Etzanoa is a historical city of the Wichita people , located in present-day Arkansas City, Kansas , near the Arkansas River , that flourished between 1450 and 1700. Dubbed "the Great Settlement" by Spanish explorers who visited the site, Etzanoa may have housed 20,000 Wichita people . The historical city is considered part of Quivira .
124-619: When Spanish conquistador Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 's expedition visited central Kansas in 1541, he dubbed the Wichita settlements "Quivira". The Umana and Leyba expedition visited the Etzanoa site in 1594 and Juan de Oñate visited there in 1601. They recorded the inhabitants as being the Rayados. In Spanish Rayados means "striped." The Wichita people were noted for the straight lines they tattooed onto their faces and their bodies. In April 2017,
248-490: A brown bear or a pack of wolves. The rutting, or mating, season lasts from June through September, with peak activity in July and August. At this time, the older bulls rejoin the herd, and fights often take place between bulls. The herd exhibits much restlessness during breeding season. The animals are belligerent, unpredictable, and most dangerous. American bison live in river valleys and on prairies and plains. Typical habitat
372-473: A chief named Catarax – a Wichita title – the description of their granaries, and their location all agree with descriptions of the Wichita. As Wichitas, the Rayados were related to the people that Coronado had discovered in Quivira 60 years earlier. Linguist Nancy Parrott Hickerson dissents and called them "Jumanos." Jumano seems to have been a generic term for Plains Indians with painted or tattooed faces, as were
496-417: A city of vast wealth, a golden city called Cíbola , whose Zuni residents were assumed to have murdered Estevan. Though he did not claim to have entered the city of Cíbola, he mentioned that it stood on a high hill and that it appeared wealthy and as large as Mexico City. Vázquez de Coronado assembled an expedition with two components. One component carried the bulk of the expedition's supplies, traveling via
620-688: A code of ethics that prohibits its members from deliberately crossbreeding bison with any other species. In the United States, many ranchers are now using DNA testing to cull the residual cattle genetics from their bison herds. The proportion of cattle DNA that has been measured in introgressed individuals and bison herds today is typically quite low, ranging from 0.56 to 1.8%. There are also remnant purebred American bison herds on public lands in North America. Two subspecies of bison exist in North America:
744-580: A crushing disappointment: Cíbola was nothing like the great golden city that de Niza had described. Instead, it was just a village of nondescript pueblos constructed by the Zuni . The soldiers were upset with de Niza for his mendacious imagination, so Vázquez de Coronado sent him back south to New Spain in disgrace. Despite what is shown in the accompanying map, on-the-ground research by Nugent Brasher beginning in 2005 revealed evidence that Vázquez de Coronado traveled north between Chichilticalli and Zuni primarily on
868-735: A failure. Although he remained governor of Nueva Galicia until 1544, the expedition forced him into bankruptcy and resulted in charges of war crimes being brought against him and his field master, Cárdenas. Vázquez de Coronado was cleared by his friends on the Audiencia, but Cárdenas was convicted in Spain of basically the same charges by the Council of the Indies. Vázquez de Coronado remained in Mexico City , where he died of an infectious disease on September 22, 1554. He
992-640: A fertile hybrid of bison and domestic cattle. A market even exists for kosher bison meat; these bison are slaughtered at one of the few kosher mammal slaughterhouses in the U.S. and Canada, and the meat is then distributed worldwide. In America, the commercial industry for bison has been slow to develop despite individuals, such as Ted Turner , who have long marketed bison meat. In the 1990s, Turner found limited success with restaurants for high-quality cuts of meat, which include bison steaks and tenderloin. Lower-quality cuts suitable for hamburger and hot dogs have been described as "almost nonexistent". This created
1116-537: A few more days of traveling. He found Quivira "well settled ... along good river bottoms, although without much water, and good streams which flow into another". Vázquez de Coronado believed that there were twenty-five settlements in Quivira. Both men and women Quivirans were nearly naked. Vázquez de Coronado was impressed with the size of the Quivirans and all the other Indians he met. They were "large people of very good build". Vázquez de Coronado spent twenty-five days among
1240-633: A marketing problem for commercial farming because the majority of usable meat, about 400 pounds for each bison, is suitable for these products. In 2003, the United States Department of Agriculture purchased $ 10 million worth of frozen overstock to save the industry, which would later recover through better use of consumer marketing. Restaurants have played a role in popularizing bison meat, like Ted's Montana Grill , which added bison to their menus. Ruby Tuesday first offered bison on their menus in 2005. In Canada, commercial bison farming began in
