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48-596: The centre has seven participating states: The EPRC is not associated with the European Union Common Security and Defence Policy , CSDP); it is for instance not a project of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) of the CSDP. The EPRC and its assets may however contribute in the implementation of the CSDP, when made available as a multinational force in accordance with article 42.3 of

96-658: A wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it

144-562: Is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it. Forces introduced at Union level include: This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states . These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under

192-572: Is also a judicial mission in Iraq ( EUJUST Lex ). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA . The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to

240-482: Is directed by political bodies composed of member states ' representatives, and generally requires unanimous decisions. As of April 2019: The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016, it replaces

288-574: Is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft ( fighter aircraft and ground-attack aircraft ). The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M (another example of EU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities. Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states (Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium). Guide to tables: The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue

336-587: Is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states ' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU). Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy . Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs , while Germany, Belgium, and

384-481: The 27 EU member states , 23 are also members of NATO. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market . The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of

432-435: The Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment . The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel. In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls". Guide to table: The combined component strength of

480-487: The European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD). Deterrence theory is applied to deter aggressors as one of the core mandates of Common Security and Defence Policy, yet lacks credibility due to insufficient resources. A new Action Plan on military mobility and cyber resilience was released 10 November 2022. The CSDP

528-567: The Rule of Law in Somalia . It provides strategic level advice, mentoring and training, on issues ranging from coast guard and police functions to police-prosecution cooperation and the drafting of laws. Initially launched as EUCAP Nestor in 2012, the mission was reconfigured to focus on Somalia, thus renamed by the Council of the European Union, EUCAP Somalia in 2016. The mission was established in response to

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576-691: The Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea , the British withdrawal from

624-464: The Treaty on European Union (TEU). The EPRC is presently led by: The EPCR comprises the following components: The EPRC is presently not established at the EU level (referred to as the Common Security and Defence Policy , CSDP); it is for instance not a project of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) of the CSDP. The EPRC and its assets may however contribute in the implementation of

672-535: The Warsaw Pact . Denmark had an opt-out from the CSDP , however voted in a referendum in 2022 to begin to participate in the policy area. "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice

720-500: The member states ' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration . The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell , comprises: While the EU has a command and control (C2) structure , it has no standing permanent military structure along

768-714: The 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration . The CSDP structure – headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell , and sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union ( EDU ) in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm – comprises: The EU command and control structures are much smaller than the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 's (NATO) Command Structure (NCS), which has been established for territorial defence. It has been agreed that NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO) may be used for

816-481: The CSDP, when made available as a multinational force in accordance with article 42.3 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU). Common Security and Defence Policy The Common Security and Defence Policy ( CSDP ) is the European Union 's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management , and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The CSDP involves

864-666: The Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. [...]" The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and

912-611: The DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo , which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections. Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia , Indonesia , Sudan , Palestine , and Ukraine – Moldova . There

960-650: The EPC did not have the strong Paris -based Secretariat of the Fouchet proposals. The Netherlands had always been anxious about this idea, as they thought that it might turn into a competitor for the European Commission. On 6 January 1981, Hans Dietrich Genscher in his speech emphasized on the importance of EPC strengthening. The EPC was amended and strengthened in the Copenhagen report (1973) and London report (1981). It

1008-641: The EU and the election of Trump as US president have given the CSDP a new impetus The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the Republic of Macedonia (now North Macedonia ). Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima , later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in

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1056-506: The EU on 16 December 2002. These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit , sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism , and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations. The EUCAP Somalia is an example of a non-executive, civilian Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) Mission aimed at strengthening maritime security capacities, police sector, as well as promoting

1104-551: The European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011 twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation. France and Italy have blue-water navies . Guide to table: Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry. Guide to table: The air forces of EU member states operate

1152-714: The French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955. In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities ' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states. European defence integration gained momentum soon after

1200-653: The High Representative. The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union (WU, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, BTO) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by

1248-760: The Luxembourg/ Davignon report (1970), which created an informal intergovernmental consultation mechanism where member states could achieve "politics of scale" (Ginsberg, 1989). While EPC adopted the intergovernmental nature of the Fouchet Plans , it disregarded the 'French grandeur' of the Charles de Gaulle era. The involvement of the United Kingdom guaranteed its Atlanticist nature. The European Commission would furthermore be able to express its opinion if matters within its competencies were concerned. Finally,

