Rebel victory
175-421: [REDACTED] FROLINAT (from 1966) [REDACTED] Chad The Chadian Civil War of 1965–1979 ( French : Guerre civile tchadienne de 1965–1979 ) was waged by several rebel factions against two Chadian governments. The initial rebellion erupted in opposition to Chadian President François Tombalbaye , whose regime was marked by authoritarianism , extreme corruption, and favoritism. In 1975 Tombalbaye
350-831: A "new version of colonialism". He later clarified that he did not refer to the Belt and Road Initiative or China with this. According to Mark Langan in 2017, China, Western actors, and other emerging powers pursue their own interests at the expense of African interests. Western actors depict China as a threat to Africa, while depicting European and American involvement in Africa as being virtuous. Russia currently occupies parts of neighboring states . These occupied territories are Transnistria (part of Moldova ); Abkhazia and South Ossetia (part of Georgia ); and five provinces of Ukraine , which it has illegally annexed. Russia has also established effective political domination over Belarus , through
525-674: A "tool" of "Israeli imperialism". In August 1971, parts of the Chadian military launched a coup attempt against Tombalbaye with Libyan support. Government reform ceased, and Tombalbaye severed relations with Libya while inviting anti-Gaddafi Libyans to establish themselves in Chad. Gaddafi retaliated by increasing materiel support to FROLINAT and allowing Siddick to set up a base in Tripoli. In November 1971 disaffected students in Fort-Lamy went on strike. The unrest
700-506: A Russian state-funded private military company (PMC), has provided military support, security and protection for several autocratic regimes in Africa since 2017. In return, Russian and Wagner-linked companies have been given privileged access to those countries' natural resources, such as rights to gold and diamond mines, while the Russian military has been given access to strategic locations such as airbases and ports. This has been described as
875-593: A coordinated offensive in central and eastern Chad, capturing some outposts and defeating isolated detachments. After two weeks, the Franco-Chadian forces initiated their counteroffensive. With enhanced mobility provided by French transport helicopters, they quickly reversed FROLINAT's advances. Despite limited equipment and supplies, the French inflicted devastating losses upon FROLINAT throughout late 1969 and early 1970. The French successfully blunted FROLINAT's advances into
1050-523: A coup. This operation, known as the " Black Prince conspiracy " due to the involvement of Prince Abdallah al-Abid al Senussi , greatly influenced Gaddafi's perception of Chad as potential threat to his rule. Observers suspected that Gaddafi's declared enemy Israel had been involved in the coup attempt; Israeli Mossad agents were still training the Chadian CTS at this point. This contributed to Gaddafi's "obsession" with Chad, and he began to consider Tombalbaye
1225-509: A coup: as a result, Tombalbaye was killed and overthrown by a coup on April 13, 1975. He was succeeded by Félix Malloum as head of the Supreme Military Council (CSM). The new government included many northerners, but southerners retained a majority. Notwithstanding some popular measures, the government could not satisfy the people's demands. The capital saw new student strikes and the trade unions were suspended. In April 1976, there
1400-467: A dangerous specialisation in raw materials, inherent in which is the threat of hunger for all our peoples. We, the "underdeveloped", are also those with the single crop, the single product, the single market. A single product whose uncertain sale depends on a single market imposing and fixing conditions. That is the great formula for imperialist economic domination. Dependency theory is the theoretical description of economic neocolonialism. It proposes that
1575-460: A deal with a Massachusetts-based non-profit in 1999 that gave away rights to the domain name. Management of the domain name has since shifted to a Swedish organisation . The Niue government is currently fighting on two fronts to get back control on its domain name, including with the ICANN . Toke Talagi , the long-serving Premier of Niue who died in 2020, called it a form of neocolonialism. To ensure
1750-412: A developing country instead of the previous colonial methods of direct military control or indirect political control ( hegemony ). Neocolonialism differs from standard globalisation and development aid in that it typically results in a relationship of dependence, subservience, or financial obligation towards the neocolonialist nation. Coined by the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre in 1956, it
1925-707: A drought, factionalism in the government, and civil unrest. The situation came to a head in June when Libyan-backed rebels were arrested while trying to smuggle weapons into the capital. This caused the president to drastically alter his policies. Abandoning national reconciliation, he arrested over 1,000 alleged "enemies of the state", including hundreds of southerners, and dismissed two southern ministers from his cabinet. He also completely reoriented his foreign policy to secure economic assistance from Arab states and marginalize FRONILAT. He severed diplomatic ties with Israel in September and,
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#17328515947932100-541: A failed attempt to nationalise the mining industry in the 1960s, it was reopened to foreign investment. There is an ongoing debate about whether certain actions by the United States should be considered neocolonialism. Nayna J. Jhaveri, writing in Antipode , views the 2003 invasion of Iraq as a form of "petroimperialism", believing that the U.S. was motivated to go to war to attain vital oil reserves, rather than to pursue
2275-426: A few months later, got Libya to offer Chad CFA 23 billion in aid. Tombalbaye also ceded the disputed Aouzou Strip to Libya in return for promises by Gaddafi to stop supporting FROLINAT. Despite helping Tombalbaye in containing the insurgency, the deal with Libya greatly damaged his reputation within the military, which, proud of its success in fighting FROLINAT, sought to assert itself in national politics. Tombalbaye
2450-474: A full rebellion. The Chadian Armed Forces were formed by Chadian veterans of the French colonial military, and continued to receive training and equipment from France. In 1964 the Chadian Army consisted of 500 soldiers trained by 200 Frenchmen. From independence until 1979, the Chadian Army was overwhelmingly dominated by Sara southerners. Few northerners joined, and initially there were only two northerners in
2625-480: A general strike. In late February 1979, Habré ordered about 1,000 men to attack Malloum forces in N'Djamena . Equipped with mortars and machine guns, Habré's forces seized control of most of the city, while French troops occupied the European quarter. Sara people, fearful of losing their favorable political position, reportedly massacred thousands of Muslim civilians. Malloum fled to N'Djamena International Airport , which
2800-446: A major part in prolonged anti-government protests that resulted in over a hundred deaths. This was a source of popular resentment that contributed to the fall of then-President Marc Ravalomanana . The new president, Andry Rajoelina , cancelled the deal. Tanzania later announced that South Korea was in talks to develop 100,000 hectares for food production and processing for 700 to 800 billion won . Scheduled to be completed in 2010, it
2975-525: A massive counter-offensive composed almost entirely of Libyan regular troops. Habré suffered a crushing defeat on August 10, losing thousands of soldiers and falling back 200 km to the south. On November 18, 1986, the GUNT was reconstituted under the direction of Habré and with participation of Goukouni and Kamougué. In 1989, opposition groups to Habré's rule present in Sudan, under the command of Idriss Déby , formed
3150-516: A military assistance agreement and a mutual defence pact. These accords included a secret provision which allowed Chad to request direct French military intervention in the event they were need to ensure the domestic "maintenance of order". Under such circumstances, French military officers would take command of Chadian forces. The French embassy in Fort-Lamy also kept a signed, undated letter from Tombalbaye requesting protection in case his personal safety
3325-468: A military offensive from northern Chad. This offensive witnessed the first appearance of modern Soviet military equipment in the civil war. For the first time, aircraft were threatened by a strong air defense artillery: two aircraft of the Chadian air force were shot down in the Tibesti: a C-47 by a 14.5 mm and a Douglas DC-4 by a SA-7 . President Malloum sought the help of France. The latter implemented
3500-490: A neo-colonial and neo-imperialist kind of state capture , whereby Russia gains sway over countries by helping to keep the ruling regime in power and making them reliant on its protection, while generating economic and political benefits for Russia, without benefitting the local population. Russia has also gained geopolitical influence in Africa through election interference and spreading pro-Russian propaganda and anti-Western disinformation . Russian PMCs have been active in
3675-419: A new army of fanatics which would destroy the rebellion against his rule. Many Chadians sympathised with the armed forces at the time of the coup, having been irked by the president's frequent mocking of their abilities and purges of their ranks. On 15 April Malloum became chairman of the Supreme Military Council; the supreme body responsible for running the country. He became head of state a few months later. As
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#17328515947933850-595: A new government. Goukouni and his followers regrouped in the north and obtained the support of Libya, which caused Habré to reclaim the Aouzou Strip which had been annexed by Libya. On October 28, Goukouni allied eight of the eleven tendencies represented in the GUNT and formed the National Government for Peace in Chad (GNPT) and the Liberation Armed Forces (FAL), both headed by him. The FAL's first goal
