danger and prevented humanitarian organizations from assisting civilians in need. It
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#17328378582482112-562: A jihad until "all unbelievers had been driven out". This event prompted Russian intervention, and the beginning of the Second Chechen War . As more people escaped the war zones of Chechnya, President Maskhadov threatened to impose Sharia punishment on all civil servants who moved their families out of the republic. This time, however, the Russian invasion met much less resistance as during the First Chechen War. The infighting among
2288-458: A massive scale, kidnapped or killed Chechens considered to be collaborators and mistreated civilian captives and federal prisoners of war (especially pilots). Russian federal forces kidnapped hostages for ransom and used human shields for cover during the fighting and movement of troops (for example, a group of surrounded Russian troops took approximately 500 civilian hostages at Grozny's 9th Municipal Hospital). The violations committed by members of
2464-513: A month after the initial conflict, Chechen fighters successfully carried out an ambush near Shatoy , wiping out an entire Russian armored column resulting in losses up to 220 soldiers killed in action. In another attack near Vedeno , at least 28 Russian soldiers were killed in action. As military defeats and growing casualties made the war more and more unpopular in Russia, and as the 1996 presidential elections neared, Boris Yeltsin 's government sought
2640-490: A number of demonstrators. The ruins of the presidential palace, the symbol of Chechen independence, were then demolished two days later. On 6 March 1996, a group of Chechen fighters infiltrated Grozny and launched a three-day surprise raid on the city, taking most of it and capturing caches of weapons and ammunition. During the battle, much of the Russian troops were wiped out, with most of them surrendering or routing. After two columns of Russian reinforcements were destroyed on
2816-532: A partial state succession is the case of the split of Bangladesh from Pakistan. There was no challenge to Pakistan's claim to continue to exist and to retain its membership of the United Nations: it was a continuator and not a successor. Bangladesh eventually was recognized as a new state: it was a successor and had to apply for UN membership. An example of a universal state succession is the dissolution of Czechoslovakia . Neither part claimed any continuity: both
2992-452: A resolution in October recognizing the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as "temporarily occupied" by Russia. The human rights situation in Chechnya during the hostility phases had long been a concern among several human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch , who, after several years of investigation and gathering evidence, referred to the situation as disturbing. Throughout the span of
3168-411: A total ban on the use of the armed forces in such situations. Russian government officials feared that a move to end the war short of victory would create a cascade of secession attempts by other ethnic minorities. On 16 January 1996, a Turkish passenger ship carrying 200 Russian passengers was taken over by what were mostly Turkish gunmen who were seeking to publicize the Chechen cause. On 6 March,
3344-595: A way out of the conflict. Although a Russian guided missile attack assassinated the Chechen president Dzhokhar Dudayev on 21 April 1996. Yeltsin even officially declared "victory" in Grozny on 28 May 1996, after a new temporary ceasefire was signed with the Chechen acting president Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev . While the political leaders were discussing the ceasefire and peace negotiations, Russian forces continued to conduct combat operations. On 6 August 1996, three days before Yeltsin
3520-575: A withdrawal, and the incident ended peacefully. Clashes between supporters and opponents of Dudayev occurred in April 1993. The President fired Interior Minister Sharpudin Larsanov after he refused to disperse the protesters. The opposition planned a no-confidence referendum against Dudayev for 5 June 1993. The government deployed army and riot police to prevent the vote from taking place, leading to bloodshed. After staging another coup attempt in December 1993,
3696-473: Is a former de facto state that controlled most of the former Checheno-Ingush ASSR from 1991 to 2000 and has been a government-in-exile since. In September–October 1991, supporters of Dzhokhar Dudayev seized power in Chechnya in the Chechen Revolution . Dudayev was subsequently elected as Chechnya's President and in this new position, he proclaimed Chechnya's independence from Russia. The move
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#17328378582483872-467: Is a secular state. No religion may be established as a state or compulsory religion." The Spiritual Administration of the Muslims of the Chechen Republic —the Chechen muftiate —was a non-governmental organisation. Despite this, the criminal code of Chechnya legally established Sharia courts and included Islamic hudud punishments of decapitation, stoning and other punishments for crimes such as alcohol drinking, sodomy, and apostasy from Islam. Ichkeria
4048-753: Is known in historiography as the Southern Ming dynasty , continued to rule parts of southern China until 1662. Multiple ephemeral regimes also existed during this period, including the Shun and Xi dynasties on mainland China , and the Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning on Taiwan. Ireland , then called the Irish Free State , seceded from the United Kingdom under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1922. The new state took
4224-651: Is mostly a list of the exceptions that have occurred since the creation of the United Nations in 1945. In previous historical periods, the exceptions would be too many to list. The Taliban state in Afghanistan (the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan ) became the de facto government of nearly all the country in the mid-1990s, but the Afghan Northern Alliance was still recognised by many nations and retained
4400-707: Is that their incorporation into the Soviet Union from 1940 to 1991 constituted an illegal occupation . In 1991 when each Baltic state regained their independence they claimed continuity directly from their pre-1940 status. Many other states share this view, and as such, these states were not considered either predecessor or successor states of the Soviet Union. As a consequence, the Baltic states were able to simply re-establish diplomatic relations with countries, re-affirm pre-1940 treaties still in force, and resume membership in international organizations. A similar situation applies to
4576-458: The Afghan War ), also resigned in protest of the invasion ("It will be a bloodbath, another Afghanistan ", Gromov said on television), as did General Boris Poliakov. More than 800 professional soldiers and officers refused to take part in the operation; of these, 83 were convicted by military courts and the rest were discharged. Later General Lev Rokhlin also refused to be decorated as a Hero of
4752-566: The Caucasus countries of Armenia , Azerbaijan and Georgia , which claimed continuity of the pre-1921 republics before being conquered by the Red Army as well as Ukraine, which as mentioned above, is the de facto successor to the Ukrainian People's Republic that was founded in 1917 before its Sovietization in 1919 (see Soviet–Ukrainian War ). After four of the six constituent republics of
4928-562: The Czech Republic and Slovakia were new successor states. There are cases where a state is completely extinguished or abolished without having any successor states. Cases like this occur when, for example, one state is annexed or conquered by another and ceases to exist even in nominal form ( i.e. , not even a "government in exile" is established). The most recent case is the German Democratic Republic ( East Germany ), which
5104-768: The First Chechen War is the Samashki massacre , in which it is estimated that up to 300 civilians died during the attack. Russian forces conducted an operation of zachistka , house-by-house searches throughout the entire village. Federal soldiers deliberately and arbitrarily attacked civilians and civilian dwellings in Samashki by shooting residents and burning houses with flame-throwers . They wantonly opened fire or threw grenades into basements where residents, mostly women, elderly persons, and children, had been hiding. Russian troops intentionally burned many bodies, either by throwing
5280-611: The Middle East in the latter part of the 19th century. The Chechens' subsequent attempts at gaining independence after the 1917 fall of the Russian Empire failed, and in 1922 Chechnya became part of Soviet Russia and in December 1922 part of the newly formed Soviet Union (USSR). In 1936, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin established the Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic , within
5456-646: The Ming–Qing transition , the Ming dynasty existed alongside the Qing dynasty (or Predynastic Qing) for a period before 1644. The predecessor of the Qing dynasty, the Later Jin dynasty , was established in 1616 and ruled over Northeast China whilst the Ming dynasty ruled over China proper . Following the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644, remnants of the Ming imperial family , whose regime
