Inconclusive
120-625: Uprisings 1942 1943 1944 1945 Case Black ( German : Fall Schwarz ), also known as the Fifth Enemy Offensive ( Serbo-Croatian Latin : Peta neprijateljska ofanziva ) in Yugoslav historiography and often identified with its final phase, the Battle of the Sutjeska ( Serbo-Croatian Latin : Bitka na Sutjesci pronounced [bîtka na sûtjɛst͡si] ) was a joint attack by
240-460: A de facto official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans , and had de jure co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it
360-402: A second language , and 75–100 million as a foreign language . This would imply the existence of approximately 175–220 million German speakers worldwide. German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker. As of 2012 , about 90 million people, or 16% of
480-587: A "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. Cameroon was also a colony of the German Empire from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in World War I . Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become
600-671: A dead end and destroy them. In addition to these forces, there were additional 4 Italian divisions deployed in Adriatic hinterland, from the Albanian border to the lower course of the Neretva : were these Italian divisions: 155th Infantry Division Emilia in the Bay of Kotor , 151st Infantry Division Perugia in area of Vilusi , Bileća and Trebinje , 154th Infantry Division Murge around Dubrovnik and 32nd Infantry Division Marche in downstream of
720-594: A delaying battle on 1–7 December 1940 at the outskirts of Pogradec and on the southern shores of Lake Ohrid , from Kalasë to as far south as the Qafa e Vashës pass. The outstretched southern flank of the Venezia was retreating to the north, but the rapid Greek advance resulted in some elements of the division being stranded by 9 December 1940 on the Breshenihcut mountain. These troops were rescued on 23–24 December 1940. In early 1941
840-556: A greater need for regularity in written conventions. While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g. diphthongization of certain vowel sounds: hus (OHG & MHG "house") → haus (regionally in later MHG)→ Haus (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to schwa [ə]: taga (OHG "days")→ tage (MHG)). A great wealth of texts survives from
960-453: A native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers . The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called " Namibian Black German ", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it. German remained
1080-679: A popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020. Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German. In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish , French , and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers. In
1200-515: A possibility, so it sent an advance force to take Vučevo. In a hand-to-hand battle, the forces of the 1st Proletarian Division managed to overcome the Germans and take control of this dominant point. The Germans then began to occupy the entire valley of the Sutjeska, from Tjentište to its confluence with the Drina near Čelebić . The 7th SS Division Prince Eugene penetrated in that direction, which surrounded
1320-475: A result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary. At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing. While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German (MHG) period, it
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#17328519930681440-516: A surprise raid on the morning of May 14, despite the established contacts and strong opposition of the commander of the Italian 14th Corps, general Ercole Roncaglia , the Germans captured the Chetniks in their sleep and disarmed them. German forces on the ground appealed to the higher command to reconsider the decision to arrest the Chetniks, because they proved to be reliable allies against the partisans, but
1560-406: A viable fighting force with the local populace. Consequently, they were able to replenish their losses with new recruits, regroup, and mount a series of counterattacks in eastern Bosnia, clearing Axis garrisons of Vlasenica , Srebrenica , Olovo , Kladanj and Zvornik in the following 20 days. The battle marked a turning point toward Partisan control of Yugoslavia, and became an integral part of
1680-638: Is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family , mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe . It is the most spoken native language within the European Union . It is the most widely spoken and official (or co-official) language in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Liechtenstein , and the Italian autonomous province of South Tyrol . It is also an official language of Luxembourg , Belgium and
1800-580: Is a recognized minority language in the following countries: In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as " regional languages ", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government. Namibia also was a colony of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as
1920-596: Is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects , with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments. Since 2004, heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met every year, and the Council for German Orthography has been the main international body regulating German orthography . German