1296-505: The Netherlands 10-20 each one. The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia. The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros (€). The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018. This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP . European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as

1344-637: The Republic of Macedonia, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina , as part of Operation Althea . Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during " Operation Artemis " under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put

1392-534: The UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009. The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 ( Operation Atalanta ). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in

1440-569: The auspices of NATO, the United Nations , the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , or any other international entity. However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history. Land Forces: Aerial: Naval: Out of

1488-482: The beneficiary countries (excluding Somalia) and training a coastal police force and judges in Somalia, the primary aim being to get the countries in the region to work together to strengthen action at sea. EUCAP Nestor operates in five countries: Djibouti , Kenya , Seychelles , Somalia ( Puntland / Somaliland ) and Tanzania . This is why it is relatively large in terms of staff numbers, with almost 200 people spread across

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1536-527: The conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the High Representative, adopted by the Foreign Affairs Council, generally requiring unanimity, to be then implemented by

1584-514: The deployment of military or civilian missions to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter . Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with secondments from the member states ' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of

1632-468: The different countries. These experts provide legal, strategic and operational advice on maritime safety. European Political Cooperation The European Political Co-operation ( EPC ) was the common term for the co-ordination of foreign policy between member states of the European Communities (EC) from its inception in 1970 until the EPC was superseded by the new European Union 's (EU) Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar upon

1680-416: The early 1990s. Piracy flourished in the absence of effective maritime governance, leading to international efforts to assist the country in reclaiming control over its waters. EUCAP Somalia emerged as part of these efforts, complementing other international missions such as Operation Atalanta and EUTM Somalia . EUCAP Nestor's mandate is divided into two objectives: strengthening the maritime capacities of

1728-645: The end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars . In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks , and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar . In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity ( ESDI ). The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that

1776-596: The entry into force of the Maastricht Treaty in November 1993. In the 1950s and 1960s, the EC member states tried twice to give the internal market a foreign policy dimension but failed on both attempts. The concept of EPC had been under consideration from early 60s but due to opinion difference between General de Gaulle and his partners, its implementation had been halted. Subsequent development of both political and economic activities in countries outside Europe forced

1824-532: The first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union ( EDU ), especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm. Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP. The EU command and control (C2) structure

1872-424: The lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks

1920-491: The local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation. The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter . Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from

1968-566: The members to review their foreign policies. This was after General de Gaulle retired from political office. The idea of the supranational European Defence Community came about following a summit in The Hague (1969) in which the EC heads of state and government instructed their foreign ministers to " study the best way of achieving progress in the matter of political unification, within the context of enlargement. " The foreign ministers subsequently drafted

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2016-436: The naval forces of member states is some 514 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers . The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines. Operation Atalanta (formally European Union Naval Force Somalia) is the first ever (and still ongoing) naval operation of

2064-464: The persistent challenges posed by maritime insecurity in the Western Indian Ocean, particularly piracy, illegal fishing, human trafficking, and arms smuggling. These issues severely impacted both the security and economic stability of Somalia and the surrounding region. Somalia’s extensive coastline (the longest in mainland Africa) was unprotected for years due to the collapse of the government in

2112-448: The southern Mediterranean ( EUNAVFOR Med ), working under the name Operation SOPHIA. Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support security sector reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles". Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to

2160-458: The specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States. [...]" "The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them [on their territory] shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of

2208-512: The traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures. This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy ( ESDP ) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009,

2256-539: The weakness of the EPC. The EPC was superseded by the Common Foreign and Security Policy in the Maastricht Treaty of November 1993. Since the end of World War II , sovereign European countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (or pooled sovereignty ) in an increasing number of areas, in the European integration project or the construction of Europe ( French : la construction européenne ). The following timeline outlines

2304-663: Was codified (formalized) with the Single European Act (1986). The EPC turned out to be a "mixed success." During the 1970s, it was an active player in the Middle East conflict and in the creation of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe , the predecessor of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe . The Soviet–Afghan War (1979) and the handling of the Yugoslav Wars (1991–1995), however, showed

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