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5632-586: The NVO , the authoritative Russian independent military weekly, at least 5,362 Russian soldiers died during the war, 52,000 Russian soldiers were wounded or became diseased and some 3,000 more Russian soldiers were still missing in 2005. However, the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia estimated that the total number of Russian military deaths was 14,000, based on information which it collected from wounded troops and soldiers' relatives (only counting regular troops, i.e. not
5808-506: The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) described the scenes as nothing short of an "unimaginable catastrophe", while former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev called the war a "disgraceful, bloody adventure" and German chancellor Helmut Kohl called it "sheer madness". Following the fall of Grozny , the Russian government slowly and methodically expanded its control over
5984-551: The Peace Conference on Yugoslavia . The agreement was initially prevented by the insistence of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia that it was the exclusive legal and political continuation of Socialist Yugoslavia as well as the owner of all state property owned by the earlier socialist federal government, and that it was willing to renounce a part of it only as an act of goodwill. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia interpreted
6160-635: The Republic of Dagestan . In particular, the border village of Pervomayskoye was completely destroyed by Russian forces in January 1996 in reaction to the large-scale Chechen hostage taking in Kizlyar in Dagestan (in which more than 2,000 hostages were taken), bringing strong criticism from this hitherto loyal republic and escalating domestic dissatisfaction. The Don Cossacks of Southern Russia , originally sympathetic to
6336-629: The Russian Federation , while Chechnya declared full independence from Moscow in 1993 as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (ChRI). The economy of Chechnya collapsed as Dudayev severed economic links with Russia while black market trading, arms trafficking and counterfeiting grew. Violence and social disruption increased and the marginal social groups, such as unemployed young men from the countryside, became armed. Ethnic Russians and other non-Chechens faced constant harassment as they fell outside
6512-467: The Russian Ground Forces , General Eduard Vorobyov [ ru ] , who then resigned in protest, stating that it is "a crime" to "send the army against its own people." Many in the Russian military and government opposed the war as well. Yeltsin 's adviser on nationality affairs, Emil Pain [ ru ] , and Russia's Deputy Minister of Defense General Boris Gromov (commander of
6688-821: The Russian Ministry of Defence for damages inflicted, recalling how the federal forces previously assisted in the expulsion of the Ingush population from North Ossetia. Undisciplined Russian soldiers were also reported to be committing murders, rapes, and looting in Ingushetia (in an incident partially witnessed by visiting Russian Duma deputies, at least nine Ingush civilians and an ethnic Bashkir soldier were murdered by apparently drunk Russian soldiers; earlier, drunken Russian soldiers killed another Russian soldier, five Ingush villagers and even Ingushetia's Health Minister). Much larger and more deadly acts of hostility took place in
6864-489: The Russian SFSR . In 1944, on the orders of NKVD chief Lavrentiy Beria , more than 500,000 Chechens, the Ingush and several other North Caucasian people were ethnically cleansed and deported to Siberia and to Central Asia . The official pretext was punishment for collaboration with the invading German forces during the 1940–1944 insurgency in Chechnya , despite the fact that many Chechens and Ingush were loyal to
7040-622: The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia seceded in 1991 and 1992, the rump state , renamed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , stated it was the continuation of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia —against the objections of the newly independent republics. Representatives from Belgrade continued to hold the original Yugoslavian UN seat—however, the United States refused to recognize it. The remaining territory of
7216-649: The Soviet Union . In November 1991, Yeltsin dispatched Internal Troops to Grozny , but they were forced to withdraw when Dudayev's forces surrounded them at the airport. After Chechnya made its initial declaration of sovereignty , the Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Republic split in two in June 1992 amidst the armed conflict between the Ingush and Ossetians . The newly created Republic of Ingushetia then joined
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7392-486: The Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union published a notice in the local Chechen press that the elections were illegal. With a turnout of 72%, 90.1% voted for Dudayev. Dudayev won overwhelming popular support (as evidenced by the later presidential elections with high turnout and a clear Dudayev victory) to oust the interim administration supported by the central government. He became president and declared independence from
7568-553: The Taliban government on 16 January 2000. This recognition ceased with the fall of the Taliban in December 2001. However, despite Taliban recognition, there were no friendly relations between the Taliban and Ichkeria—Maskhadov rejected their recognition, stating that the Taliban were illegitimate. In June 2000, the Russian government claimed that Maskhadov had met with Osama bin Laden , and that
7744-642: The UN seat . In 2021, the Taliban again took power , but as of 25 August 2022, it does not have the Afghanistan UN seat, which is still held by the National Resistance Front . The People's Republic of China (PRC) was established in 1949 in mainland China and claimed succession from the Republic of China (ROC). The ROC's territory was reduced to mainly the island of Taiwan , who took control from Japan in 1945, although it continues to claim control of
7920-496: The United Kingdom . Chechnya had been badly damaged by Russia's war against the newly formed republic's independence, and the economy was in shambles. According to Russian sources, Aslan Maskhadov tried to concentrate power in his hands to establish authority, but had trouble creating an effective state or a functioning economy . Maskhadov requested $ 260 billion in war reparations from Russia to rebuild infrastructure destroyed in heavy Russian fighting, an amount equivalent to 60% of
8096-679: The United Nations in 1945. The Russian Federation succeeded to the Soviet Union's United Nations membership , including its permanent membership on the Security Council of the United Nations. Russia accounted for more than 75% of the Soviet Union's economy, the majority of its population and 75% of its land mass; in addition, the history of the Soviet Union began in Russia with the October Revolution in 1917 in Petrograd . If there
8272-680: The Universal Postal Union and re-affirmed that pre-1910 treaties were still in force. There is some debate over whether the modern Republic of Turkey is a continuing state to the Ottoman Empire or a successor. The two entities fought on opposing sides in the Turkish War of Independence (1919–23), and even briefly co-existed as separate administrative units (whilst at war with one another): Turkey with its capital in Angora (now Ankara ) and
8448-567: The dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. The Russian Federation was widely accepted as the successor state to the USSR , but it lost a significant amount of its military and economic power . Ethnic Russians made up more than 80% of the population of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , but significant ethnic and religious differences posed a threat of political disintegration in some regions. In
8624-549: The kontraktniki (contract soldiers, not conscripts) and members of the special service forces). The list which contains the names of the dead soldiers, drawn up by the Human Rights Center "Memorial", contains 4,393 names. In 2009, the official number of Russian troops who fought in the two wars and were still missing in Chechnya and presumed dead was some 700, while about 400 remains of the missing servicemen were said to have been recovered up to that point. The Russian military
8800-835: The war in Donbas . The early pro-Ukrainian Chechen volunteer units included the Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion and Sheikh Mansur Battalion . The Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion fought on the side of Ukraine since its formation during the War in Donbas in 2014. In 2022, Russia launched a full invasion of Ukraine . Anti-Kadyrov Chechens like the Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion and Sheikh Mansur Battalion continued to fight in this conflict. In May 2022, Ichkeria's government-in-exile leader Akhmed Zakayev travelled to Kyiv and met with Ukrainian officials for "confidential" talks. Later,
8976-411: The Baltic countries and Ukrainian nationalists. Estonia once voted to recognize, but the act never was consummated due to pressure from both Russia and pro-Russian elements within the European Union. Dudayev also had contacts with Islamist movements and guerrillas in the United Arab Emirates , Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia . During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , the Verkhovna Rada passed