4025-699: A permanent solution on government to be decided at a conference in the Nigerian city of Kano . A total of eleven various Chadian factions were represented when the meeting convened in August with an Organization of African Unity (OAU) committee. On 21 August the delegates signed the Lagos Accord , which outlined the establishment of a new Transitional Government of National Unity (known by its French acronym GUNT) to be sworn in in November. Oueddei became president, an office which
4200-575: A reliable, long-term supply of food, the South Korean government and powerful Korean multinationals bought farming rights to millions of hectares of agricultural land in under-developed countries. South Korea's RG Energy Resources Asset Management CEO Park Yong-soo stressed that "the nation does not produce a single drop of crude oil and other key industrial minerals. To power economic growth and support people's livelihoods, we cannot emphasise too much that securing natural resources in foreign countries
4375-601: A representative to the National Assembly and nine other public officials. The riots—together with the revolt in Bardaï—marked the general start of widespread rebellion in Chad; the tax riots are usually considered the beginning of the civil war. Afterwards, spontaneous peasant revolts erupted throughout Guéra. By 1966 these had spread to Wadai Prefecture . Near Lake Fitri , there were open clashes between civilians and government forces. According to unconfirmed French reports,
4550-458: A result, a French mission arrived with ample powers to reform the army and the civil service and to recommend the abolition of unpopular laws and taxes. Also following their recommendations, the judicial powers of traditional Muslim rulers were restored. Another conciliatory move was the liberation in 1971 of many political prisoners and the formation of a more balanced government, including many more northerners than before. The result of these moves
4725-515: A separate campaign against Malloum. In 1976, Gaddafi hinted at his intention of officially annexing the Aouzou Strip, while sending the Libyan military for forays into central Chad to assist allied rebels. By late 1976, most of the northern third of Chad was under combined Libyan-rebel control. During the summer of 1977, FROLINAT rebels under the command of Goukouni Oueddeï and supported by Libya launched
4900-583: A significant role in large-scale unemployment and migration of people across the region. This violates the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , which recognises the importance of fishing to local communities and insists that government fishing agreements with foreign companies should target only surplus stocks. Oxfam 's 2024 report "Inequality, Inc" concludes that multinational corporations located in
5075-464: A southerner with strong kinship ties to the north, Malloum believed that he could reconcile Chad's divided regions and establish representative institutions. He set a high priority on freeing Chad from French economic and political control, but in this effort he was unsuccessful. He sent French combat forces home, but he retained several hundred French advisers and renegotiated a series of military accords to ensure emergency aid. In his position he requested
5250-401: A support operation that halted the rebels in southern Chad at the price of eighteen French military dead and the loss of two SEPECAT Jaguar 5 aircraft. Fearful of Gaddafi's influence in Chad, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat arranged to ship spare parts to Chad to for the repair of its Soviet weapons. On 25 August, 1978 the Supreme Military Council and Habré reached an understanding and signed
5425-537: A third conference held in July at Lagos which proclaimed Goukouni president, Kamougué vice-president and Habré Defence minister. As a result, by September the French troops had left almost completely the country. But the cohesion of the GUNT did not much survive their departure: on March 22, 1980, the Second Battle of N'Djamena exploded among Goukouni and Habré's forces. A few ceasefire were negotiated, but none resisted. In
Chadian Civil War (1965–1979) - Misplaced Pages Continue
5600-460: A threat of a purge in early April moved military officers to take action. On April 13, 1975, several units of N'Djamena's gendarmerie under junior officers mutinied. Senior officers, joined by army commander General Noël Milarew Odingar , mounted an attack on the presidential palace, killing Tombalbaye. French forces in the capital did not intervene. A white paper published afterwards alleged that Tombalbaye intended to declare himself king and recruit
5775-454: A treaty of mutual defence. In virtue of this agreement the forces of Kamougué and Goukouni received tanks, airplanes and other materials, and crushed the forces of Habré who fled to Cameroon while his men in the capital and the east of the country were disarmed. In 1981, the governments of Chad and Libya announced their intention to form a single country. But French increasing support for Goukouni prepared what happened on October 29, 1981, when
5950-813: A type of foreign intervention in countries belonging to the Pan-Africanist movement, as well as the Asian–African Conference of Bandung (1955), which led to the Non-Aligned Movement (1961). Neocolonialism was formally defined by the All-African Peoples' Conference (AAPC) and published in the Resolution on Neo-colonialism . At both the Tunis conference (1960) and the Cairo conference (1961), AAPC described
6125-732: A unique opportunity in Iran's dominance in the Muslim world. Iran is able to use these African communities to circumvent economic sanctions and move arms, man power, and nuclear technology. Iran exerts its influence through humanitarian initiatives, such as those seen in Ghana. Through the building of hospitals, schools, and agricultural projects Iran uses "soft power" to assert its influence in Western Africa. The government of Niue has been trying to get back access to its domain name, .nu . The country signed
6300-735: A violent succession struggle among FROLINAT, with Abba Siddick becoming the new leader after eliminating some of his rivals in October 1969. Baghalani was expelled from the movement by Siddick's allies for supposedly engaging in graft , and went on to lead his own militia near the Sudanese border. Issaka was dismissed from his military role in June 1970 and murdered two years later. However, Siddick's favoritism and leadership style made him unpopular, and other frontline rebel commanders gradually broke away, organizing factions backed by certain regions and ethnicities. The two largest factions gradually transformed into
6475-832: A vision of " Iraq as a colony ". David Vine, author of Base Nation: How U.S. Military Bases Overseas Harm America and the World (2015), said the US had bases in 45 "less-than-democratic" countries and territories. He quotes political scientist Kent Calder : "The United States tends to support dictators [and other undemocratic regimes] in nations where it enjoys basing facilities". The People's Republic of China has built increasingly strong ties with some African, Asian, European and Latin American nations which has led to accusations of colonialism, As of August 2007, an estimated 750,000 Chinese nationals were working or living for extended periods in Africa. In
6650-469: A way as to impoverish the less developed. The essence of neo-colonialism is that the State which is subject to it is, in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside. In 1961, regarding the economic mechanism of neocolonial control, in the speech Cuba: Historical Exception or Vanguard in
6825-545: Is a must for our future survival." The head of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Jacques Diouf , stated that the rise in land deals could create a form of "neocolonialism", with poor states producing food for the rich at the expense of their own hungry people. In 2008, South Korean multinational Daewoo Logistics secured 1.3 million hectares of farmland in Madagascar to grow maize and crops for biofuels . Roughly half of
7000-559: Is a policy that functions on one hand through granting political independence and, when necessary, creating artificial states that have no chance of sovereignty, and on the other hand, through providing 'assistance' accompanied by promises of achieving prosperity, though its bases are in fact outside the African continent." Mehdi Ben Barka , The Revolutionary Option in Morocco (May 1962) Kwame Nkrumah , president of Ghana from 1960 to 1966,
7175-751: Is a term used by the Russian government and Russian nationalists for territories and communities with a historical, cultural, or spiritual tie to Russia. The Kremlin meanwhile refers to the Russian diaspora and Russian-speakers in other countries as "Russian compatriots". In her book Beyond Crimea: The New Russian Empire (2016), Agnia Grigas highlights how ideas like the "Russian world" and "Russian compatriots" have become an "instrument of Russian neo-imperial aims". The Kremlin has sought influence over its "compatriots" by offering them Russian citizenship and passports ( passportization ), and in some cases eventually calling for their military protection. Grigas writes that
Chadian Civil War (1965–1979) - Misplaced Pages Continue
7350-644: Is credited with coining the term, which appeared in the 1963 preamble of the Organisation of African Unity Charter, and was the title of his 1965 book, Neo-Colonialism, The Last Stage of Imperialism . In his book the President of Ghana exposes the workings of International monopoly capitalism in Africa. For him Neo-colonialism, insidious and complex, is even more dangerous than the old colonialism and shows how meaningless political freedom can be without economic independence. Nkrumah theoretically developed and extended to