2040-546: Is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic , East Germanic , and West Germanic . The first of these branches survives in modern Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Faroese , and Icelandic , all of which are descended from Old Norse . The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic
2160-472: Is called the "German Sprachraum ". German is the official language of the following countries: German is a co-official language of the following countries: Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum. Within Europe, German
2280-430: Is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German . With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language , 10–25 million speak it as
2400-520: Is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 Black Death decimated Europe's population. Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which Wilhelm Scherer dates 1350–1650, terminating with the end of the Thirty Years' War . This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in
2520-595: Is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350. This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory (known as
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#17328519930682640-559: Is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark ), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are
2760-435: Is one of the major languages of the world . German is the second-most widely spoken Germanic language , after English, both as a first and as a second language . German is also widely taught as a foreign language , especially in continental Europe (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French), and in the United States. Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language, and
2880-587: Is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa. An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg . The South African constitution identifies German as
3000-401: Is partly derived from Latin and Greek , along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English . English, however, is the main source of more recent loanwords . German is a pluricentric language ; the three standardized variants are German , Austrian , and Swiss Standard German . Standard German is sometimes called High German , which refers to its regional origin. German
3120-510: Is the Sachsenspiegel , the first book of laws written in Middle Low German ( c. 1220 ). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms. The Middle High German period
3240-566: Is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch , Yiddish , Afrikaans , and others. Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf - Benrath and Krefeld - Uerdingen , respectively) serve to distinguish
3360-481: Is understood in all areas where German is spoken. Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide: As a result of the German diaspora , as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language , the geographical distribution of German speakers (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents. However, an exact, global number of native German speakers
3480-673: The Ostsiedlung ). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature. A clear example of this is the mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache employed in the Hohenstaufen court in Swabia as a standardized supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to
3600-562: The 155th Infantry Division "Emilia" , approximately 16,000 men in total, were grouped together in the Division "Garibaldi" . The division consisted of three brigades of 5,000 men each, with the remaining Italian troops, mostly artillery, signals, engineer, and medical specialists, becoming instructors. Integrated into the Partisan 2nd Corps the division fought in Yugoslavia until February 1945, when
3720-523: The 61st Infantry Division "Sirte" . On the same day the division raised the 87th Infantry Regiment "Friuli" in Arezzo as replacement. On 15 April 1939 the division, changed its name to "Venezia" and dissolved the XIX Infantry Brigade, with the infantry regiments coming under direct command of the division. On the same date the 19th Artillery Regiment was given the name "Venezia". On 15 September 1939
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3840-627: The Alamanni , Bavarian, and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ( Irminones ), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration. In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as
3960-801: The Armistice of Cassibile between the Allies and Italy was announced on 8 September 1943 the division joined the Yugoslav partisans in Montenegro and formed the Partisan Division "Garibaldi" . The division's lineage begins with the Brigade "Venezia" established on 1 November 1883 in Alessandria with the 83rd and 84th infantry regiments. The brigade fought on the Italian front in World War I . On 10 November 1926
4080-522: The Axis taking place from 15 May to 16 June 1943, which aimed to destroy the main Yugoslav Partisan force, near the Sutjeska river in south-eastern Bosnia . The failure of the offensive marked a turning point for Yugoslavia during World War II . It was also the last major German-Italian joint operation against the partisans. The operation immediately followed Case White which had failed in accomplishing
