34-676: Potter wasps (or mason wasps ), the Eumeninae , are a cosmopolitan wasp group presently considered a subfamily of Vespidae , but sometimes recognized in the past as a separate family, Eumenidae . Mud dauber wasps, which also build their nests with mud, are in the families Sphecidae and Crabronidae and not discussed here. Most eumenine species are black or brown, and commonly marked with strikingly contrasting patterns of yellow, white, orange, or red (or combinations thereof), but some species, mostly from tropical regions, show faint to strong blue or green metallic highlights in
68-494: A broad range of environmental tolerances or from rapid dispersal compared to the time needed for speciation . Transient orca Orcas or killer whales have a cosmopolitan distribution and several distinct populations or types have been documented or suggested. Three to five types of orcas may be distinct enough to be considered different races , subspecies , or possibly even species (see Species problem ). The IUCN reported in 2008, "The taxonomy of this genus
102-413: A cosmopolitan species is an endemic (native) species, or one that is found only in a single geographical location. Endemism usually results in organisms with specific adaptations to one particular climate or region, and the species would likely face challenges if placed in a different environment. There are far more examples of endemic species than cosmopolitan species; one example being the snow leopard ,
136-511: A distinctive "flat-tooth" morphotype exists and preys on sharks. A pair of male orcas, Port and Starboard , have become well known for hunting great whites and other sharks off the South African coast. Orcas occur throughout the waters of Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. They are sighted year round in New Zealand waters, while off Australia, they are seasonally concentrated off
170-466: A lack of samples for type 2 (5 individuals) and how little it was representative of a potential ecotype. Instead, recent studies using dietary tracers such as fatty acids and organic contaminants have shown how varied the diet of North Atlantic orcas is. For example, orcas in the Eastern North Atlantic (Norway, Faroe Islands, Iceland) mainly feed on fish, specifically herring. Meanwhile, those in
204-407: A mud ball she transports back to adds to her nest under construction. All known eumenine species are predators, most of them solitary mass provisioners , though some isolated species show primitive states of social behaviour and progressive provisioning . When a cell is completed, the adult wasp typically collects beetle larvae , spiders , or caterpillars and, paralyzing them, places them in
238-634: A planet too large for local populations to interbreed routinely with each other include genetic effects such as ring species , such as in the Larus gulls, and the formation of clines such as in Drosophila . Cosmopolitan distributions can be observed both in extinct and extant species. For example, Lystrosaurus was cosmopolitan in the Early Triassic after the Permian-Triassic extinction event . In
272-520: A species found only in Central Asian mountain ranges, an environment to which the cats have adapted over millions of years. The caveat "in appropriate habitat" is used to qualify the term "cosmopolitan distribution", excluding in most instances polar regions, extreme altitudes, oceans, deserts, or small, isolated islands. For example, the housefly is highly cosmopolitan, yet is neither oceanic nor polar in its distribution. The term pandemism also
306-447: Is clearly in need of review, and it is likely that O. orca will be split into a number of different species or at least subspecies over the next few years." Although large variation in the ecological distinctiveness of different orca groups complicate simple differentiation into types. Mammal-eating orcas in different regions were long thought likely to be closely related, but genetic testing has refuted this hypothesis. Research off
340-498: Is found year-round around Labrador and Newfoundland , while some individuals seasonally travel to the waters of the eastern Canadian Arctic when the ice has melted. Sightings of these whales have been documented as far south as Cape Cod and Long Island . This population is possibly continuous with orcas sighted off Greenland. Orcas are sighted year-round in the Caribbean Sea , and an estimated 267 (as of 2020) are documented in
374-527: Is home to some indigenous species within the Myrmeleontidae, but nonetheless no one species, nor even genus, of the Myrmeleontidae is cosmopolitan. Conversely, partly as a result of human introduction of unnatural apiculture to the New World, Apis mellifera probably is the only cosmopolitan member of its family; the rest of the family Apidae have modest distributions. Even where a cosmopolitan population