7525-513: Is often followed by increases in unemployment, poverty and a decline in per-capita income. In the West African nations of Guinea-Bissau, Senegal and Mauritania, fishing was historically central to the economy. Beginning in 1979, the European Union began negotiating contracts with governments for fishing off the coast of West Africa. Unsustainable commercial over-fishing by foreign fleets played
7700-529: Is when researchers from wealthier countries go to a developing country , collect information, travel back to their country, analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with no or little involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research co-author. Frequently, during this kind of research,
7875-449: The Bureau de Coordination et de Synthèse du Renseignement (BCSR). These men were ruthless in regards to their readiness to violently suppress dissidents in Chad, and appreciated by the Chadian government as well as the French government. The heavy French involvement in Chad led to accusations of neocolonialism . While their presence aided Tombalbaye, his relationship with the French government
8050-529: The Aouzou strip . The manifestations of student rioting in November 1971 caused the destitution of the Chadian Chief of Staff , general Jacques Doumro; his position was occupied by colonel Félix Malloum . In 1972, Tombalbaye jailed hundreds of political opponents and to block his enemies initiated a policy of gestures towards Libya and France. Libya reduced its support for Siddick and infighting exploded between
8225-711: The Borkou , and shortly after the Aozou mutiny obtained the support of Goukouni Oueddei , an influential figure among the Teda of the Tibesti and son of the derde of the Toubou, Oueddei Kichidemi . This extended the insurgency to the north and the Toubou nomads, adding a new element of complexity to the rebellion and bringing support to the movement from Chadians living in Libya , and especially students at
8400-612: The Chadian Armed Forces and in the local governments were held by non-Muslim southerners. To cite Sam Nolutschungu , "everyone knew that the regime was corrupt, cruel, arbitrary, and absurd." This discontent already existed in November 1965 after the bloody Mangalmé riots and gave way to a number of loosely-knitted peasant revolts in central and eastern Chad, that rapidly spread from Mangalmé and nearby Batha Prefecture to Ouaddaï and Salamat prefectures , where in February 1967
8575-546: The Defence , the general Negue Djogo vice-president (who represented the south, but had broken with Kamougué). The president was Lol Mahamat Choua , a protégé of Habré recommended by Nigeria. Libya protested against these arrangements because they excluded Ahmat Acyl , who had succeeded Baghlani as commander of the Volcan Army after the death of the latter in a flight accident. As a result, Acyl and other pro-Libyan elements formed
8750-574: The Global North are "perpetuating a colonial style 'extractivist' model" across the Global South as the economies of the latter "are locked into exporting primary commodities, from copper to coffee" to these multinationals. American economist Jeffrey Sachs recommended that the entire African debt (c. US$ 200 billion) be dismissed, and recommended that African nations not repay either the World Bank or
8925-497: The International Monetary Fund (IMF): The time has come to end this charade. The debts are unaffordable. If they won't cancel the debts, I would suggest obstruction; you do it, yourselves. Africa should say: "Thank you very much, but we need this money to meet the needs of children who are dying, right now, so, we will put the debt-servicing payments into urgent social investment in health, education, drinking water,
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#17328515947939100-532: The National and Nomadic Guard , and 120 French soldiers. The president never completely trusted the regular army, and frequently characterised it as poorly motivated, undisciplined, and ill-trained. He used Moroccans as his personal bodyguards, while French, Israeli, and Congolese personnel were used to train new recruits rather than Chadians. The French and Congolese were also responsible for equipping some Chadian formations. On 11 February 1968, FROLINAT leader Abatcha
9275-581: The Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS) and initiated a new phase of the civil war. After conquering Abéché , in December 1990 they entered in the capital. Habré was forced once again to escape, but a few months later attempted from September 1991 to January 1992 a counter-offensive that proved unsuccessful. Finally a national conference attended by all the parties and guerrilla forces took place between January 15 and April 6, 1993, that culminated with
9450-551: The Sahel . FROLINAT and other factions were thus able to establish themselves in Mongo , Guéra Prefecture and in Bousso, Chari-Baguirmi prefecture , both relatively close to the capital. Conflict between security forces and insurgents was brutal. Rebels abducted and murdered village leaders, robbed and mutilated traders, destroyed infrastructure, and attacked communities suspected of sympathising with
9625-558: The Union State . Historian Timothy Snyder defines Russia's war against Ukraine as "a colonial war, in the sense that Russia meant to conquer, dominate, displace and exploit" the country and its people. Russia has been accused of colonialism in Crimea , which it annexed in 2014, by enforced Russification , passportization , and by settling Russian citizens on the peninsula and forcing out Ukrainians and Crimean Tatars . The Wagner Group ,
9800-783: The United Nations the recognition of Chadian sovereignty over the Aozou Strip, and posed the case of the Libyan occupation to the International Court of Justice of The Hague . But the FAL conquered Faya-Largeau on June 25, and with it a third of the country; an attack on the capital appeared imminent, but it never happened, mainly due to France's strong support of Habré. Great amounts of modern military equipment were provided to him by France and other western countries, giving him an opening to retake Faya-Largeau on July 30. Libya reacted by launching
9975-862: The liberal Outel Bono , was on the verge of forming a new political party when he was assassinated in Paris and Tombalbaye was accused of the crime. The president lost support within his party, the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT), causing Tombalbaye to replace it with a new one, the National Movement for the Cultural and Social Revolution (MNRCS), and to start an Africanization campaign. The colonial names of some cities were changed with autochthonous names: Fort-Lamy became N'Djamena , Fort-Archambault became Sarh , among others. He himself changed his name from François to Ngarta. An element of this Africanization
10150-415: The 1972 deal. To improve his position, Malloum instead turned to the rebels. His government proved successful at convincing various traditional leaders and traditionalist opposition groups to lay down their weapons and reconcile with his leadership. Among others, Musa's FLT ended its insurgency. However, Malloum's attempts to end the war with FROLINAT proved less successful, partially due to the divisions among
10325-922: The 1980s and 90s, China continued to purchase natural resources— petroleum and minerals—from Africa to fuel the Chinese economy and to finance international business enterprises. In 2006, trade had increased to $ 50 billion expanding to $ 500 billion by 2016. In Africa, China has loaned $ 95.5 billion to various countries between 2000 and 2015, the majority being spent on power generation and infrastructure. Cases in which this has ended with China acquiring foreign land have led to accusations of " debt-trap diplomacy ". Other analysts say that China's activities "are goodwill for later investment opportunities or an effort to stockpile international support for contentious political issues". In 2018, Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad cancelled two China-funded projects. He also talked about fears of Malaysia becoming "indebted" and of
10500-422: The Anti-colonial Struggle? , Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara said: We, politely referred to as "underdeveloped", in truth, are colonial , semi-colonial or dependent countries. We are countries whose economies have been distorted by imperialism, which has abnormally developed those branches of industry or agriculture needed to complement its complex economy. "Underdevelopment", or distorted development, brings
10675-442: The Armed Forces of the North ( Conseil de Commandement des Forces Armeés du Nord or CCFAN) in February 1972. Only the first army of the FROLINAT, operating in eastern and centre-eastern Chad, remained loyal to Siddick. Another armed faction that emerged was the Volcan Army , built by Muhammad Baghlani , a FROLINAT group with an Islamist tendency. In 1969, Chadian President , François Tombalbaye , appealed to France for help. As
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#173285159479310850-532: The BET to provide air support to Chadian ground forces while transport aircraft conducted parachute drops to resupply the Aouzou garrison. The Chadian Army eventually reached Aouzou and relieved the town without conflict, while the Toubou rebels fled intact into the Tibetsi Mountains. Tombalbaye wanted his forces to remain in the northern town, but the relief column quickly withdrew with the garrison to avoid being attacked in an isolated position. Tombalbaye subsequently tasked Pierre Galopin with opening negotiations with
11025-423: The CCFAN with the design to unite all the northern elements of the FROLINAT under their banner, but now the situation was heavily embroiled by the affair Claustre , which brought France to negotiate directly with the rebels and not sustain Tombalbaye's successor, Malloum, who reacted by asking the 1,500 French troops in Chad to leave the country. In 1976 and 1977, Libya supported active to the FROLINAT. Faya-Largeau