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#17328378582489152-586: The ChRI was waging a Jihad ( struggle ) against Russia raised the spectre that Jihadis from other regions and even outside Russia would enter the war. Limited fighting occurred in the neighbouring a small republic of Ingushetia , mostly when Russian commanders sent troops over the border in pursuit of Chechen fighters, while as many as 200,000 refugees (from Chechnya and the conflict in North Ossetia ) strained Ingushetia's already weak economy. On several occasions, Ingush president Ruslan Aushev protested incursions by Russian soldiers and even threatened to sue
9328-435: The Chechen cause, turned hostile as a result of their Russian-esque culture and language, stronger affinity to Moscow than to Grozny, and a history of conflict with indigenous peoples such as the Chechens. The Kuban Cossacks started organizing themselves against the Chechens, including manning paramilitary roadblocks against infiltration of their territories. Meanwhile, the war in Chechnya spawned new forms of resistance to
9504-528: The Chechen command withdrew from the area of Vedeno to the Chechen opposition-aligned village of Dargo and from there to Benoy . According to an estimate cited in a United States Army analysis report, between January and May 1995, when the Russian forces conquered most of the republic in the conventional campaign, their losses in Chechnya were approximately 2,800 killed, 10,000 wounded and more than 500 missing or captured. Some Chechen fighters infiltrated occupied areas, hiding in crowds of returning refugees. As
9680-519: The Chemical and Oil Refining Industry of the USSR Salambek Khadzhiyev was appointed leader of the officially recognized Chechen government in November 1994. The conflict ended after the Russian defeat in the Battle of Grozny of August 1996. According to Russian sources, after the Russian withdrawal, crime became rampant, with kidnappings and murders multiplying as rival rebel factions fought for territory. In December 1996, six Red Cross workers were killed, resulting in most foreign aid workers leaving
9856-541: The December 1995 raid by the Chechens on the city of Gudermes .) Throughout the span of the first Chechen war, Russian forces have been accused by human rights organizations of starting a brutal war with total disregard for humanitarian law , causing tens of thousands of unnecessary civilian casualties among the Chechen population. The main strategy in the Russian war effort had been to use heavy artillery and air strikes leading to numerous indiscriminate attacks on civilians. This has led to Western and Chechen sources calling
10032-416: The Ichkerian exile government recognized the Holodomor as a genocide against the Ukrainian people. Dudayev spent the years from 1991 to 1994 preparing for war, mobilizing men aged 15–55 and seizing Russian weapons depots. The Chechen National Guard counted 10,000 troops in December 1994, rising to 40,000 soldiers by early 1996. Major weapons systems were seized from the Russian military in 1992, and on
10208-418: The Ichkerian government subsequently moved into exile , including in Poland and the United Kingdom . As on 23 January 2000, a diplomatic representation of Ichkeria was based in Kabul during the Taliban regime in Afghanistan . Other remnants of the government and the armed forces retreated into Chechnya's south which was dominated by mountains and not yet under Russian control. From these bases, they waged
10384-475: The Kremlin's difficult negotiations with Maskhadov and difference of opinion regarding the Chechen conflict. In December 1998, the Supreme Islamic court of Chechnya suspended the Chechen Parliament, asserting that it did not conform to the standards of sharia. After Vakha Arsanov , the Chechen Vice-President , defected to the opposition, Maskhadov abolished his post, leading to a power struggle. In February 1999 President Maskhadov removed legislative powers from
10560-410: The Ottoman Empire from Constantinople (now Istanbul ), but this type of scenario is also common in civil wars . The Turkish National Movement , led by Mustafa Kemal who defected from the Ottoman Army , established the modern republic as a nation-state (or new government regime ) by defeating the opposing elements in the Turkish War of Independence . There remains debate about whether the conflict
10736-472: The PRC and the ROC formally claim exclusive mandate over the entirety of China, historical Chinese dynasties that existed during periods of sustained political disunity often claimed exclusive Chinese politico-cultural orthodoxy at the expense of others. During dynastic transitions , it was rare for one dynasty to end abruptly and transition smoothly to a new one, resulting in the existence of more than one entity claiming to be "China". For instance, during
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#173283785824810912-403: The ROC continues to be unrepresented within the United Nations but exercises sovereignty over the Taiwan Area . In addition to the Chinese mainland, the ROC also claims borderlands unclaimed by the PRC, most notably Outer Mongolia . In Chinese history , periods of prolonged political division and dynastic transition saw the existence of more than one claimant to "China" at the same time. China
11088-430: The Russian FSK state security organization (which was later converted to the FSB ) to fight for the Provisional Council forces. On 29 November, President Boris Yeltsin issued an ultimatum to all warring factions in Chechnya, ordering them to disarm and surrender. When the government in Grozny refused, Yeltsin ordered the Russian army to invade the region. Both the Russian government and military command never referred to
11264-450: The Russian Federation for his part in the war. The advance of the northern column was halted by the unexpected Chechen resistance at Dolinskoye and the Russian forces suffered their first serious losses. Units of Chechen fighters inflicted severe losses on the Russian troops. Deeper in Chechnya, a group of 50 Russian paratroopers was captured by the local Chechen militia , after being deployed by helicopters behind enemy lines to capture
11440-425: The Russian GDP. The war ravages and lack of economic opportunities left numbers of armed former guerrillas with no occupation. Machine guns and grenades were sold openly and legally in Grozny's central bazaar. The years of independence had some political violence as well. On 10 December 1998, Mansur Tagirov, Chechnya's top prosecutor, disappeared while returning to Grozny. On 21 June, the Chechen security chief and
11616-456: The Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin . The raid forced a temporary stop in Russian military operations, giving the Chechens time to regroup and to prepare for the national militant campaign. The full-scale Russian attack led many of Dzhokhar Dudayev 's opponents to side with his forces and thousands of volunteers to swell the ranks of mobile militant units. Many others formed local self-defence militia units to defend their settlements in
11792-636: The Russian city of Budyonnovsk. At least seven hostages were killed by the captors, and the rest were denied water, food, and medicine. According to official figures, 129 civilians were killed during the siege, most by the numerous attempts of the Russian army to retake the hospital. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights had this to report on the incident: Although the conduct of Chechen fighters has scarcely been documented in non-governmental reports, information indicates that they indiscriminately fired on, and killed, civilians. For example, on 14 June 1995, Chechen commandos took some 2,000 people hostage in
11968-452: The Russian forces were usually tolerated by their superiors and were not punished even when investigated (the story of Vladimir Glebov serving as an example of such policy). Television and newspaper accounts widely reported largely uncensored images of the carnage to the Russian public. The Russian media coverage partially precipitated a loss of public confidence in the government and a steep decline in President Yeltsin 's popularity. Chechnya
12144-479: The Russian military set out to take the city using air power and artillery. At the same time, the Russian military accused the Chechen fighters of using civilians as human shields by preventing them from leaving the capital as it was bombarded. On 7 January 1995, the Russian Major-General Viktor Vorobyov was killed by mortar fire, becoming the first on a long list of Russian generals to be killed in Chechnya. On 19 January, despite many casualties, Russian forces seized
12320-405: The Russian military's bombardment of Grozny killed around 35,000 civilians, including 5,000 children and that the vast majority of those killed were ethnic Russians. While military casualties are not known, the Russian side admitted to having 2,000 soldiers killed or missing. The bloodbath of Grozny shocked Russia and the outside world, inciting severe criticism of the war. International monitors from
12496-412: The Russian strategy deliberate terror bombing on parts of Russia. According to Human Rights Watch, the campaign was "unparalleled in the area since World War II for its scope and destructiveness, followed by months of indiscriminate and targeted fire against civilians". Russian forces attacked civilians many times throughout the war. One of the most notable war crimes committed by the Russian army during