4200-880: The Balkans after victory in the North African campaign . In operations Weiss I and Weiss II , the Wehrmacht did not achieve their desired goals of destroying the Yugoslav partisans and establishing control over the region, so preparations began for a new venture. With operation Schwarz, the Wehrmacht intended to clear the background of the Adriatic coast by destroying both the Chetnik and Partisan movements, which were still firmly established in Herzegovina and Montenegro . Hitler calculated that, in
4320-522: The Early Middle Ages . German is an inflected language , with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two numbers (singular, plural). It has strong and weak verbs . The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share
4440-417: The European Union 's population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language. The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language
4560-514: The German states . While these states were still part of the Holy Roman Empire , and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout
4680-724: The Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , and the other being Meißner Deutsch , used in the Electorate of Saxony in the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg . Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages ( Druckersprachen ) aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible. The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in
4800-644: The Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the Pforzen buckle ), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the Abrogans (written c. 765–775 ), a Latin-German glossary supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their Latin equivalents. After the Abrogans , the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in
4920-640: The Sprachraum in Europe. German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) ), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation ). The Allgemeine Zeitung
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5040-536: The Standard German language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition. Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process. The Deutsche Bühnensprache ( lit. ' German stage language ' ) by Theodor Siebs had established conventions for German pronunciation in theatres , three years earlier; however, this
5160-503: The Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries , such as Swiss German ( Alemannic dialects ) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est , such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also Central–and Upper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian). After these High German dialects, standard German
5280-462: The pagan Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the Hildebrandslied , a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from
5400-489: The 369th Legionary Division advanced from the direction of Priboj towards Pljevlja , and, without encountering any resistance, merged with the main body of the "Taurinense" division. During the advance of the 7th SS Mountain Division and the 118th Jäger Division through eastern Herzegovina, German forces encountered a certain degree of Italian obstruction and skirmishes with the Chetniks. Hundreds of Chetniks were disarmed. At
5520-571: The 4th Montenegrin, 7th Krajina and 10th Herzegovinian brigades fought fierce and exhausting battles with the Germans on the rugged sides of the mountain Bioč and in the upper course of the Piva. The successes achieved were insufficient, given the reserves available to the Germans. As the attempt to break through the front via Foča failed, the Supreme Headquarters had to return to its initial positions, which
5640-521: The 7th Division, with the Central Hospital and part of the councillors of AVNOJ , located east of Piva. The second group was led by Milovan Đilas , as a delegate of the Supreme Headquarters, and Sava Kovačević , who was appointed commander of the 3rd Division. The two groups were to break through in divergent directions in order to stretch the German forces. The first group was to break through Sutjeska to
5760-478: The British Liaison Department arrived. At the head of this mission were Captain William F. Stewart, who worked at the British Consulate in Zagreb before the war spoke Serbo-Croatian , and William Deakin , a history professor at Oxford . In addition to the two of them, the mission had 4 more members. The very next day, Tito received the British. He demanded military assistance and that the British Air Force bomb German concentration centers. From May 31 until June 5,
5880-412: The Chetniks near Ifsar , captured Čajniče and besieged Foča, where an Italian battalion and about 1,000 Chetniks were surrounded. Chasing the Chetniks deeper and deeper into Montenegro, the Supreme Headquarters moved to Mount Durmitor. After the heavy defeat inflicted on the Italians in Pivka Javorka, on May 1, the First and Second Proletarian Divisions embarked on a comprehensive offensive to liquidate
6000-478: The Croatian Corps. The German command adjusted the operational plan of action against Partisans to the characteristics of the terrain. They planned to concentrate main partisan divisions and their Supreme Headquarters on the naturally isolated and almost uninhabited area between the Tara and Piva canyons, and the Durmitor mountain, and to destroy it there with the mass use of aviation, artillery and mountain troops. The 1st Mountain Division with its northern wing,