11200-429: The CCFAN, broke away from the main organization with a few hundred followers and assumed his headquarters in the Batha and Biltine prefectures , founding the Armed Forces of the North (FAN). Goukouni, along with the rest of the forces, kept the name CCFAN and gave the hostages to the French in January 1977. In September 1977, Habré started negotiating an alliance with the Malloum and the Military Supreme Council for
11375-471: The Central African Republic , Sudan , Libya , Mali , Burkina Faso , Niger and Mozambique , among other countries. They have been accused of human rights abuses and killing civilians. In 2024, the Wagner Group in Africa was merged into a new 'Africa Corps' under the direct control of Russia's Ministry of Defense. Analysts for the Russian government have privately acknowledged the neo-colonial nature of Russia's policy towards Africa. The " Russian world "
11550-407: The Chadian Army torched villages and killed 250–400 people. Locals stated that soldiers bound alleged tax evaders and beat them to death. Chadian officials, fearing for their safety, rarely left their offices, diminishing administration in rural areas and further reducing tax revenue. Despite the financial problems, Tombalbaye pushed for increased defence expenditures in the 1966 budget. Also in 1966,
11725-426: The Chadian government attempted to mandate the cultivation of food crops in the BET in an attempt to force the local nomads to "sedentarise". The Toubou disliked this treatment, and derde Oueddei asked for a delay in the implementation of the measure. The Chadian authorities attempted to arrest him. In December he and 1,000 of his followers fled to Libya. Oueddei's position as derde had been contested since he assumed
11900-501: The Chadian interior to recruit new members and link FROLINAT with the local revolts. The organisation grew its ranks by taking advantage of anti-government sentiment caused by repression of unrelated rebellions. Abatcha tapped El Hajj Issaka, a deposed customary chief who had organised resistance in Dar Sila , as his top military commander. Mohammed El Baghalani became Abatcha's main representative in Sudan. Both men were much more conservative than Abatcha, and Baghalani preferred to appeal to
12075-443: The Chadian military as well as an extensive program of administrative reform to be supervised by French civil servants. Yvon Bourges formally approached the Chadian president with the offer, the terms of which were not negotiable. Tombalbaye was relieved that he would be receiving assistance but stunned by the scope of the project. He feared that it would be seen as a recolonisation of Chad, while members of his government were irked by
12250-447: The Chadian military, as well as assume direct command over Chadian units when necessary. Several infantry companies were also deployed to reinforce the French military presence and assist Chadian forces. In the 1969 Chadian presidential election Tombalbaye was reelected unopposed. The president created a new system of village militias which the MRA subsequently armed with MAS-36 rifles and hunting rifles. Tensions quickly developed within
12425-410: The Chadian territory. His advance towards the capital seemed unstoppable, and only the intervention of the French army made it possible to block him at Ati , less than 300 miles north of N'Djamena. In 1979, the national unity government was finished. Habré and Malloum confronted each other in the capital and in February Habré was left in control, while Chadian Armed Forces (FAT) retired itself towards
12600-510: The Congo ), Idriss Déby ( Chad ), and Hamani Diori ( Niger ). Belgium's approach to Belgian Congo has been characterized as a quintessential example of neocolonialism, as the Belgians embraced rapid decolonization of the Congo with the expectation that the newly independent state would become dependent on Belgium. This dependence would allow the Belgians to exert control over Congo, even though Congo
12775-680: The Cuban Tricontinental Conference (Organisation of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin America) recognised and supported the validity of revolutionary anti-colonialism as a means for colonised peoples of the Third World to achieve self-determination, a policy which angered the U.S. and France. Moreover, Chairman Barka headed the Commission on Neocolonialism, which dealt with
12950-488: The First Liberation Army and Second Liberation Army for supplies. Over the next years, numerous larger and smaller splinter groups emerged, while Siddick was left with a minor and quasi-powerless faction known as "FROLINAT-Originel" from 1974 on. With the rebels weakened due to internal disagreements and reduced Libyan support, the French launched Operation Languedoc in early 1972 to crush the First Liberation Army in
13125-670: The First Liberation Army included several separatist and Islamist sub-factions which later formed their own groups such as "FROLINAT-Fundamental", "FROLINAT-Orthodoxe", and the Volcan Army . In addition, the Third Liberation Army led by Mohammad Abu Baker Mustafa emerged in Kanem . By early 1969, Chadian administration in the centre and east was collapsing. The loss of tax revenue and increased military spending rendered Tombalbaye's regime close to insolvency. French officials began to fear that
13300-492: The First Liberation Army of Ahmat Acyl , mainly consisting of Chadian Arabs and operating in the east, and the Second Liberation Army which was composed mainly of Toubou, campaigned in the west and north, and was headed by Goukouni Oueddei and Hissène Habré . The Second Liberation Army was completely autonomous, while the First Liberation Army initially maintained at least a tenuous loyalty to Siddick's command. However,
13475-507: The French intervention force and between French and Chadian officials. Arnaud received competing directives from the French Cooperation and Defence ministries, complicating his mission. He also wanted to deploy French forces in search-and-destroy operations, though this became difficult as FROLINAT tried to avoid direct confrontations. Some of his subordinates argued that French forces should instead garrison much of rural Chad to intimidate
13650-506: The French military has denied that it was ever employed. The intervention officially terminated in June 1971. By then combined Chadian and French military actions had killed between 2,000 and 10,000 people, including civilians, and destroyed many palm groves in the north. About 1,200 French military personnel remained afterwards to provide training to the approximately 2,700 members of the Chadian Army. Between May 1969 and August 1972, 50 French soldiers were killed fighting rebels. Though most of
13825-518: The Front for Joint Provisional Action ( Front d'Action Commune Provisoire or FACP) to oppose the new government (it was renamed a month later Revolutionary Democratic Council ). Weeks later, to settle these dissensions, another peace conference was celebrated May in the Nigerian city of Lagos . In summer, yet a new government was formed, the Transitional Government of National Unity (GUNT), after
14000-480: The Fundamental Charter. The accord formally dissolved the council and replaced it with a provisional national unity government that was to run Chad until it could organise elections for a constituent assembly . Accordingly, Malloum appointed Habré as prime minister on 29 August, and he subsequently formed a government. Tensions between Malloum and Habré climaxed in early February 1979 when the latter called for
14175-416: The GUNT's president asked Libyan troops to leave the country. A multi-national contingent of African peace-keepers was to be sent, but only small Nigerian, Senegalese and Zairian forces arrived. Libya's president, Qaddafi, accepted to retire Libyan soldiers in exchange for being chosen for the presidency of the Organisation of African Unity (OUA), and a year was fixed for completing the withdrawal of all
14350-473: The Islamic University of Bayda . On February 11, 1968, Abatcha was killed in combat and a battle for succession ensued, in which two candidates were assassinated and a third was forced to escape to Sudan. In the end, Abba Sidick emerged victorious. A moderate left-wing intellectual and a former minister under François Tombalbaye , he became the new 1970 secretary-general of FROLINAT, and established
14525-510: The Kremlin uses the existence of these "compatriots" to "gain influence over and challenge the sovereignty of foreign states and at times even take over territories". The Iranian government has been called an example of neocolonialism. The motivation for Iran is not economic, but religious. After its establishment in 1979, Iran sought to export Shia Islam globally and position itself as a force in world political structures. Africa's Muslims present
14700-498: The Libyans from Chad. Meanwhile, Habré was reorganizing his forces in the east with Sudanese help, and had begun campaigning, taking several cities. He controlled part of the prefectures of Ouaddaï and Biltine. In December, the FAN, convinced that they could not seize Libyan materials, passed west and seized Oum Hadjer , Ati and Faya-Largeau. The OUA demanded in February 1982, but its request
14875-518: The PPT with the National Movement for the Cultural and Social Revolution (known by its French acronym as MNRCS). He then engaged in a program of Authenticité to gain the support of Chad's urban elite, Africanising the names of people and places in the country. Fort-Lamy became known as N'Djamena. To regain the support of Sara conservatives in the south, he required all non-Muslim southern civil servants, ministers, and high ranking military officers to go through
15050-430: The Toubou insurgents. With Aouzou and the surrounding area abandoned by the Chadian Army, Libyan forces began paying "unofficial visits" in the area, distributing gifts and Libyan passports to the populace. Though Aouzou had been relieved, rebel groups took advantage of Chad's rainy season to grow their strength. From roughly April to October, the rain prevented government vehicles from transporting security forces across