12672-405: The Russian strategy deliberate terror bombing on parts of Russia. According to Human Rights Watch, the campaign was "unparalleled in the area since World War II for its scope and destructiveness, followed by months of indiscriminate and targeted fire against civilians". Due to ethnic Chechens in Grozny seeking refuge among their respective teips in the surrounding villages of the countryside,
12848-695: The Soviet government and fought against the Nazis and they even received the highest military awards in the Soviet Union (e.g. Khanpasha Nuradilov and Movlid Visaitov ). In March 1944, the Soviet authorities abolished the Checheno-Ingush Republic. Eventually, Soviet first secretary Nikita Khrushchev granted the Vainakh (Chechen and Ingush) peoples permission to return to their homeland and he restored their republic in 1957. Russia became an independent state after
13024-400: The Soviet period, some of Russia's approximately 100 nationalities were granted ethnic enclaves that had various formal federal rights attached. Relations of these entities with the federal government and demands for autonomy erupted into a major political issue in the early 1990s. Boris Yeltsin incorporated these demands into his 1990 election campaign by claiming that their resolution
13200-662: The Taliban supported the Chechens with arms and troops. In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , the Bush administration called on Maskhadov to cut all links with the Taliban. After the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul (2021) the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was restored. It is unknown if the Taliban still recognizes the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. Ichkeria also received limited support from certain political factions in Poland,
13376-529: The [Chechen autonomous] republic". The First Chechen War of 1994–1996 resulted in the victory of the separatist forces. After achieving de facto independence from Russia in 1996, kidnappings and violence between gangs plagued the region, which the government was unable to control. In November 1997, Chechnya was proclaimed an Islamic republic. The Second Chechen War began in August 1999, with Ichkeria falling and subsequently being forcibly subsumed back under
13552-636: The aim of asserting independence. The storming caused the death of the head of Grozny 's branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Vitaliy Kutsenko, who was defenestrated or fell while trying to escape. This effectively dissolved the government of the Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Republic of the Soviet Union . Elections for the president and parliament of Chechnya were held on 27 October 1991. The day before,
13728-493: The attack. Russian forces conducted an operation of zachistka , house-by-house searches throughout the entire village. Federal soldiers deliberately and arbitrarily attacked civilians and civilian dwellings in Samashki by shooting residents and burning houses with flame-throwers . They wantonly opened fire or threw grenades into basements where residents, mostly women, elderly persons and children, had been hiding. Russian troops intentionally burned many bodies, either by throwing
13904-557: The aviation and border troops established a military blockade of the republic, and eventually unmarked Russian aircraft began combat operations over Chechnya . The opposition forces, who were joined by Russian troops, launched a poorly organized assault on Grozny in mid-October 1994, followed by a second, larger attack on 26–27 November 1994. Despite Russian support, both attempts were unsuccessful. Chechen separatists succeeded in capturing some 20 Russian Ground Forces regulars and about 50 other Russian citizens who were covertly hired by
14080-429: The bodies into burning houses or by setting them on fire. A Chechen surgeon, Khassan Baiev , treated wounded in Samashki immediately after the operation and described the scene in his book: Dozens of charred corpses of women and children lay in the courtyard of the mosque, which had been destroyed. The first thing my eye fell on was the burned body of a baby, lying in the fetal position... A wild-eyed woman emerged from
14256-423: The bodies into burning houses or by setting them on fire. A Chechen surgeon, Khassan Baiev , treated wounded in Samashki immediately after the operation and described the scene in his book: Dozens of charred corpses of women and children lay in the courtyard of the mosque, which had been destroyed. The first thing my eye fell on was the burned body of a baby, lying in fetal position... A wild-eyed woman emerged from
14432-503: The breakup of Yugoslavia as a process of serial secessions and not as a complete dismemberment of the earlier state, an interpretation rejected by the other former Yugoslav republics. The Badinter Arbitration Committee recommended a division of assets and liabilities based on principle of equity , referring to the 1983 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debt (a convention not in force which at
14608-497: The captured Chechen rebels under Islamic law, and threatened to execute Russian prisoners. The First Chechen War began in December 1994, when Russian troops were sent to Chechnya to fight the separatist forces. During the Battle of Grozny (1994–95) , the city's population dropped from 400,000 to 140,000. Most of the civilians stranded in the city were elderly ethnic Russians, as many Chechens had support networks of relatives living in villages who took them in. Former Minister of
14784-538: The case of federal offensive action, officially numbering 5,000–6,000 armed men in late 1995. According to a UN report, the Chechen Armed Forces included a large number of child soldiers , some as young as 11 years old, and also included females. As the territory controlled by them shrank, the Chechens increasingly resorted to classic guerrilla warfare tactics, such as booby traps and mining roads in enemy-held territory. The use of improvised explosive devices
14960-421: The city of Argun , moving their military headquarters first to surrounded Shali , then shortly after to the village of Serzhen'-Yurt as they were forced into the mountains and finally to Shamil Basayev 's ancestral stronghold of Vedeno . Chechnya's second-largest city of Gudermes was surrendered without a fight but the village of Shatoy was fought for and defended by the men of Ruslan Gelayev . Eventually,
15136-446: The city within 48 hours, or else it would be leveled in a massive aerial and artillery bombardment. He stated that federal forces would use strategic bombers (not used in Chechnya up to this point) and ballistic missiles . This announcement was followed by chaotic scenes of panic as civilians tried to flee before the army carried out its threat, with parts of the city ablaze and falling shells scattering refugee columns. The bombardment
15312-536: The city. When the Russians besieged the Chechen capital, thousands of civilians died from a week-long series of air raids and artillery bombardments in the heaviest bombing campaign in Europe since the destruction of Dresden . The initial assault on New Year's Eve 1994 ended in a big Russian defeat, resulting in many casualties and at first a nearly complete breakdown of morale in the Russian forces. The fighting claimed
15488-480: The coalition of the opposition factions based in north Chechnya launched a large-scale armed campaign to remove Dudayev's government. However, the issue of contention was not independence from Russia: even the opposition stated there was no alternative to an international boundary separating Chechnya from Russia. In 1992, Russian newspaper Moscow News noted that, just like most of the other seceding republics, other than Tatarstan , ethnic Chechens universally supported
15664-480: The conflict as a war but instead a 'disarmament of illegal gangs' or a 'restoration of the constitutional order'. Beginning on 1 December, Russian forces openly carried out heavy aerial bombardments of Chechnya. On 11 December 1994, five days after Dudayev and Russian Minister of Defense Gen. Pavel Grachev of Russia had agreed to "avoid the further use of force", Russian forces entered the republic in order to "establish constitutional order in Chechnya and to preserve
15840-543: The control of the Russian central government in 2000. An insurgency followed soon thereafter, officially ending in April 2009 after several years of conflict. Since 2000, the Ichkerian government has continued its activities in exile . In October 2022, the Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada voted to recognize the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as "temporarily occupied" by Russia. The name Ичкерия (Ičkérija) comes from
16016-478: The country. Parliamentary and presidential elections took place in January 1997 in Chechnya and brought to power Aslan Maskhadov . The elections were deemed free and fair, but no government recognized Chechnya's independence, except for the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan . According to a 1997 Moscow Times article, ethnic Russian refugees were prevented from returning to vote by threats and intimidation, and Chechen authorities refused to set up polling booths outside
16192-476: The country. In May 1994, Labazanov changed sides, establishing the anti-Dudayev Niyso Movement. In July 1994, 41 passengers aboard a bus near Mineralniye Vody were held by kidnappers demanding $ 15 million and helicopters. After this incident, the Russian government started to openly support opposition forces in Chechnya. In August 1994, Umar Avturkhanov, leader of the pro-Russian Provisional Council, launched an attack against pro-Dudayev forces. Dudayev ordered