6120-614: The Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Prague (German: Prag ) and Budapest ( Buda , German: Ofen ), to name two examples, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain; others, like Pressburg ( Pozsony , now Bratislava), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, and cities like Zagreb (German: Agram ) or Ljubljana (German: Laibach ), contained significant German minorities. In
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#17328519930686240-422: The Fifth Montenegrin Brigades, which suppressed the appearance of the right wing of the 7th SS Division and the Italians, enabled the organization of an attack on the left wing of the 7th SS Division. Informed on May 20, 1943 of the arrival of the British military mission, the Supreme Headquarters left Đurđevića Tara and settled in the forest near Black Lake , at the foot of Durmitor. On the night of 27/28 May,
6360-414: The Frisian languages— North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland ), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland ), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland )—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both Old Norse and the Norman language . The history of
6480-402: The German command did not give up on the original idea. One part of captured Chetniks, including Đurišić, was to be interned in prison camps in Greece and Poland , and the rest for labor battalions in the upcoming fight against the Partisans. In the meantime, Mihailović left the village of Gornje Lipovo and headed for Serbia. After capturing the majority of Montenegrin Chetniks near Kolašin,
6600-417: The German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the Migration Period , which separated Old High German dialects from Old Saxon . This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants ( b , d , g , and p , t , k , respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below. While there is written evidence of
6720-399: The German states; the invention of the printing press c. 1440 and the publication of Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language. The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of chancery German, one being gemeine tiutsch , used in the court of
6840-623: The Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German and Low Franconian dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic , Ingvaeonic , and Istvaeonic , respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by
6960-499: The Germans continued with operation Schwarz. After a period of troop concentration, the offensive started on 15 May 1943. The Axis troops used the advantage of better starting positions to encircle and isolate the partisans on the Durmitor mountain area, located between the Tara and Piva rivers in the mountainous areas of northern Montenegro and forced them to engage in a fierce month-long battle on waste territory. The first clashes after operation Schwarz commenced, took place in
7080-409: The Germans used to make an even stronger ring. In addition to the daily fighting, the Sutjeska canyon was bombarded by planes every day, in a very low flight. On June 3, Tito crossed the Piva near Mratinje with the Supreme Headquarters. Thus, in the first days of June, the entire Supreme Headquarters found itself encircled, together with the central hospital in the Sutjeska valley. On the same day, at
7200-454: The Greeks shifted the focus of their attacks on the centre and left (northern) flank of the Venezia, but without much success despite heavy fighting on 8–15 November 1940. On 16 November the Venezia was outflanked by the Greek breakthrough to Ersekë . The Venezia tried to rectify this by pulling back its southern flank from the Devoll river, while the Greeks intensified their attacks on the retreating Italians on 17–19 November. On 21 November 1940
7320-547: The Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group). Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian - Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects ) and Yiddish . Also closely related to Standard German are
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#17328519930687440-434: The Italian 19th Infantry (Mountain) Division Venezia , the battle group Ludwiger (724th German, 61st and 63rd Bulgarian Regiments), the 369th Infantry Division , the 118th Jäger Division with the 4th Home Guard Jäger Brigade of the Independent State of Croatia were deployed in a semicircle on the east and north sides. In the first phase, these forces were supposed to take control of Sandžak and push Partisan forces to
7560-644: The Italian autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia , as well as a recognized national language in Namibia . There are also notable German-speaking communities in France ( Alsace ), the Czech Republic ( North Bohemia ), Poland ( Upper Silesia ), Slovakia ( Košice Region , Spiš , and Hauerland ), Denmark ( North Schleswig ), Romania and Hungary ( Sopron ). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in Brazil ( Blumenau and Pomerode ), South Africa ( Kroondal ), Namibia , among others, some communities have decidedly Austrian German or Swiss German characters (e.g. Pozuzo , Peru). German
7680-514: The Italian forces began a general offensive. The Venezia advanced first to Pogradec , and then turned south to Maliq and Korçë , capturing both on 15 April 1941, without meeting sustained resistance. On 18 April 1941 the Venezia reached Ersekë on the Greek border. In July 1941 the division was transferred to Podgorica in Montenegro and in August moved its headquarter to Berane in the Montenegrin Sandžak . The division also garrisoned Kolasin and from February 1942 also Pljevlja , which became