15225-830: The U.S. government's official rationale for the Iraq War . Noam Chomsky has been a prominent critic of " American imperialism "; he believes that the basic principle of the foreign policy of the United States is the establishment of "open societies" that are economically and politically controlled by the United States and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper. He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power. He believes that official accounts of U.S. operations abroad have consistently whitewashed U.S. actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in spreading democracy. Examples he regularly cites are
15400-631: The UNT and the FLT. The front was composed exclusively by Muslim northerners, and there was to be no attempt to create a link to the southern expatriates in the Central African Republic . The movement's official program, also approved at the Nyala congress, proclaimed the rejection of secession, confessional politics , and ethnic discrimination , and stated that neocolonialism should be fought in order to "regain
15575-612: The actions of the French Community of independent states, organised by France, as neocolonial. The politician Jacques Foccart , the principal adviser for African matters to French presidents Charles de Gaulle (1958–1969) and Georges Pompidou (1969–1974), was the principal proponent of Françafrique . The works of Verschave and Beti reported a forty-year, post-independence relationship with France's former colonial peoples, which featured colonial garrisons in situ and monopolies by French multinational corporations , usually for
15750-663: The actions of the United States in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East. Chalmers Johnson argued in 2004 that America's version of the colony is the military base. Johnson wrote numerous books, including three examinations of the consequences of what he called the " American Empire ". Chip Pitts argued similarly in 2006 that enduring United States bases in Iraq suggested
15925-502: The advances of FRONILAT in the BET and Wadai , Tombalbaye requested French military support under the terms of the Franco-Chad military agreements. President Charles de Gaulle promptly agreed, and France quickly organised an expeditionary force with the goal "to make possible the reinstallation of Chadian administration in the BET". Neither Tombalbaye nor the French sought to completely suppress
16100-740: The aftermath of Second World War . At the 1962 National Union of Popular Forces conference, Mehdi Ben Barka , the Moroccan political organizer and later chair of the Tricontinental Conference 1966 , used the term al-isti'mar al-jadid ( Arabic : الاستعمار الجديد "the new colonialism") to describe the political trends in Africa in the early sixties. الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية. "Neo-colonialism
16275-417: The careers of local scientists. This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advance colonialism —and critics call for the end of these extractivist practices in order to decolonize knowledge . The representative example of European neocolonialism is Françafrique , the "French Africa" constituted by
16450-880: The civil war. Nigeria held a reconciliation conference at Kano in March 1979. New parties with little or no roots in Chad were formed for this conference, like the Popular Front for the Liberation of Chad (FPLT), headed by Awad Muktar Nasser, a force sustained by Sudan; or the South Front, founded in April 1979, a Muslim group composed of a few dozens of fighters commanded by the Sudanese police sergeant (of Chadian origin) Hadjaro al-Senousi , who boasted to lead an "original FROLINAT", and to have no less than 3,000 men ready in Sudan. Similar to these
16625-562: The conservative Persian Gulf Arab states for materiel support rather than Egypt or other socialist states—to some success. Nevertheless, the diversity of political philosophies in FROLINAT laid the groundwork for future divisions; over time the rebels increasingly split into factions, headed by independent-minded commanders and backed by different ethnic groups. Abatcha's leadership was able to give FROLINAT some cohesiveness. However, Musa's faction broke off again soon after FROLINAT's founding, forming
16800-407: The continued close relationships between France and its former African colonies. In 1955, the initial usage of the term "French Africa", by President Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Ivory Coast , denoted positive social, cultural and economic Franco–African relations. It was later applied by neocolonialism critics to describe an imbalanced international relation. Neocolonialism was used to describe
16975-518: The control of AIDS, and other needs". Wallerstein, and separately Frank, claim that the modern conservation movement , as practiced by international organisations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature , inadvertently developed a neocolonial relationship with underdeveloped nations. Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science , frequently described as helicopter research, parachute science or research, parasitic research, or safari study,
17150-420: The country's arable land, as well as rainforests were to be converted into palm and corn monocultures , producing food for export from a country where a third of the population and 50 percent of children under five are malnourished , using South African workers instead of locals. Local residents were not consulted or informed, despite being dependent on the land for food and income. The controversial deal played
17325-569: The country. He also became increasingly critical of the Chadian Armed Forces' commanders and ordered the arrest of several officers, further worsening his relations with the military. In 1974, Mubi-speaking elements of the eastern rebels agreed to a peace deal with the government. By 1973 Tombalbaye's political strength was beginning to wane. In June he arrested Malloum and numerous PPT officials on charges of "political sorcery" for alleged involvement in animal sacrifices. In August he replaced
17500-507: The decisions of local administrators. The entire BET was taken over by a French military administration. The mission also emphasised the restoration of "traditional chiefdoms" in the north. As for military matters, a unified command of all Chadian security forces was placed under the direction of French general Michel Arnaud , who was officially named Délégué militaire (military delegate). Dozens of French military officers and non-commissioned officers were dispatched to help train and restructure
17675-527: The decolonised countries. Cuba, the Warsaw Pact bloc , Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser (1956–1970) et al. accused the U.S. of sponsoring anti-democratic governments whose regimes did not represent the interests of their people and of overthrowing elected governments (African, Asian, Latin American) that did not support U.S. geopolitical interests. In the 1960s, under the leadership of Chairman Mehdi Ben Barka ,
17850-481: The east. The latter had been reduced to 320 active fighters, but when the French attacked a rebel convoy near Am Dagachi, the insurgents put up heavy resistance. Despite eventually winning the battle, the operation failed to destroy the First Liberation Army. Languedoc was the last major French operation of Tombalbaye's rule; the Chadian President consequently requested the French military to reduce its presence in
18025-476: The end of direct French intervention in the civil war. The remaining military advisers were either directly integrated into the Chadian Armed Forces or incorporated into the garrisons of France's three military bases in the country at Fort-Lamy, Mongo, and Largeau . In addition, Oueddei fully broke away from Siddick's forces in 1971, starting a process that culminated in the complete fracturing of FROLINAT. The loss of Libyan aid in 1972 led to direct fighting between
18200-497: The exploitation of mineral resources. It was argued that the African leaders with close ties to France—especially during the Soviet–American Cold War (1945–1992)—acted more as agents of French business and geopolitical interests than as the national leaders of sovereign states. Cited examples are Omar Bongo ( Gabon ), Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Ivory Coast), Gnassingbé Eyadéma ( Togo ), Denis Sassou-Nguesso ( Republic of
18375-399: The first army of the FROLINAT and Habré's FAN. The first army won assuming control of Ennedi , while the FAN retired to the Borkou and Tibesti . The kidnapping at Bardaï of a French archaeologist , Françoise Claustre , by Habré's forces clouded the relations of the latter with France (April 1974). In June 1973, Tombalbaye jailed his Chief of Staff General Malloum. A political opponent,
18550-545: The formation of a national unity government , that was created in August 1978 with Malloum as president and Habré as Prime minister. At the same time Goukouni consolidated his positions in the north, united most of the insurgent formations, including the first army of the FROLINAT and the majority of the CCFAN. All these formations united under the banner of the newly formed People's Armed Forces (FAP), led by Goukouni, who conquered Faya-Largeau in February 1979, assuming control of half
18725-400: The formation of a High Transitional Council under the presidency of Déby. The FROLINAT, of which Goukouni was still nominally the head, dissolved itself on January 14, 1993. Neocolonialism Neocolonialism is the control by a state (usually, a former colonial power) over another nominally independent state (usually, a former colony) through indirect means. The term neocolonialism
18900-410: The gap between the rich and the poor countries of the world. The struggle against neo-colonialism is not aimed at excluding the capital of the developed world from operating in less developed countries. It is also dubious in consideration of the name given being strongly related to the concept of colonialism itself. It is aimed at preventing the financial power of the developed countries being used in such