16368-492: The creation of the " Separate Special Purpose Battalion of the Chechen Republic's Armed Forces" was announced by Zakayev; this unit officially styled itself as the continuation of Armed Forces of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. A fourth separatist unit, called "Khamzat Gelayev Joint Task Detachment" was also founded. As the Russo-Ukrainian War continued to escalate, the pro-Ukrainian Chechen separatists increasingly framed
16544-480: The date of succession or international organizations . In an attempt to codify the rules of succession of states, the 1978 Vienna Convention entered into force on November 6, 1996. In their application to the acquisition of independence, distinctions should be drawn between different cases though the line of demarcation is not always clear: There are several recent examples where a succession of states, as described above, has not been entirely adhered to. This
16720-509: The developing trust between Gen. Romanov and the ChRI Chief of Staff Aslan Maskhadov , a former colonel in the Soviet Army ; in August, the two went to southern Chechnya to try to convince the local commanders to release Russian prisoners. In February 1996, federal and pro-Russian Chechen forces in Grozny opened fire on a massive pro-independence peace march of tens of thousands of people, killing
16896-426: The establishment of an independent Chechen state and, in 1995, during the heat of the First Chechen War, Khalid Delmayev, a Dudayev opponent belonging to an Ichkerian liberal coalition, stated that "Chechnya's statehood may be postponed... but cannot be avoided". Moscow covertly supplied opposition forces with finances, military equipment and mercenaries . Russia also suspended all civilian flights to Grozny while
17072-557: The eve of the First Chechen War, they included 23 air defense guns, 108 APC/tanks, 24 artillery pieces, 5 MiG-17 / 15 , 2 Mi-8 helicopters, 24 multiple rocket launchers, 17 surface-to-air missile launchers, 94 L-29 trainer aircraft, 52 L-39 trainer aircraft, 6 An-22 transport aircraft, 5 Tu-134 transport aircraft. Since the Declaration of Independence in 1991, there has been an ongoing battle between secessionist officials and federally appointed officials. Both claim authority over
17248-457: The federal army in ethnic or regional conflicts within Russia. Tatarstan president Mintimer Shaimiev vocally opposed the war and appealed to Yeltsin to stop it and return conscripts, warning the conflict was at risk of expanding across the Caucasus. Some regional and local legislative bodies called for the prohibition on the use of draftees in quelling internal conflicts, while others demanded
17424-399: The federal government. Opposition to the conscription of men from minority ethnic groups to fight in Chechnya was widespread among other republics, many of which passed laws and decrees on the subject. For example, the government of Chuvashia passed a decree providing legal protection to soldiers from the republic who refused to participate in the Chechen war and imposed limits on the use of
17600-649: The federation was less than half of the population and territory of the former federation. In 1992 the Security Council on 19 September ( Resolution 777 ) and the General Assembly on 22 September, decided to refuse to allow the new federation to sit in the General Assembly under the name of "Yugoslavia" on the theory that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia had dissolved. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later renamed Serbia and Montenegro )
17776-451: The first Chechen war, Russian forces have been accused by Human Rights organizations of starting a brutal war with total disregard for humanitarian law , causing tens of thousands of unnecessary civilian casualties among the Chechen population. The main strategy in the Russian war effort had been to use heavy artillery and air strikes leading to numerous indiscriminate attacks on civilians. This has led to Western and Chechen sources calling
17952-472: The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia – today North Macedonia — and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia – today Serbia and Montenegro ) signed the Agreement on Succession Issues which conclusively confirmed that five sovereign equal successor states were formed upon the dissolution of the former SFR Yugoslavia. It entered into force on 2 June 2004, when the last successor state ratified it. The agreement
18128-598: The foundations of the state". In 1998, four western engineers working for Granger Telecom were abducted and beheaded after a failed rescue attempt. Gennady Shpigun , the Interior Ministry liaison to Chechen officials, was kidnapped in March 1999 as he was leaving Grozny Airport; his remains were found in Chechnya in March 2000. President Maskhadov started a major campaign against hostage-takers, and on 25 October 1998, Shadid Bargishev, Chechnya's top anti-kidnapping official,
18304-430: The front of the vehicle. The bones were white; someone must have boiled the skull to remove the flesh. Chechen forces have admitted to the execution of captured Russian pilots throughout the First Chechen War, and of at least eight Russian detainees. In probably the most notorious violation of humanitarian law committed by Chechen Forces, a Chechen unit led by Shamil Basayev captured a hospital and held it as hostage in
18480-565: The front of the vehicle. The bones were white; someone must have boiled the skull to remove the flesh. Major Vyacheslav Izmailov is said to have rescued at least 174 people from captivity on both sides in the war, was later involved in the tracing of missing persons after the war and in 2021 won the hero's prize at the Stalker Human Rights Film Festival in Moscow. The declaration by Chechnya's Chief Mufti Akhmad Kadyrov that
18656-399: The government proved unable or unwilling to curb criminal activities. Dudayev's government created the constitution of the Chechen Republic, which was introduced in March 1992. In the same month, armed clashes occurred between pro and anti-Dudayev factions, leading Dudayev to declare a state of emergency. Chechnya and Ingushetia separated on 4 June 1992. Relationship between Dudayev and
18832-606: The initiative of Dzhokhar Dudayev, a part of the delegates of the First Chechen National Congress gathered in Grozny, which proclaimed itself the All-National Congress of the Chechen People (OKChN). Following this, was proclaimed the Chechen Republic (Nokhchi-cho). A month later, the self-proclaimed republic was declared an independent state. The Soviet coup d'état attempt on 19 August 1991 became
19008-399: The key districts within hours in an operation prepared and led by Aslan Maskhadov (who named it Operation Zero) and Shamil Basayev (who called it Operation Jihad). The fighters then laid siege to the Russian posts and bases and the government compound in the city centre, while a number of Chechens deemed to be Russian collaborators were rounded up, detained and, in some cases, executed. At
19184-531: The lives of an estimated 1,000 to 2,000 Russian soldiers, mostly barely trained conscripts; the worst losses were inflicted on the 131st 'Maikop' Motor Rifle Brigade , which was destroyed in the fighting near the central railway station. Despite the early Chechen defeat of the New Year's assault and the many further casualties that the Russians had suffered, Grozny was eventually conquered by Russian forces after an urban warfare campaign. After armored assaults failed,
19360-504: The lowland areas and then into the mountains. In what was dubbed the worst massacre in the war, the OMON and other federal forces killed up to 300 civilians while seizing the border village of Samashki on 7 April (several hundred more were detained and beaten or otherwise tortured). In the southern mountains, the Russians launched an offensive along all the front on 15 April, advancing in large columns of 200–300 vehicles. The ChRI forces defended
19536-680: The mainland. At the start of the Cold War the PRC was recognized by few states; the ROC continued to represent "China" in the United Nations and hold the permanent seat on the UN Security Council . In 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC in the UN through General Assembly Resolution 2758 ; this followed a trend of greater recognition for the PRC at the expense of the ROC. Although the resolution makes no mention of Taiwan ,
19712-578: The militants as well as within the Chechen diaspora. From 2007 until 2017, the remaining insurgency in the North Caucasus was mainly waged by Islamist factions, most importantly the Caucasus Emirate. In course of several years; however, the Caucasus Emirate gradually declined and had mostly ceased to exist by 2015. Other Chechen groups continued to operate in Ukraine where they fought against Russia in
19888-440: The mobilization of the Chechen military, threatening a jihad against Russia as a response to Russian support for his political opponents. In November 1994, Avturkhanov's forces attempted to storm the city of Grozny , but they were defeated by Dudayev's forces. Dudayev declared his intention to turn Chechnya into an Islamic state, stating that the recognition of sharia was a way to fight Russian aggression. He also vowed to punish
20064-492: The new Chechen government. Following the intense Battle of Grozny in 1994–1995 , which concluded with a victory for the Russian federal forces, Russia's subsequent efforts to establish control over the remaining lowlands and mountainous regions of Chechnya were met with fierce resistance and frequent surprise raids by Chechen guerrillas. The recapture of Grozny in 1996 played a part in the Khasavyurt Accord (ceasefire), and