7800-949: The Italian-Chetnik garrison in Kolašin, with the intention of continuing the advance towards Berane . As part of the siege of Kolašin, a strike group of battalions (two battalions of the Fourth and one battalion of the Fifth Montenegrin Brigade) defeated the Italian regiment near Bioč on May 15. At the beginning of operation Schwarz, the Yugoslav National Liberation Army had 22,148 soldiers in 16 brigades . There were 8,925 Partisans from Croatia (5,195 of those from Dalmatia), 8,293 from Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1,492 from Serbia (including Vojvodina and Kosovo) and 3,337 from Montenegro. By ethnicity 11,851 were Serbs, 5,220 Croats, 3,295 Montenegrins and 866 Muslims. Partisan units were bringing with them central hospital with about 3,000 wounded. In addition, YNLA troops suffered from severe lack of food and medical supplies, and many were struck down by typhoid . Wehrmacht forces were advancing towards Montenegro from
7920-408: The MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the Nibelungenlied , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon -slayer Siegfried ( c. thirteenth century ), and the Iwein , an Arthurian verse poem by Hartmann von Aue ( c. 1203 ), lyric poems , and courtly romances such as Parzival and Tristan . Also noteworthy
8040-413: The Neretva, from Mostar to Metković . While the Axis were preparing for Operation Schwarz, fierce battles were fought on the territory of Herzegovina and Montenegro. After operation Weiss, the operative group of Partisan divisions set out with all its might through Herzegovina to break into Montenegro, destroying the Chetniks and Italians units on its path, and taking control over the area. In that area,
8160-471: The Supreme Headquarters ordered the transfer of all forces to the left bank of the Tara. The 118th Jäger Division had the task of breaking out on Piva from the west and blocking it. On May 22, her 738th Regiment, without contact with Partisan units, broke out on Vučevo , a plateau west of Piva. However, they could not organize communications and supplies in this wide and impassable area, so the regiment commander, lieutenant colonel Anacker, sent one battalion to
8280-406: The Tara. Thus, the Partisan forces firmly occupied Vučevo and prevented the Germans from closing the ring on Piva. The next natural obstacle on which the 118th Division could do that was valley of river Sutjeska . On May 18, the 7th SS Division and the Italian Division Ferrara began to appear from the south towards Šavnik, Žabljak and Mratinje . The successful defense of the First Dalmatian and
8400-403: The Venezia disarm, but both were refused. While the 383rd Infantry Regiment "Venezia" in Tirana was quickly forced to surrender by invading German forces , the Venezia's commander General Giovanni Battista Oxilia was able to consolidate his forces at Berane and maintain discipline. On 10 October the division entered the 2nd Corps of Tito 's National Liberation Army and on 13 October 1943
8520-420: The Venezia lost contact with its neighbouring Italian forces on its southern flank and the division had to made a stand at the Pogradec – Buçimas – Bregu i Zervaskës line on the southern tip of Lake Ohrid . The Greeks resumed their attack 26 November 1940 and the Venezia was forced to retreat to the Shkumbin river valley after being outflanked on its right on 29 November 1940. The division's rearguards fought
8640-471: The Yugoslav post-war mythology, celebrating the self-sacrifice, extreme suffering and moral firmness of the partisans. [REDACTED] Yugoslav Partisans (Partisans Main Operational Group) [REDACTED] Germany [REDACTED] Italy [REDACTED] Croatia German language German (German: Deutsch , pronounced [dɔʏtʃ] )
8760-566: The base of the newly arrived 383rd Infantry Regiment "Venezia". Throughout its time in Montenegro the division was locked in fighting with Yugoslav partisans . On 17 June 1943 the 383rd Infantry Regiment "Venezia" was assigned to the Territorial Defense Command Albania and moved to Tirana . After the Armistice of Cassibile was announced on 8 September 1943, the German 118th Jäger Division and Yugoslav Chetniks demanded
8880-406: The battle. They were sentenced to death and executed in 1947. In total there were 7,543 partisan casualties, more than a third of the initial force. The German field commander, General Rudolf Lüters in his final report described the so-called "communist rebels" as "well organized, skillfully led and with combat morale unbelievably high". The successful Partisan breakout helped their reputation as
9000-458: The beginning of May, Pavle Đurišić established contacts with parts of the 1st Mountain Division and the 4th Brandenburg Regiment. The Germans decided to conceal their real intentions, so they let the first group of disarmed Chetniks go home. By accepting communication with the Chetniks, by mid-May 1943 they managed to concentrate a large number of Chetniks, led by Đurišić, around the town of Kolašin, where German combat units were already deployed. In
9120-480: The brigade assumed the name of XIX Infantry Brigade and received the 70th Infantry Regiment "Ancona" from the disbanded Brigade "Ancona" . The brigade was the infantry component of the 19th Territorial Division of Florence , which also included the 19th Artillery Regiment . In 1934 the division changed its name to 19th Infantry Division " Gavinana ". In preparation for the Second Italo-Ethiopian War