19075-502: The global economic system comprises wealthy countries at the centre, and poor countries at the periphery. Economic neocolonialism extracts the human and natural resources of a poor country to flow to the economies of the wealthy countries. It claims that the poverty of the peripheral countries is the result of how they are integrated in the global economic system. Dependency theory derives from the Marxist analysis of economic inequalities within
19250-582: The global economic system. Proponents of dependency theory, such as Venezuelan historian Federico Brito Figueroa , who investigated the socioeconomic bases of neocolonial dependency, influenced the thinking of the former President of Venezuela, Hugo Chávez . During the mid-to-late 20th century, in the course of the ideological conflict between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R., each country and its satellite states accused each other of practising neocolonialism in their imperial and hegemonic pursuits. The struggle included proxy wars , fought by client states in
19425-485: The government. For their part, Chadian forces killed numerous civilians, held public executions of insurgents and "sympathisers", and in at least one case burnt a village in Wadai for the alleged rebel sympathies of its populace. Rebels were sometimes able to inflict serious losses on the security forces, but in direct conflict the Chadian troops usually inflicted greater losses on the insurgents. Meanwhile, Abatcha's death caused
19600-405: The grounds of military accords between the two countries. French President Charles de Gaulle accepted in 1969, and military intervention began on April 14 with Opération Bison . When Siddick made it in 1971, a call for the union of the different groups he was opposed by Goukouni Oueddei and Hissène Habré , who commanded the Second Liberation Army of the FROLINAT, renamed Command Council of
19775-553: The headquarters of the organization in Tripoli . Abatcha's death did not make the situation easier for the government, nor did the formation in 1969 of two separate FROLINAT armies. The First Liberation Army of the FROLINAT, la Première Armée , a loose coalition of warlords active mainly in central Chad, engaged in hit-and-run tactics, a faction-ridden force whose groups often fought among themselves and engaged in banditry. The Second Liberation Army, la Deuxième Armée , which operated in
19950-553: The independent Front de Libération du Tchad (FLT). The FLT never managed to gain much traction, and operated more akin to bandits in parts of eastern Chad such as Wadai. The rebels also enjoyed covert support from the Kingdom of Libya , which claimed parts of northern Chad. However King Idris of Libya had no desire to clash with the French who backed Tombalbaye; accordingly the Libyans initially limited themselves to providing non-combat support such as nonlethal supplies and bases. However,
20125-471: The land given to the tillers. In conclusion, "the document was so vague and so general, it could have been written for any country under the sun." As the FROLINAT was originally composed of few members, it relied on the fact that the Chadian state was already in disarray; the southern-dominated government despised and bypassed Muslim traditional leaders, and already in 1963, the most important northern politicians had been arrested, and all important positions in
20300-409: The local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the research . Scientific publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as funded research centers ) and
20475-408: The main instrument of imperialism, we have today neo-colonialism ... [which] like colonialism, is an attempt to export the social conflicts of the capitalist countries. ... The result of neo-colonialism is that foreign capital is used for the exploitation rather than for the development of the less developed parts of the world. Investment, under neo-colonialism, increases, rather than decreases,
20650-563: The meantime, an OAU peacekeeping mission consisting of troops from the Republic of Congo , Benin , and Guinea was to replace the French military presence. GUNT's members deeply distrusted one another and thus the government never fully consolidated. Factional militias were left armed, and by January 1980 Habré's forces were fighting another GUNT signatory group in Wadai. FROLINAT FROLINAT ( French : Front de libération nationale du Tchad ; English: National Liberation Front of Chad )
20825-458: The meanwhile, other warlords entered in the fray: Kamougué sided with Goukouni, Acyl with Habré, leaving the city divided in two with the northern part kept by Goukouni and the southern by Habré, who lost now the Defence ministry. The fighting extended to other parts of the country. The forces of Goukouni took Faya-Largeau and cut Habré's supply lines with Sudan. On June 15, 1980, Chad and Libya signed
21000-490: The monarchy was overthrown in 1969 , and Muammar Gaddafi assumed power in Libya. Gaddafi greatly increased Libyan support for the rebels, including supplying them with weapons. One of FROLINAT's leaders, Mahamat Ali Taher, went to Libya to meet with derde Oueddei to convince him to openly rebel against the government. Once this was done, Taher mobilised Toubou exiles for insurgent activities. By 1967 FROLINAT had grown to become
21175-486: The morale of civil servants. The president also attempted to ease local grievances by replacing Sara bureaucrats with Muslims. Frustrated at the army's inability to suppress rebellion in central Chad, he created the Compagnies Tchadiennes de Securité (CTS), an Israeli-trained unit under his personal control. By 1968, Tombalbaye's military forces consisted of the 1,200-strong Chadian Army, the 700-strong Gendarmerie,
21350-520: The most significant group in the rebellion. It established footholds in Batha , Salamat , Wadai, and Guéra prefectures, where its members plotted the assassination of government officials and ambushed army detachments. French observers stated that the insurgents aimed to aggravate Muslim resentment of black Chadians and prevent the government from collecting taxes. The lack of tax revenue forced Tombalbaye to cut expenditures, undermining administration and lowering
21525-435: The movement's leadership. He made a deal with the First Liberation Army under Acyl, enlisting its aid against the Second Liberation Army. With Libyan support, the FROLINAT rebels battled Malloum's regime. However, the rebels did not universally appreciate Gaddafi's influence; Hissène Habré strongly disagreed with the pro-Libyan stance of Oueddeï. Habré eventually split with the rest of FROLINAT over this issue, and began to wage
21700-613: The new group under the banner of the Liberation Front of Chad (FLT). The union and group flag was agreed upon at the Nyala Congress in Sudan between June 19 and June 22, 1966. Abatcha was proclaimed Secretary-General, while another cadre of the UNT, Abou Bakar Djalabou, was designated to lead the delegation that would represent the movement abroad. A committee was also selected at the congress, composed of thirty members taken equally from
21875-486: The north, and was composed mainly by Toubou. After the death of Mohammed Taher in 1969 the Second Army came under the control of Goukouni Oueddei. These divisions did not much help the Chadian government; Tombalbaye's authority in the central and northern parts of the country was limited to a patchwork of urban centers, often connected only by air. This forced the Chadian president to ask in 1968 for French intervention, on
22050-607: The officer corps. From the 1960s to 1979, the armed forces consisted of four branches: the Territorial Guard/ National and Nomadic Guard , which was responsible for controlling the north of the country; the Sûreté Nationale , which was to secure the borders, mitigate crime, and protect the President; the Gendarmerie, which acted as a police force; and the Chadian Army, which consisted of four battalions. The Gendarmerie
22225-529: The paltry resources of his government by raising revenue, leading to tax increases and the collection of a "national loan" in 1964. Many Chadians were often confused to see tax collectors return to them to ask for the "loan" payments. Embezzlement of tax revenue and the forceful measures of the collectors generated resentment. The situation climaxed on 1 November 1965, when intense riots broke out in Mangalmé, Guéra prefecture that left over 500 people dead, including
22400-510: The population and enforce central authority. Furthermore, Arnaud objected to the scorched earth tactics favored by Chadian officers. The tensions between Aranud and the Chadians peaked in an August meeting when he entered a shouting match with Tombalbaye. The Chadian president ordered him to kill 15,000 Arabs in communities he believed were supporting the rebellion. Arnaud thought the request was absurd and refused to accede to it. Troubled by this and
22575-598: The possibility of French administrators subsuming their powers. The second, larger intervention was launched by the French in April 1969. The military component of the project was later dubbed Operation Limousin [ fr ] . The civilian component primarily comprised the Mission pour la réforme administrative (MRA), headed by former colonial governor Pierre Lami [ fr ] . The MRA posted French advisors to all prefects and subprefects in troubled areas. They were made responsible for tax collection and could veto
22750-565: The post–World War II 20th century the socio-economic and political arguments presented by Lenin in the pamphlet Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917). The pamphlet frames 19th-century imperialism as the logical extension of geopolitical power, to meet the financial investment needs of the political economy of capitalism . In Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism , Kwame Nkrumah wrote: In place of colonialism, as
22925-460: The prefect and his deputy were killed. In the BET Prefecture of northern Chad, by 1965 unrest had started expanding. So when Abatcha, with seven North Korean trained companions, penetrated Eastern Chad in November 1966, he could count on a territory that was already in full revolt. Musa and the most conservative elements of the FLT pulled out of the FROLINAT at the end on 1966, but a dualism