20240-530: The nine member countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States . All Soviet embassies became Russian embassies. Ukraine , the successor state of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (legally ) being one of the founding members of the Soviet Union, has not recognized the exclusive Russian claims to succession of the Soviet Union and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which
20416-467: The number of Russian dead at close to 1,000. Thousands of troops were either taken prisoner or surrounded and largely disarmed, their heavy weapons and ammunition commandeered by Chechen fighters. On 19 August, despite the presence of 50,000 to 200,000 Chechen civilians and thousands of federal servicemen in Grozny, the Russian commander Konstantin Pulikovsky gave an ultimatum for Chechen fighters to leave
20592-669: The old State and will not, of course, have membership in the United Nations. In International Law, the situation is analogous to the separation of the Irish Free State from Britain, and Belgium from the Netherlands. In these cases the portion which separated was considered a new State, and the remaining portion continued as an existing State with all the rights and duties which it had before. The Soviet Union (USSR) dissolved in 1991 , which together with its Ukrainian SSR and Byelorussian SSR as separate United Nations members , co-founded
20768-532: The opposition led by Movladi Udugov , in February 1999, Maskhadov declared The Islamic Republic of Ichkeria, and the Sharia system of justice was introduced. Maskhadov hoped that this would discredit the opposition, putting stability before his own ideological affinities. However, according to former Foreign Minister Ilyas Akhmadov , the public primarily supported Maskhadov, his Independence Party, and their secularism. This
20944-430: The opposition organized a Provisional Council as a potential alternative government for Chechnya, calling on Moscow for assistance. On 14 January 1994, by Dudayev's decree, the Chechen Republic (Nokhchi-cho) was renamed the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. The general feeling of lawlessness in Chechnya increased during the first seven months in 1994, when four hijacking accidents occurred, involving people trying to flee
21120-495: The parliament and convened an Islamic State Council. At the same time several prominent former warlords established the Mehk-Shura, a rival Islamic government. The Shura advocated the creation of an Islamic confederation in the North Caucasus, including the Chechen, Dagestani and Ingush peoples. On 9 August 1999, Islamist fighters from Chechnya infiltrated Russia's Dagestan region, declaring it an independent state and calling for
21296-471: The parliament deteriorated, and in June 1992 he dissolved the parliament, establishing direct presidential rule. In late October 1992, federal forces were dispatched to end the Ossetian-Ingush conflict . As Russian troops sealed the border between Chechnya and Ingushetia to prevent arms shipments, Dudayev threatened to take action unless the Russians withdrew. Russian and Chechen forces mutually agreed to
21472-422: The powers that were reserved for local and federal government. The only federal subjects that did not sign the treaty were Chechnya and Tatarstan . Eventually, in early 1994, Yeltsin signed a special political accord with Mintimer Shaeymiev , the president of Tatarstan, granting many of its demands for greater autonomy for the republic within Russia. Thus, Chechnya remained the only federal subject that did not sign
21648-511: The republic. Chechen resistance against Russian imperialism has its origins from 1785 during the time of Sheikh Mansur , the first imam (leader) of the Caucasian peoples . He united various North-Caucasian nations under his command to resist Russian invasions and expansion. Following long local resistance during the 1817–1864 Caucasian War , Imperial Russian forces defeated the Chechens and annexed their lands and deported thousands to
21824-527: The republic. Maskhadov sought to maintain Chechen sovereignty while pressing Moscow to help rebuild the republic, whose formal economy and infrastructure were virtually destroyed in Russia's war against Chechen independence from Moscow. In May 1997, the Russia–Chechen Peace Treaty was signed by Maskhadov and Yeltsin. Russia continued to transfer funds for schools and hospitals in Chechnya and paid pensions to its residents. Some of this money
22000-414: The rival factions within Chechnya as well as the rise of radical jihadists convinced several former separatist leaders and their militias to switch sides. Aided by these defectors, the Russians took the minor cities and countryside around Grozny in the period from October to December 1999, encircling Grozny. After a hard-fought battle , Grozny fell in February 2000; much of the city was destroyed. Some of
22176-526: The river Iskark in South-Eastern Chechnya. The term was mentioned first as "Iskeria" in a Russian document by Colonel Pollo from 1836. In November 1990, Dzhokhar Dudayev was elected head of the Executive Committee of the unofficial opposition Chechen National Congress (NCChP), which advocated sovereignty for Chechnya as a separate republic within the Soviet Union . On 8 June 1991, at
22352-401: The roads leading to the city, Russian troops eventually gave up on trying to reach the trapped soldiers in the city. Chechen fighters subsequently withdrew from the city on orders from the high command. In the same month in March, Chechen fighters and Russian federal troops clashed near the village of Samashki . The losses on the Russian side amounted to 28 killed and 116 wounded. On April 16,
22528-467: The ruins of the Chechen presidential palace , which had been fought over for more than three weeks as the Chechens abandoned their positions in the ruins of the downtown area. The battle for the southern part of the city continued until the official end on 6 March 1995. By the estimates of Yeltsin's human rights adviser Sergei Kovalev , about 27,000 civilians died in the first five weeks of fighting. The Russian historian and general Dmitri Volkogonov said
22704-490: The same territory. In late 2007, the President of Ichkeria , Dokka Umarov , declared that he had renamed the republic to Noxçiyc̈ó and converted it into a province of the much larger Caucasus Emirate , with himself as Emir . This change was rejected by some members of the former Chechen government-in-exile. The Chechen Republic of Ichkeria was officially a secular state, with its constitution stating, "The Chechen Republic
22880-524: The same time, Russian troops in the cities of Argun and Gudermes were also surrounded in their garrisons. Several attempts by the armored columns to rescue the units trapped in Grozny were repelled with heavy Russian casualties (the 276th Motorized Regiment of 900 men suffered 50% casualties in a two-day attempt to reach the city centre). Russian military officials said that more than 200 soldiers had been killed and nearly 800 wounded in five days of fighting, and that an unknown number were missing; Chechens put
23056-440: The same year according to official accounts. There were several public executions of criminals. After the First Chechen War, the country won de facto independence from Russia, and Islamic courts were established. In September 1996, a Sharia-based criminal code was adopted, which included provisions for banning alcohol and punishing adultery with death by stoning . Sharia was supposed to apply to Muslims only, but in fact, it
23232-433: The second war. Succession of states#Soviet Union A state succession can be characterized as either being universal or partial . A universal state succession occurs when one state is completely extinguished and its sovereignty is replaced by that of one or more successor states. A partial state succession occurs when the state continues to exist after it has lost control of a part of its territory. An example of
23408-524: The security of the oil pipeline running across Chechnya from the Caspian Sea , and illegal oil tapping and acts of sabotage deprived his regime of crucial revenues and agitated his allies in Moscow . In 1998 and 1999, Maskhadov survived several assassination attempts, which he blamed on foreign intelligence services. Russian sources maintain that the attacks were likely to originate from within Chechnya, despite
23584-545: The signing of the 1997 Russia–Chechnya Peace Treaty . The official Russian estimate of Russian military deaths was 6,000, but according to other estimates, the number of Russian military deaths was as high as 14,000. According to various estimates, the number of Chechen military deaths was approximately 3,000–10,000, the number of Chechen civilian deaths was between 30,000 and 100,000. Over 200,000 Chechen civilians may have been injured, more than 500,000 people were displaced , and cities and villages were reduced to rubble across
23760-430: The situation is one in which part of an existing State breaks off and becomes a new State. On this analysis there is no change in the international status of India; it continues as a State with all treaty rights and obligations, and consequently with all rights and obligations of membership in the United Nations. The territory which breaks off—Pakistan—will be a new State. It will not have the treaty rights and obligations of