9240-478: The central hospital with over 2000 wounded were surrounded. Following Hitler's instructions, German commander in chief Generaloberst Alexander Löhr ordered their annihilation, including the wounded and the unarmed medical personnel. Of the more than 6,000 killed Partisan fighters in Sutjeska, a large number were exhausted fighters and wounded who were executed by the Germans. The report of the 1st Mountain Division says: "Captured: 498, of which 411 were shot." Most of
9360-478: The development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy. Nevertheless, even with
9480-452: The dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method: One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in
9600-526: The division began an offensive against Wehrmacht forces in Brodarevo , Murina , Berane and Kolašin . The new situation required that the division be split in smaller units and so six brigades were formed, each one centered around one of the brigade's infantry battalions: On 2 December 1943 in Pljevlja the remaining Italian soldiers of the Venezia and 1st Alpine Division "Taurinense" , together with remnants of
9720-607: The division ceded the 87th Infantry Regiment "Friuli" to the 20th Infantry Division "Friuli" . The April 1939 the Venezia was mobilized for the invasion of Albania , landing in Durrës in Albania on 25–30 April 1939 and then occupying Elbasan and Pogradec to the East of Tirana . On 24 August 1939 the 41st Infantry Division "Firenze" was raised in Florence as replacement for the Venezia, which
9840-503: The division moved to the south of Lake Prespa to parry an anticipated Greek attack. Its defence stretched along the Zaroshkë - Bilisht - Kapshticë line. On 3 November 1940 Greek forces attacked the division's right flank. Although the Venezia initially held the position by 4–5 November 1940 it was pushed out of Kapshticë , Bilisht and Bitincke, falling back to the Devoll river. Consequently,
9960-413: The division reached the town of Indabaguna, on 9 March 1936 Debarq , and on 2 April 1936 Dabat . The division was relieved from frontline duties on 22 April 1936 and sent to Axum . For the rest of war it participated in mopping-up operations around Mendefera . After the war the division returned to Italy. On 9 March 1937 the 70th Infantry Regiment "Ancona" left the division and moved to Libya to join
10080-639: The division was mobilized on 28 March 1935 and shipped to Eritrea . The division was deployed near the Ethiopian border in the Adi Quala and Enda-Ghergis area. On 3 October 1935 the division crossed the Mareb River and took an Ethiopian fortified position at De’āro Teklē. On 4 October 1935 the division captured the town of Ādī Ābun and on 6 October 1935 it entered Adwa . The advance then stopped, as several battles were fought around Adwa, in particular at Inda Mīka’ēl to
10200-560: The division was reinforced by the 72nd CC.NN. Legion "Luigi Farini". Despite these reinforcement and severe weather conditions the Venezia's positions continued to crumble, resulting in the failure of the Kungullit mountain defence on 7 January 1941. This was the last major defeat for the Venezia, as the fighting's intensity began to decrease in January–March 1941. On 7 April 1941 a last Greek attack on Qafa e Vashës occurred. On 14 April 1941
10320-507: The eastern provinces of Banat , Bukovina , and Transylvania (German: Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen ), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like Temeschburg ( Timișoara ), Hermannstadt ( Sibiu ), and Kronstadt ( Brașov )—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas. In 1901, the Second Orthographic Conference ended with a (nearly) complete standardization of
10440-414: The entire Sutjeska valley. Having established that this direction, through the source part of Sutjeska and Gatačko Polje , was densely occupied in depth, the Supreme Headquarters decided to divide Partisan forces into two parts. The first group consisted of the 1st and 2nd Divisions, which had already forced Piva, with the Supreme Headquarters, and the second of the 3rd (in a slightly changed composition) and
10560-604: The event of a British invasion of the Balkans, Chetniks under Italian care would switch sides and join the Allies. However, in the first phase, there were tensions and misunderstandings between the German and Italian armies on that issue. Since the Italian commanders in Yugoslavia were very reluctant to disarm the Chetniks, Hitler won the consent through Mussolini government and the Italian Supreme Command . General Mario Robotti
10680-505: The exhausted fighters would rest, the wounded would be treated, and then they would move towards Kosovo and southern Serbia. Fierce battles between partisans and Italian-Chetnik forces were fought in the sector Foča - Kalinovik - Gacko - Šavnik . Nevesinje passed from hand to hand as many as eight times. On April 6, Partisan forces forced the Drina , defeated parts of the Taurinense division and
10800-435: The home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says ' ex abundantia cordis os loquitur ,' I would translate, if I followed the papists, aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund . But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No,
10920-539: The immobile wounded (about 700 of them) were hidden by partisans, with nurses. However, the Germans, searching the terrain with search dogs, killed them almost to the last, together with the nurses. In addition, a large number of civilians were also killed. The SS Mountain division was also notorious for killing civilians suspected of helping partisans. At the post-war trial, generals Alexander Löhr , Fritz Neidholdt and Josef Kübler and at that time Standartenführer August Schmidhuber were charged with war crimes during