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#1732851876340408-430: Is in use, but not all authors are consistent in the sense in which they use the term; some speak of pandemism mainly in referring to diseases and pandemics , and some as a term intermediate between endemism and cosmopolitanism, in effect regarding pandemism as subcosmopolitanism . This means near cosmopolitanism, but with major gaps in the distribution , say, complete absence from Australia. Terminology varies, and there
442-454: Is mud made of a mixture of soil and regurgitated water, but many species instead use chewed plant material. The name "potter wasp" derives from the shape of the mud nests built by species of Eumenes and similar genera. It is believed that Native Americans based their pottery designs upon the form of local potter wasp nests. The female wasp scrapes up mud or dirt with her mandibles and front legs, combining it with water and saliva to form
476-535: Is recognised as a single species, such as indeed Apis mellifera , there generally will be variation between regional sub-populations. Such variation commonly is at the level of subspecies , varieties or morphs , whereas some variation is too slight or inconsistent for formal recognition. For an example of subspecific variation, consider the East African lowland honey bee ( Apis mellifera scutellata )—best known for being hybridized with various European subspecies of
510-508: Is some debate whether the true opposite of endemism is pandemism or cosmopolitanism. A related concept in biogeography is that of oceanic cosmopolitanism and endemism. Rather than allow ubiquitous travel, the World Ocean is complicated by physical obstacles such as temperature gradients. These prevent migration of tropical species between the Atlantic and Indian/Pacific oceans. Conversely,
544-478: The Arctic Circle to Antarctica and every coastal and open-water region in-between. Such a taxon (usually a species ) is said to have a cosmopolitan distribution, or exhibit cosmopolitanism , as a species; another example, the rock dove (commonly referred to as a ' pigeon '), in addition to having been bred domestically for centuries, now occurs in most urban areas around the world. The extreme opposite of
578-554: The Arctic tern occur from the Arctic to the Southern Ocean , but at any one season of the year they are likely to be largely in passage or concentrated at only one end of the range. Also, some such species breed only at one end of the range. Seen purely as an aspect of cosmopolitanism, such distributions could be seen as temporal, seasonal variations. Other complications of cosmopolitanism on
612-669: The west coast of Canada and the United States in the 1970s and 1980s identified the following three types: Separate fish-eating and mammal-eating orca communities also exist off the coast of the Russian Far East and Hokkaido , Japan. Russian orcas are commonly seen around the Kamchatka Peninsula and Commander Islands . Over 2,000 individual resident-like orcas and 130 transient-like orcas have been identified off Russia. At least 195 individual orcas have been cataloged in
646-479: The western honey bee to create the so-called " African killer bee "—and the Cape bee , which is the subspecies Apis mellifera capensis ; both of them are in the same cosmopolitan species Apis mellifera , but their ranges barely overlap. Other cosmopolitan species, such as the house sparrow and osprey , present similar examples, but in yet other species there are less familiar complications: some migratory birds such as
680-462: The 1980s by Soviet researchers, but most cetacean researchers are skeptical about their status, and linking these directly to the types described below is difficult. Types B and C live close to the ice, and diatoms in these waters may be responsible for the yellowish colouring of both types. Mitochondrial DNA sequences support the theory that these are recently diverged separate species. More recently, complete mitochondrial sequencing indicates
714-657: The Central North Atlantic (Greenland) prefer to consume seals such as ringed, harp, hooded, and bearded seals. Finally, orcas in the Western North Atlantic (Eastern Canadian Arctic and Eastern Canada) tend to prey on other whale species, such as belugas and narwhals in the Arctic and baleen whales and porpoises in Eastern Canada. In the Mediterranean Sea , orcas are considered "visitors", likely from
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#1732851876340748-509: The North Atlantic, and sightings become less frequent further east. However, a small year-round population exists in the Strait of Gibraltar , which numbered around 39 in 2011. From 2020, this population started ramming vessels and damaging their rudders . Distinct populations may also exist off the west coast of tropical Africa, which have generalized diets. The northwest Atlantic population
782-519: The Northeast Atlantic, two orca ecotypes have been proposed. Type 1 orcas consist of seven haplotypes and include herring-eating orcas of Norway and Iceland and mackerel-eating orcas of the North Sea , as well as seal-eating orcas off Norway. Type 2 orcas consist of two haplotypes, and mainly feed on baleen whales . These two types have now been dropped from the classification, because of