23936-571: The spark for the so-called Chechen Revolution . On 21 August, the OKChN called for the overthrow of the Supreme Soviet of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR. On 6 September 1991, OKChN squads seized the local KGB headquarters, and took over the building of the Supreme Soviet. Following the revolution , the OKChN declared itself the only legitimate authority in the region. On 27 October 1991, Dudayev
24112-400: The territorial integrity of Russia." Grachev boasted he could topple Dudayev in a couple of hours with a single airborne regiment, and proclaimed that it will be "a bloodless blitzkrieg , that would not last any longer than 20 December." On 11 December 1994, Russian forces launched a three-pronged ground attack towards Grozny . The main attack was temporarily halted by the deputy commander of
24288-420: The territory of the Irish Free State as remaining in force. Israel took the view that, by virtue of its declaration of independence in 1948 , a new international personality from Mandatory Palestine was created, and that it started with a clean slate, and was bound only by such of the former international obligations affecting the territory as Israel might accept. When Democratic Kampuchea led by Pol Pot
24464-729: The three-year independence of the chaotic fledgling state, but victims were rarely killed. In a Los Angeles Times interview with a Russian woman, she states that kidnappers would at times mutilate their captives and send video recordings to their families, to encourage the payment of ransoms. According to her, there was a slave market in Minutka Square, downtown Grozny . Some of the kidnapped were supposedly sold into indentured servitude to Chechen families. They were openly called slaves and had to endure starvation, beating, and often maiming according to Russian sources. In 1998, 176 people had been kidnapped, and 90 of them had been released during
24640-617: The time was signed by only six states, including SRF Yugoslavia). This proposal was unacceptable to the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which therefore motivated the International Monetary Fund to develop an alternative key model which considered the economic power of republics and their contribution to the federal budget, which was accepted by all. The key determined participation of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia with 36.52%, Croatia with 28.49%, Slovenia 16.39%, Bosnia and Herzegovina with 13.20% and Macedonia with 5.20%. An agreement
24816-632: The town of Budennovsk in the Stavropol region and barricaded themselves in the town's hospital. The hostage-takers were allegedly shot to death in the hospital by four civilian men. In this incident, over 100 hostages were reportedly killed when Federal forces attempted to take over the hospital. Kidnappings , robberies, and killings of fellow Chechens and outsiders weakened the possibilities of outside investment and Maskhadov's efforts to gain international recognition of its independence effort. Kidnappings became common in Chechnya, procuring over $ 200 million during
24992-437: The treaty. Neither Yeltsin nor the Chechen government attempted any serious negotiations and the situation deteriorated into a full-scale conflict. Meanwhile, on 6 September 1991, militants of the All-National Congress of the Chechen People (NCChP) party, created by the former Soviet Air Force general Dzhokhar Dudayev , stormed a session of the Supreme Soviet of the Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic , with
25168-420: The vendetta system which protected the Chechens to a certain extent. From 1991 to 1994, tens of thousands of people of non-Chechen ethnicity left the republic . During the undeclared Chechen civil war , factions both sympathetic and opposed to Dzhokhar Dudayev fought for power, sometimes in pitched battles with the use of heavy weapons. In March 1993, the opposition attempted a coup d'état , but their attempt
25344-491: The view that when a new state comes into being after formerly being part of an older state, its acceptance of treaty relationships established by the older state is a matter for the new state to determine by express declaration, or by conduct in the case of each individual treaty. In practice, however, the Irish regarded the commercial and administrative treaties of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland previously applying to
25520-578: The war as a chance to restore the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. On October 15 2022, the Armed Forces of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria was officially resurrected in Ukraine by the Government of Ichkeria in exile. On 18 October 2022, Ukraine's parliament recognized the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as a temporarily occupied state. At this point, Islamist separatists belonging to Ajnad al-Kavkaz had also moved to Ukraine to fight Russia there. In November,
25696-457: The war continued, the Chechens resorted to mass hostage -takings, attempting to influence the Russian public and leadership. In June 1995, a group led by the maverick field commander Shamil Basayev took more than 1,500 people hostage in southern Russia in the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis ; about 120 Russian civilians died before a ceasefire was signed after negotiations between Basayev and
25872-660: The withdrawal of both sides' forces from Grozny, the creation of joint headquarters to preclude looting in the city, the withdrawal of all federal forces from Chechnya by 31 December 1996, and a stipulation that any agreement on the relations between the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and the Russian federal government need not be signed until late 2001. Human rights organizations accused Russian forces of engaging in indiscriminate and disproportionate use of force whenever they encountered resistance, resulting in numerous civilian deaths. (According to Human Rights Watch , Russian artillery and rocket attacks killed at least 267 civilians during
26048-420: Was elected president of the Chechen Republic. Dudayev, in his new position as president, issued a unilateral declaration of independence on 1 November 1991. Initially, his stated objective was for Checheno-Ingushetia to become a union republic within Russia. Dudayev released 640 inmates from a prison in Grozny, many of whom became his personal body guards. Among the prisoners was Ruslan Labazanov , who
26224-670: Was a high priority. There was an urgent need for a law to clearly define the powers of each federal subject. Such a law was passed on 31 March 1992, when Yeltsin and Ruslan Khasbulatov , then chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet and an ethnic Chechen himself, signed the Federation Treaty bilaterally with 86 out of 88 federal subjects. In almost all cases, demands for greater autonomy or independence were satisfied by concessions of regional autonomy and tax privileges. The treaty outlined three basic types of federal subjects and
26400-535: Was a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization . Former president of Georgia , Zviad Gamsakhurdia , deposed in a military coup of 1991 and a leading participant in the Georgian Civil War , recognized the independence of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria in 1993. Diplomatic relations with Ichkeria were also established by the partially recognized Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan under
26576-400: Was a war of independence, or a civil war that led to a regime change. The question of state succession is relevant to the issue of Armenian genocide reparations . After Pakistan was created in 1947 , it claimed that it was automatically a member of the United Nations . The United Nations Secretariat , however, expressed the following opinion: From the viewpoint of International Law,
26752-501: Was admitted as a new member to the United Nations on 1 November 2000; in May 2006, Montenegro declared independence and Serbia continued to hold the federation's seat. Additionally, Kosovo declared independence in February 2008 . The first negotiations on succession issues of the former Socialist Yugoslavia began in 1992 within the framework of the Working Group on Succession Issues of
26928-652: Was also applied to ethnic Russians who violated Sharia provisions. In one of the first rulings under Sharia law, in January 1997 an Islamic court ordered the payment of blood money to the family of a man who was killed in a traffic accident. In November 1997, the Islamic dress code was imposed on all female students and civil servants in the country. In December 1997, the Supreme Sharia Court banned New Year celebrations , considering them "an act of apostasy and falsity". Conceding to an armed and vocal minority movement in
27104-594: Was also reached on gold and other reserves at the Bank for International Settlements , but the final conclusion was postponed by the beginning of the Kosovo War . After the end of the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia followed next year by the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević , the successor states concluded their agreement. In 2001, with the support of the international community, five countries ( Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina ,