11040-474: The influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century. German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire , which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe . Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of
11160-460: The largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (where Riograndenser Hunsrückisch developed), Santa Catarina , and Espírito Santo . 19th Infantry Division Venezia The 19th Infantry Division "Venezia" ( Italian : 19ª Divisione di fanteria "Venezia" ) was a infantry division of the Royal Italian Army during World War II . The Venezia
11280-552: The left side of River Tara. The southern wing of the 1st Alpine Division Taurinense , 23rd Infantry Division Ferrara and the 7th SS Mountain Division Prinz Eugen were supposed to push Partisans from the south and southeast. After that, the 118th Jäger Division had the task of occupying the left bank of the Piva and thus closing the environment, so that the breakthrough was hindered not only by strong forces but also by deep river gorges. This would bring Partisan forces to
11400-457: The majority of forces and the central hospital. In the area around the canyons of Sutjeska and Suha, fierce battles began for the surrounding heights, which alternately fell into the hands of both. An area of 5-6 km was made for the passage of the majority of forces. The wounded were supposed to go there as well. The First Proletarian Division marched through Milinklade and on June 8, 1943, broke out on Zelengora. The Second Proletarian Division
11520-402: The mother in the home and the plain man would say, Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über . Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to modern Standard German. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany , and promoted
11640-630: The ninth century, chief among them being the Muspilli , Merseburg charms , and Hildebrandslied , and other religious texts (the Georgslied , Ludwigslied , Evangelienbuch , and translated hymns and prayers). The Muspilli is a Christian poem written in a Bavarian dialect offering an account of the soul after the Last Judgment , and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from
11760-818: The north and from the east. Partisan forces were keeping parts of the Italian Alpine Division "Taurinense" and about 1,100 Chetniks under blockade in Foča since April 15. In early May, parts of the German 369th Legionary Division penetrated as far as Foča, suppressing the Sixth East Bosnian and Fifteenth Majevica Brigades, liberating the Aosta battalion of the Italian Taurinense division and about 1,000 Chetniks, who had been under siege by Partisan forces for 23 days. The Chetniks were disarmed, and released. The left wing of
11880-408: The north, between Čajniče and Foča, with parts of the 369th Legionary Division, and in the east, near Brodarevo and Mojkovac , with the 1st Mountain Division. Faced with the advance of large German forces from the east, the Supreme Headquarters decided to prevent the closure of the ring by capturing Foča and provide communication with eastern Bosnia. The attack was carried out from May 21 to 25 by
12000-463: The northwest, while the second was given the task of returning to the right bank of the Tara, toward Sandžak. The First Proletarian Division was sent to attack the valley of Sutjeska via Piva and Vučevo. As a dominant point, it was necessary take the hill at Vučevo, to make a corridor for the free passage over Sutjeska, in the direction of Zelengora and further to Bosnia. The German command also foresaw such
12120-625: The offensive, including German , Italian , Croatian , Bulgarian , and over 300 airplanes. For this operation, the Commander of the Southeast, colonel-general Alexander Löhr , received elite 1st Mountain Division from the Eastern Front as reinforcements. Löhr entrusted the tactical command to the German troop commander in Croatia, Rudolf Lüters . The combat group for this operation was therefore called
12240-462: The pronunciation of the ending -ig as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider standardization of pronunciation
12360-542: The reinforced 1st Proletarian Division against the majority of the German 118th Jäger Division and the 4th Home Guard Jäger Brigade of the Independent State of Croatia. Despite certain tactical successes (breaking up of the 7th Mountain Regiment on May 21 and the 13th Mountain Regiment on May 24), after a flanking attack by parts of the 369th Division near Gradac on May 25, this attack proved hopeless. From there, on May 27,
12480-534: The remaining 3,800 troops were repatriated via the liberated Dubrovnik . Attached from 1941: For their conduct after the announcement of the Armistice of Cassibile the President of Italy awarded on 15 March 1950 to the regiments of the 19th Infantry Division "Venezia" Italy's highest military honor, the Gold Medal of Military Valor . The division's commanding officers were: The names of twelve men attached to
12600-411: The same objectives: to eliminate the central Partisan formations and capture their commander, Josip Broz Tito . During the previous operation Weiss , Chetniks fought against Partisans under Italian command. However, even during the operation, negotiations were held between the German and Italian leaders on the disarmament of the Chetniks. German Wehrmacht deeply believed that the Allies would invade