23100-453: The problems within the French intervention, Ambassador Fernand Wibaux [ fr ] asked the French government to withdraw Arnaud. In late September General Edouard Cortadellas replaced Arnaud as Délégué militaire . Cortadellas was an elderly officer nearing retirement with counterinsurgency experience gleaned from campaigns in Indochina and Algeria. In early November FROLINAT launched
23275-415: The rebellion was directly threatening the presidency. On 10 March Tombalbaye requested French air support after a surprise attack on a Gendarmerie unit. De Gaulle felt that "there is no way of solving this kind of problem by dropping bombs on peasants" but concluded he had to offer assistance to the Chadian president. He decided that the best way of mitigating Tombalbaye's problems involved a French takeover of
23450-461: The rebellion; the former feared the political fallout of brutal repression in the north, while the latter wished to avoid an expensive and drawn out conflict. The French intervention began in August with the arrival of a small contingent, though by its end three months later the force totaled 2,000 marines. These troops came in support of aircraft, as De Gaulle did not want to use French soldiers to recapture Aouzou. French A4 Skyraiders were deployed to
23625-513: The rebels were either suppressed by the intervention or had rallied to the government, the state's control of rural areas remained weak. Eager to avoid another crisis which would lead to calls for another intervention, the French pushed for the Chadian government to implement reforms that would generate reconciliation and ease inter-regional relations. At these urgings, the Chadian government opened negotiations with local chiefs, improved tax collection, and released some political prisoners. Nevertheless,
23800-414: The reforms failed to improve underlying weaknesses within the economy or ease the political climate. Tombalbaye continued to rule Chad unabated as a one-party state, though he stressed national reconciliation and reshuffled his cabinet to include more Muslims and northerners. In 1970, around 200 Libyan dissidents based in Chad launched a raid against Sabha to destabilize Gaddafi's government and facilitate
23975-523: The removal of French military units from Chad, resulting in France abandoning the 172 Fort-Lamy Air Base at N'Djamena International Airport. By 1975 the only branches of the Chadian Armed Forces that continued to function were the Gendarmerie and the Army. The end of Tombalbaye's regime caused Gaddafi to restart his support for the insurgents, as Malloum denounced the Libyan occupation of the Aouzou Strip and repudiated
24150-441: The rise of GUNT, a new phase of civil war and international conflict broke out in Chad. Chad gained independence from France in August 1960. The state was left with minimal infrastructure; there were no paved roads or railways. In the northern Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti (BET) region and much of the centre-east, government presence was restricted to a handful of towns. Economically, it relied on cotton exports and French subsidies. Chad
24325-617: The role in 1938, but Chadian actions in the BET led the Toubou to unify in his support. Three of his sons stayed behind and armed themselves against the authorities. As revolts spread throughout the countryside, some local leaders coalesced the resistance into small groups. On 22 June 1966, 24 delegates from various Chadian opposition groups met in Nyala, Sudan and founded the National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT). The new organisation
24500-417: The south and recaptured some of their territory in the north. Rebel activity in the BET, specifically Tibetsi, was diminished. The morale of the Chadian Armed Forces was left substantially improved in engagements with the rebels. Conversely, FROLINAT's losses left it internally disorganised and susceptible to outside influence. The French were reportedly aided in their campaign through the use of napalm , though
24675-501: The south the Chadian Armed Forces , the former national army, was reorganized by the lieutenant Wadel Abdelkader Kamougué , former head of Malloum's gendarmerie , who established in May 1979 the south of the country a government called Permanent Committee. Goukouni took advantage of such a chaotic situation and appeared in N'Djamena before Habré had obtained complete control, and took the capital. International moves were made to put an end to
24850-503: The south. Shortly before, another FROLINAT group had been formed in January 1978 as the Third Liberation Army of the FROLINAT (later called Popular Movement for the Liberation of Chad , or MPLT), led by Aboubakar Abdel Rahmane , once an ally of Goukouni; this group defeated the government's forces in the west. The First Liberation Army of the FROLINAT reassumed its autonomy, taking control of the eastern prefectures of Ouaddaï and Biltine . In
25025-544: The support of Arab socialist governments and the Eastern Bloc —and called for the institution of Arabic as an official language of Chad. FROLINAT hoped to secure the backing of Chad's Arab diaspora and Chadian expatriate university students; many of its earliest supporters were students in Cairo . Following FROLINAT's founding, Abatcha and seven recruited students who had received military training in North Korea traveled into
25200-403: The total national independence of our fatherland". A coalition government , national and democratic, was to be formed, and all political prisoners freed. All foreign troops were to leave, and support was to be given to national liberation movements, and a foreign policy of positive neutrality sought. The economic objectives were quite vague: wages would be raised, arbitrary taxes abolished, and
25375-433: The townspeople assembled and paraded nude. Nine people were arrested, including Toubou derde Oueddei Kichidemi and his son, Goukouni Oueddei . The local administration thereafter imposed restrictions on wearing turbans, growing beards, and assembling in groups. Resentful of this treatment, the residents of Bardaï rebelled. Meanwhile, unrest grew in rural areas over issues of taxation. Tombalbaye attempted to buttress
25550-647: The traditional yondo initiation rites of a Sara subgroup. Between mid 1973 and April 1974 an estimated 3,000 persons went through the process, but the rites were seen as anti-Christian and further disaffected civil servants, military officers, and students with the regime. Drought also caused an economic downturn, and Tombalbaye sought to counter this by increasing cotton production. His efforts were partly successful in this regard, but generated antagonism when soldiers rounded up townspeople for "volunteer" labour. In March 1975 he had several senior army officers arrested for supposedly plotting against him. Several more arrests and
25725-510: The two groups began in the same year to operate in the mid-east of the country, under the direct command of Abatcha. Shortly after, in March 1968, a lieutenant of Abatcha, Mohammed Taher, instigated a mutiny by the Daza Toubou of the National and Nomadic Guard (GNN) of Aouzou , which was evacuated by the national army in September. Taher had already recruited militants among the Teda Toubou in
25900-820: The work to resolve the neocolonial involvement of colonial powers in decolonised counties; and said that the U.S., as the leading capitalist country of the world, was, in practise, the principal neocolonialist political actor. Critics of the practice of neocolonialism also argue that investment by multinational corporations enriches few in underdeveloped countries and causes humanitarian , environmental and ecological damage to their populations. They argue that this results in unsustainable development and perpetual underdevelopment. These countries remain reservoirs of cheap labor and raw materials, while restricting access to advanced production techniques to develop their own economies. In some countries, monopolization of natural resources, while initially leading to an influx of investment,
26075-453: The world's system of economies, thus, under-development of the periphery is a direct result of development in the centre. It includes the concept of the late 19th century semi-colony . It contrasts the Marxist perspective of the theory of colonial dependency with capitalist economics. The latter proposes that poverty is a development stage in the poor country's progress towards full integration in
26250-510: Was a southerner whose government quickly proved to be corrupt, granting favors to his political supporters in the south while marginalizing the rest of Chad. Tensions and discontent consequently grew, especially as Tombalbaye undermined traditional local leaders who still held great respect among the people and became increasingly authoritarian. By January 1962, Tombalbaye had banned all political parties except his own Chadian Progressive Party (PPT). His treatment of opponents, real or imagined,
26425-580: Was a union of the Union Nationale Tchadienne (UNT) led by Ibrahim Abatcha , and the Mouvement National de Libération du Tchad (MNLT) led by Ahmed Hassan Musa . Musa was in prison in Sudan at the time, and Abatcha became FROLINAT's first leader. Though the organisation's leaders were mostly Muslims, some of its members were secularists. Abatcha was a committed socialist and FROLINAT adopted a left-leaning political platform—designed to attract
26600-533: Was always present between the socialist , anti-imperialist , even Pan-African UNT element and the more conservative and regionalist UGFT tradition. Another element of division consisted in the dualism between the two original areas of the rebellion, Kanem and the East: Kanem mainly attracted support from Chadians who lived in Egypt and the Central African Republic , the east mainly from Sudan. The combined forces of