816-550: The Northern marine regions and Southern Ocean are separated by the tropics , too warm for many species to traverse. Another aspect of cosmopolitanism is that of ecological limitations. A species that is apparently cosmopolitan because it occurs in all oceans might in fact occupy only littoral zones , or only particular ranges of depths, or only estuaries , for example. Analogously, terrestrial species might be present only in forests, or mountainous regions, or sandy arid regions or
850-633: The background colors. Like most vespids, their wings are folded longitudinally at rest. They are particularly recognized by the following combination of characteristics: Eumenine wasps are diverse in nest building. The different species may either use existing cavities (such as beetle tunnels in wood, abandoned nests of other Hymenoptera , or even man-made holes like old nail holes and screw shafts on electronic devices) that they modify in several degrees, or they construct their own either underground or exposed nests. The nest may have one or several individual brood cells. The most widely used building material
884-409: The cell to serve as food for a single wasp larva. For example, Euodynerus foraminatus paralyzes the larvae of the poison hemlock moth ( A. alstroemeriana ). As a normal rule, the adult wasp lays a single egg in the empty cell before provisioning it. Some species lay the egg in the opening of the cell, suspended from a thread of dried fluid. When the wasp larva hatches, it drops and starts to feed upon
918-567: The eastern tropical Pacific, ranging from Baja California and the Gulf of California in the north to the northwest coast of South America in the south and west towards Hawaii. Orcas appear to regularly occur off the Galápagos Islands . Orcas sighted in Hawaiian waters may belong to a greater population in the central Pacific. At least 15,000 whales are estimated to inhabit the North Atlantic. In
952-430: The like. Such distributions might be patchy, or extended, but narrow. Factors of such a nature are taken widely for granted, so they seldom are mentioned explicitly in mentioning cosmopolitan distributions. Cosmopolitanism of a particular species or variety should not be confused with cosmopolitanism of higher taxa. For example, the family Myrmeleontidae is cosmopolitan in the sense that every continent except Antarctica
986-522: The modern world, the orca , the blue whale , and the great white shark all have cosmopolitan distribution, extending over most of the Earth's oceans . The wasp Copidosoma floridanum is another example, as it is found around the world. Other examples include humans , cats , dogs , the western honey bee , brown rats , the foliose lichen Parmelia sulcata , and the mollusc genus Mytilus . The term can also apply to some diseases. It may result from
1020-556: The northern Gulf of Mexico . Over 50 individual whales have been cataloged in the northern Indian Ocean, including two individuals that were sighted in the Persian Gulf in 2008 and off Sri Lanka in 2015. A small population of orcas seasonally visits the northern point of the Valdes Peninsula on the east coast of Argentina and hunt for sea lions and elephant seals on the shore, temporary stranding themselves. Off South Africa,
1054-566: The northwest, in the inshore waters of Ningaloo Reef , and the southwest, at the Bremer region . Genetic evidence shows that the orcas of New Zealand, and northwest and southwest Australia form three distinct populations. New Zealand orcas mainly prey on sharks and rays . Around 25,000 orcas are estimated around the Antarctic , and four types have been documented. Two dwarf species, named Orcinus nanus and Orcinus glacialis , were described during
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1088-407: The potter wasp species is reflected in the proliferation of genera described to group them into more manageable groups. The subfamily Zethinae was formerly included here, but was removed when it was recognized that it rendered Eumeninae paraphyletic . Cosmopolitan distribution In biogeography , a cosmopolitan distribution is the range of a taxon that extends across most or all of
1122-458: The supplied prey for a few weeks before pupating . The complete lifecycle may last from a few weeks to more than a year from the egg until the adult emerges. Adult potter wasps feed on floral nectar . Potter wasps are the most diverse subfamily of vespids , with almost 200 genera, and contain the vast majority of species in the family (nearly 3,000 species from a total of about 4,500 in the whole family). The overwhelming morphological diversity of
1156-413: The surface of the Earth, in appropriate habitats ; most cosmopolitan species are known to be highly adaptable to a range of climatic and environmental conditions, though this is not always so. Killer whales ( orcas ) are among the most well-known cosmopolitan species on the planet, as they maintain several different resident and transient (migratory) populations in every major oceanic body on Earth, from
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