12720-456: The session of the Supreme Staff, the position of the Partisan groups with the hospital was discussed, and it was concluded that the situation was critical. The Supreme Headquarters saw that the main operational group could only break toward the west, through the Sutjeska valley because there were weaker German forces there. However, the Germans foresaw this development, so they hurried to fortify
12840-612: The south of the town. After the Ethiopian counterattack had stalled, the division participated in the Second Battle of Tembien , attacking on 26 February 1936 near Shire . On 2 March 1936 the division destroyed a large Ethiopian formation near Mai Nebri in Eritrea. On 3 March 1936 the division was in pursuit of retreating Ethiopian troops along the Tacazze river. The division then returned to Inda Silasē near Shire on 4 March 1936. On 5–7 March 1936
12960-433: The south to establish a connection with the 7th SS Division, and one to the west, to connect with the headquarters of his division. The remaining, 2nd Battalion, in a battle on May 29, was repelled from dominant positions by the two battalions of the 2nd Proletarian Brigade. The intervention of parts of the division from the north, across the Drina, was suppressed by the forces of the 1st Proletarian Division, which moved across
13080-541: The states of North Dakota and South Dakota , German is the most common language spoken at home after English. As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country , German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region , such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions. A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania Dutch and Texas German . In Brazil,
13200-496: The third most commonly learned second language in the United States in K-12 education. The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used language in science and the third most widely used language on websites . The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in
13320-543: The world being published in German. German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely Afrikaans , Dutch , English , the Frisian languages , and Scots . It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group , such as Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish . Modern German gradually developed from Old High German , which in turn developed from Proto-Germanic during
13440-579: The written form of German. One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534). Luther based his translation primarily on the Meißner Deutsch of Saxony , spending much time among the population of Saxony researching
13560-429: Was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country. Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of
13680-530: Was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today – especially
13800-461: Was classified as a mountain infantry division, which meant that the division's artillery was moved by pack mules instead of the horse-drawn carriages of line infantry divisions. Italy's real mountain warfare divisions were the six alpine divisions manned by Alpini mountain troops. The division was named for the city of Venice and based in Tuscany, from where it also recruited most of its troops. After
13920-485: Was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries. Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of 1996 was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries. Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which
14040-536: Was fiercely against the disarmament of the Chetniks, at least until the partisans were destroyed. This attitude was shared by Chief of Staff of the Italian Army , general Vittorio Ambrosio , but he had to obey the promise that Mussolini gave to Hitler. At the beginning of March 1943, general Ambrosio, summoned Robotti and Alessandro Pirzio Biroli to Rome for talks on the disarmament of Chetniks and operations against partisans. The Axis rallied 127,000 land troops for
14160-510: Was less fortunate. At the place of Bare, not far from Volujak , there was a scene of bloody battles with units of the 118th German Division. On 9 June Tito was nearly killed on Milinklade when a bomb fell near the leading group, wounding him in the arm. The popular post-war report of the event credited Tito's German shepherd dog Luks, for sacrificing his life to save Tito's. Captain William F. Stewart (a Special Operations Executive operative who
14280-626: Was parachuted into Tito's headquarters alongside Captain William Deakin during May) was also killed by the explosion. Facing almost exclusively German troops, the Yugoslav National Liberation Army ( YNLA ) finally succeeded in breaking out across the Sutjeska river through the lines of the German 118th and 104th Jäger and 369th (Croatian) Infantry divisions in the northwestern direction, towards eastern Bosnia. Three brigades and
14400-514: Was to be based permanently in the Italian protectorate of Albania . On 10 June 1940, the day of Italy's entry into World War II, the Venezia was patrolling the Albanian-Yugoslav border in the area between the Drin valley and Bulqizë . As part of Italy's preparation for the attack on Greece the division was ordered on 26 October 1940 to move to Korçë near the border with Greece . On 2 November
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