26775-623: Was an insurgent rebel group active in Chad between 1966 and 1993. The organization was a result of the political union between the leftist Chadian National Union (UNT), led by Ibrahim Abatcha , and the General Union of the Sons of Chad ( Union Générale des Fils du Tchad or UGFT), led by Ahmed Hassan Musa . An Islamist , Musa was close to the Muslim Brotherhood . The UGFT remained autonomous within
26950-474: Was an unsuccessful attempt to kill Malloum, and in March 1977, a mutiny by units army in the capital was suppressed by the execution of its ringleaders. After the death of Tombalbaye, FROLINAT had continued its dismemberment. A group active in the east, the FLT, entered in the new government of N'Djamena in July. Oueddei Kichidemi returned from his exile in Libya in the summer of 1975; his son Goukouni Oueddei remained there instead. Habré and Goukouni had formed
27125-462: Was besieged twice in 1976 and Bardaï was conquered in June 1977 by Habré. The question of Libyan support caused a rupture between Goukouni and Habré, both Toubous but of traditionally opposed clans, whom circumstances had made allies in 1971. Habré opposed the Libyan plans of annexation of the Aouzou Strip , while Goukouni was against the Claustre kidnapping. In 1976, Habré, commanding only a minority of
27300-404: Was easily suppressed, but in response the president replaced the army chief of staff General Jacques Doumro —well-liked by the students—with Colonel Felix Malloum . The army itself remained poorly equipped, relying on a handful of armed scout cars and 60mm and 81mm mortars. The Air Force only fielded several transport planes and a helicopter. In 1972 Tombalbaye was beset with a financial crisis,
27475-434: Was extremely harsh, filling the prisons with thousands of political prisoners. Civilian demonstrations on 16 September 1963 were crushed by the Chadian Armed Forces , resulting in between 19 and 100 deaths. Several opposition groups began organising resistance, though the first attempted insurgencies were easily suppressed by Tombalbaye's forces. Many opposition leaders fled to neighboring Sudan, where they began to prepare for
27650-413: Was first used after World War II to refer to the continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign countries, but its meaning soon broadened to apply, more generally, to places where the power of developed countries was used to produce a colonial-like exploitation. Neocolonialism takes the form of economic imperialism , globalization , cultural imperialism and conditional aid to influence or control
27825-521: Was first used by Kwame Nkrumah in the context of African countries undergoing decolonisation in the 1960s. Neocolonialism is also discussed in the works of Western thinkers such as Sartre ( Colonialism and Neocolonialism , 1964) and Noam Chomsky ( The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism , 1979). When first proposed, the neocolonialism was applied to European countries' continued economic and cultural relationships with their former colonies, those African countries that had been liberated in
28000-623: Was formally independent. After the decolonisation of Belgian Congo , Belgium continued to control, through the Société Générale de Belgique , an estimated 70% of the Congolese economy following the decolonisation process. The most contested part was in the province of Katanga where the Union Minière du Haut Katanga , part of the Société , controlled the mineral-resource-rich province. After
28175-399: Was given a largely ceremonial role; Habré became Defence Minister; Colonel Wadel Abdelkader Kamougué became Vice President; and Acyl became Foreign Minister. In sum, the ministerial portfolios were balanced between the southerners (11) and the rest of the country (13) and among the favorite politicians of neighbouring states. GUNT was to rule until elections were held in the spring of 1982. In
28350-440: Was ignored. By May the GUNT was stationed on the defensive in the capital, when Kamougué pulled back his forces to crush a revolt that had exploded in the south. Habré didn't lose this opportunity, and on June 7, 1982, he conquered the capital almost without opposition, while Goukouni escaped to Cameroon. On June 19, Habré formed a State Council as new national government, and on October 21 he proclaimed himself President and nominated
28525-553: Was in Sudan a so-called "Government in exile of the Islamic republic of Chad". But only four forces were at the end invited at Kano I: these were the FAN, the FAP, Malloum for the national government, and, more surprisingly, the small MPLT, supported by Nigeria. On the basis of the Kano Accord a national unity government was formed on April 29, 1979, with Goukouni as interior minister , Habré at
28700-411: Was jeopardised. In 1965, the French military had 1,000 troops in Chad, while French personnel permeated Chadian security institutions. The Air Force's pilots were almost all French until 1975. The military and intelligence service were headed by Frenchmen: Colonel Leverest commanded the Chadian Army, Adjutant-Chef Albert Gelino headed the Gendarmerie, and Camille Gourvennec led the main intelligence office,
28875-485: Was killed in combat at Abéché . Though it caused political problems within FROLINAT, Abatcha's death did not restrain the growth of rebellion. Shortly thereafter Issaka took command of FROLINAT's First Liberation Army. The following month Tobou members of a Nomadic Guard contingent near the northern town of Aouzou mutinied and joined rebels in besieging the locale. The Chadian Army mounted several relief expeditions from Bardaï, but were ultimately unsuccessful. Unable to stay
29050-435: Was murdered by his own army, and a military government headed by Félix Malloum emerged and continued the war against the insurgents. Following foreign interventions by Libya and France, the fracturing of the rebels into rival factions, and an escalation of the fighting, Malloum stepped down in March 1979. This paved the way for a new national government, known as " Transitional Government of National Unity " (GUNT). Following
29225-437: Was often tenuous. French military officers oversaw the government in the BET until January 1965, when they were withdrawn. They were replaced by southern bureaucrats who had little knowledge of local culture and committed abuses, engendering alienation from the state among the locals. In September 1965 a Chadian soldier was killed in Bardaï , Tibesti in a fight following a dance. The local subprefect reacted harshly, having all
29400-550: Was positive; the insurgents were confined to the Tibesti and the French started retiring their troops, which had played a key role in the years 1969–1971. Certain to have defeated the FROLINAT, Tombalbaye left the reforms in the summer of 1971 and accused some of the recently freed political prisoners of having attempted a coup d'état with the help of Libya . In reaction, Libyan president Muammar al-Gaddafi officially recognized Abba Siddick's FROLINAT, offering him economic and logistic support. The Libyans then began to occupy
29575-419: Was sparsely populated but ethnically, it was highly diverse. In addition, the country was divided by religion; about 50% of the people were Muslims, most of them living in the north and east, whereas Christians and animists dominated the south. Constitutionally, the country was bequeathed a parliamentary system , though this quickly morphed into a dictatorship. The country's first president, François Tombalbaye ,
29750-444: Was the best-trained of all the branches. There was also a small Chadian Air Force and a naval force that operated on Lake Chad . Until 1975 the Territorial Guard and Sûreté Nationale answered to the Ministry of Interior, while the Gendarmerie and Army were overseen by the Ministry of Defence. France maintained a significant military presence in Chad. As was common with many of its former African colonies, France and Chad had signed
29925-430: Was the introduction of yondo initiation rites proper of the Sara (his ethnic group) for all those who wanted to obtain positions in the civil service and the army, rites that were seen as anti- Christian . This, with forced "voluntary" mobilization of the population in agricultural campaigns, mined his support in the south. He also lost the support of the army by arresting many young officers whom he accused of planning
30100-419: Was to be the largest single piece of overseas South Korean agricultural infrastructure ever built. In 2009, Hyundai Heavy Industries acquired a majority stake in a company cultivating 10,000 hectares of farmland in the Russian Far East and a South Korean provincial government secured 95,000 hectares of farmland in Oriental Mindoro , central Philippines , to grow corn . The South Jeolla province became
30275-414: Was to capture Faya-Largeau, which was attacked in January 1983; Habré sent his forces to defend the town, but they were defeated on February 20. Notwithstanding this, Faya-Largeau remained in Habré's hands. Goukouni reported some other victories in the north, but in the meanwhile Habré was being given abundant help by France and the west to counter the Libyan-supported Goukouni. In March 1983, Chad requested
30450-449: Was under French protection, and two days later the belligerents reached a ceasefire. French troops policed the truce while Nigeran diplomats attempted to mediate a longer-lasting agreement. Governance broke down, and FROLINAT seized the opportunity by launching an offensive in the north. On 23 March 1979 Malloum resigned the presidency and went to Nigeria. Power was turned over to an eight-person provisional council headed by Oueddei, pending
30625-600: Was unhappy with the regular army's inability to completely quell the insurgency, and in turn increased the size of other branches of the armed forces. Some analysts believe that the deal with Libya made him feel assured about the security of the country's territory from foreign aggression, and thus he saw the army as less useful and more of a threat to his own authority. Meanwhile, on 1 September 1972 Cortadellas retired from his post and flew back to France, handing over all command of Chadian military forces to Malloum. The French and Chadian government treated his retirement as signaling
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