27280-658: Was completely abolished after the German reunification . Modern Germany is a continuation of the Federal Republic of Germany and not a successor state. Consequent upon the acquisition of international legal personality , the difficult matter of succession to treaty rights and obligations arises. Succession may refer to the transfer of rights, obligations, or property from a previously well-established predecessor state to its successor state, and can include overseas assets such as diplomatic missions , foreign-exchange reserves , and museum artifacts; and participation in treaties in force at
27456-415: Was crushed by force. A month later, Dudayev introduced direct presidential rule, and in June 1993 dissolved the Chechen parliament to avoid a referendum on a vote of non-confidence . In late October 1992, Russian forces dispatched to the zone of the Ossetian-Ingush conflict were ordered to move to the Chechen border; Dudayev, who perceived this as "an act of aggression against the Chechen Republic", declared
27632-453: Was exemplified by the much greater numbers in political rallies supporting the government than those supporting the Islamist opposition. Akhmadov notes that the parliament, which was dominated by Maskhadov's own Independence Party, issued a public statement that President Maskhadov did not have the constitutional authority to proclaim sharia law, and also condemning the opposition for "undermining
27808-406: Was however soon halted by the ceasefire brokered by General Alexander Lebed , Yeltsin 's national security adviser, on 22 August. Gen. Lebed called the ultimatum, issued by General Pulikovsky (replaced by then), a "bad joke". During eight hours of subsequent talks, Lebed and Maskhadov drafted and signed the Khasavyurt Accord on 31 August 1996. It included: technical aspects of demilitarization ,
27984-592: Was identical to Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and that the Provisional Government succeeded the Korean Empire . An important tenet of the modern state of Republic of Korea is that the Korean Empire's incorporation into the Empire of Japan from 1910 to 1945 is internationally recognized as an illegal occupation. South Korea resumed membership to international organizations such as
28160-512: Was killed in a remote controlled car bombing. Bargishev's colleagues then insisted they would not be intimidated by the attack and would go ahead with their offensive. Other anti-kidnapping officials blamed the attack on Bargishev's recent success in securing the release of several hostages, including 24 Russian soldiers and an English couple. Maskhadov blamed the rash of abductions in Chechnya on unidentified "outside forces" and their Chechen henchmen, allegedly those who joined Pro-Moscow forces during
28336-602: Was militarily displaced by the Vietnamese -backed People's Republic of Kampuchea , the country's United Nations seat was held by Democratic Kampuchea for many years. It is now held by the Kingdom of Cambodia . When the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was formed in 1919, it claimed continuity directly from Korea's pre-1910 status. When the modern Republic of Korea was formed in 1948, it claimed that it
28512-462: Was not democratically elected by either Russian or Chechen constituents. The separatists continued to fight, but were gradually whittled down. On 31 October 2007, the separatist news agency Chechenpress reported that Dokka Umarov had announced the Caucasus Emirate and declared himself its Emir . He integrated the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as Vilayat Nokhchicho . This change of status
28688-455: Was notorious for hiding casualties. Let me tell you about one specific case. I knew for sure that on this day – it was the end of February or the beginning of March 1995 – forty servicemen of the Joint Group were killed. And they bring me information about fifteen. I ask: "Why don't you take into account the rest?" They hesitated: "Well, you see, 40 is a lot. We'd better spread those losses over
28864-415: Was one of the heaviest burdens on Yeltsin's 1996 presidential election campaign . The protracted war in Chechnya, especially many reports of extreme violence against civilians, ignited fear and contempt of Russia among other ethnic groups in the federation. One of the most notable war crimes committed by the Russian army is the Samashki massacre , in which it is estimated that up to 300 civilians died during
29040-454: Was particularly noteworthy; they also exploited a combination of mines and ambushes . On 6 October 1995, Gen. Anatoliy Romanov , the federal commander in Chechnya at the time, was critically injured and paralyzed in a bomb blast in Grozny . Suspicion of responsibility for the attack fell on rogue elements of the Russian military, as the attack destroyed hopes for a permanent ceasefire based on
29216-520: Was politically divided during several sustained periods historically, with two or more states simultaneously existing on territories associated with "China" and claiming to represent "China". Examples include the Three Kingdoms , Sixteen Kingdoms , Northern and Southern dynasties , Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, Warlord Era and the Chinese Soviet Republic among others. Just as
29392-410: Was raped in front of her father. I heard of one case in which the mercenary grabbed a newborn baby, threw it among each other like a ball, then shot it dead in the air. Leaving the village for the hospital in Grozny, I passed a Russian armored personnel carrier with the word SAMASHKI written on its side in bold, black letters. I looked in my rearview mirror and to my horror saw a human skull mounted on
29568-410: Was raped in front of her father. I heard of one case in which the mercenary grabbed a newborn baby, threw it among each other like a ball, then shot it dead in the air. Leaving the village for the hospital in Grozny, I passed a Russian armored personnel carrier with the word SAMASHKI written on its side in bold, black letters. I looked in my rearview mirror and to my horror saw a human skull mounted on
29744-473: Was rejected by some Chechen politicians and military leaders who continue to support the existence of the republic. Since November 2007, Akhmed Zakayev was proclaimed to be the Prime Minister of Ichkeria's government-in-exile. However, the influence of Zakayev's government was described as "marginal" by political scientist Mark Galeotti who argued that the Caucasus Emirate proved more influential both among
29920-520: Was serving a sentence for armed robbery and murder, and later headed a pro-Dudayev militia. As crowds of armed separatists gathered in Grozny, Russian President Boris Yeltsin sought to declare a state of emergency in the region, but his efforts were thwarted by the Russian parliament. An early attempt by Russian authorities to confront the pro-independence forces in November 1991 ended after just three days. According to an article originally published by
30096-639: Was stated in Articles 7 and 8 of Law on the Succession of Ukraine issued in 1991. After independence, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against the Russian Federation in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was formerly owned by the Soviet Union. A special case for the Baltic states had existed. An important tenet of the modern states of Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania
30272-438: Was stolen by the Chechen authorities and divided between the warlords. Nearly half a million people (40% of Chechnya's prewar population) have been internally displaced and lived in refugee camps or overcrowded villages. The economy was destroyed. Two Russian brigades were stationed in Chechnya and did not leave. Maskhadov made efforts to rebuild the country and its devastated capital Grozny by trading oil in countries such as
30448-413: Was to be a successor to the Soviet seat on the Security Council among the former Soviet republics, these factors made Russia seem a logical choice. In a letter dated 24 December 1991, the Russian President Boris Yeltsin informed the Secretary-General that the membership of the USSR in the Security Council and all other United Nations organs was being continued by the Russian Federation with the support of
30624-437: Was to be inaugurated for his second term as Russian president and when most of the Russian troops were moved south due to what was planned as their final offensive against remaining mountainous Chechen strongholds, the Chechens subsequently launched another surprise attack on Grozny. Despite Russian troops in and around Grozny numbering approximately 12,000, more than 1,500 Chechen guerrillas (whose numbers soon swelled) overran
30800-527: Was welcomed by Georgia's President Zviad Gamsakhurdia , who was one of the first to congratulate Dudayev with victory and attended his inauguration as president in Grozny . While Chechnya did not receive backing from the international community, it received support and attention from Georgia, which became its only gateway to the outside world that was not controlled by Moscow . Close ties between Gamsakhurdia and Dudayev led to Russian officials, including Alexander Rutskoy , accusing Georgia of "fomenting unrest in
30976-548: Was widely alleged that Russian troops, especially those belonging to the Internal Troops (MVD), committed numerous and in part systematic acts of torture and summary executions on Chechen civilians; they were often linked to zachistka ("cleansing" raids on town districts and villages suspected of harboring boyeviki – militants). Humanitarian and aid groups chronicled persistent patterns of Russian soldiers killing, raping and looting civilians at random, often in disregard of their nationality. Chechen fighters took hostages on
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