1364-782: A place, with settlements like these, and of about the same size" as Quivira. They were probably the ancestors of the Pawnee. Vázquez de Coronado returned to the Tiguex Province in New Mexico from Quivira and was badly injured in a fall from his horse "after the winter was over", according to the chronicler Castañeda—probably in March 1542. During a long convalescence, he and his expeditionaries decided to return to New Spain (Mexico). Vázquez de Coronado and his expedition departed New Mexico in early April 1542, leaving behind two friars. His expedition had been
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#17328519225721488-449: A province of New Spain located northwest of Mexico and comprising the contemporary Mexican states of Jalisco , Sinaloa and Nayarit . In 1539, he dispatched Friar Marcos de Niza and Estevanico (more properly known as Estevan), one of only four survivors of the Narváez expedition , on an expedition north from Compostela toward present-day New Mexico . When de Niza returned, he told of
1612-519: A quantity of cows ... that it is impossible to number them, for while I was journeying through these plains ... there was not a day that I lost sight of them." Vázquez de Coronado found a community of people he called Querechos . The Querechos were not awed or impressed by the Spanish, their weapons, and their "big dogs" (horses). "They did nothing unusual when they saw our army, except to come out of their tents to look at us, after which they came to talk to
1736-557: A river larger than any he had seen before. This was the Arkansas , probably a few miles east of present-day Dodge City, Kansas . The Spaniards and their Indian allies followed the Arkansas northeast for three days and found Quivirans hunting buffalo. The Indians greeted the Spanish with wonderment and fear but calmed down when one of Vázquez de Coronado's guides addressed them in their own language. Vázquez de Coronado reached Quivira itself after
1860-532: A river, with more water and more inhabitants than the other". This sounds as if Vázquez de Coronado may have reached the Smoky Hill River near Salina or Abilene . It is a larger river than either Cow Creek or the Little Arkansas and is located at roughly the 25 league distance from Lyons that Vázquez de Coronado said he traveled in Quivira. The people of Harahey seem Caddoan, because "it was the same sort of
1984-413: A specialized stomach prior to digestion. Bison were once thought to almost exclusively consume grasses and sedges, but are now known to consume a wide-variety of plants including woody plants and herbaceous eudicots. Over the course of the year, bison shift which plants they select in their diet based on which plants have the highest protein or energy concentrations at a given time and will reliably consume
2108-582: A way to administer justice in land the king could not see nor the army reach. Francisco, Beatriz and their children actually ended their days comfortably. In 1939, United States 76th Congress passes the Coronado Exposition Commission Act of 1939 authorizing the erection of a monument at the nearest point of the international boundary between the United States and Mexico where the Coronado expedition first crossed into North America. In 1952,
2232-719: A wealthy man. Beatriz brought to the marriage the encomienda of Tlapa, the third largest encomienda in New Spain. This marriage was an important source of funding for Francisco's expedition. Beatriz and Francisco have been reported, through different sources, to have had at least four sons (Gerónimo, Salvador, Juan, and Alonso) and five daughters (Isabel, María, Luisa, Mariana, and Mayor). After Alonso's death, Beatriz ensured that three of their daughters were married into prominent families of New Spain. She never remarried. Beatriz reported that her husband had died in great poverty, since their encomiendas had been taken away from them due to
2356-518: Is a common behavior of bison. A bison wallow is a shallow depression in the soil, either wet or dry. Bison roll in these depressions, covering themselves with mud or dust. Possible explanations suggested for wallowing behavior include grooming behavior associated with moulting, male-male interaction (typically rutting behavior), social behavior for group cohesion, play behavior, relief from skin irritation due to biting insects, reduction of ectoparasite load ( ticks and lice ), and thermoregulation. In
2480-550: Is a large bovine in the genus Bison (Greek: "wild ox" (bison) ) within the tribe Bovini . Two extant and numerous extinct species are recognised. Of the two surviving species, the American bison , B. bison , found only in North America , is the more numerous. Although colloquially referred to as a buffalo in the United States and Canada, it is only distantly related to the true buffalo . The North American species
2604-465: Is also considered correct as a result of standard usage in American English, and is listed in many dictionaries as an acceptable name for American buffalo or bison. "Buffalo" has a much longer history than "bison", which was first recorded in 1774. Bison was a significant resource for indigenous peoples of North America for food and raw materials until near extinction in the late 19th century. For
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#17328519225722728-401: Is an accepted version of this page Francisco Vázquez de Coronado ( Spanish pronunciation: [fɾanˈθisko ˈβaθkeθ ðe koɾoˈnaðo] ; 1510 – 22 September 1554) was a Spanish conquistador and explorer who led a large expedition from what is now Mexico to present-day Kansas through parts of the southwestern United States between 1540 and 1542. Vázquez de Coronado had hoped to reach
2852-504: Is composed of two subspecies, the Plains bison , B. b. bison , and the wood bison , B. b. athabascae , which is the namesake of Wood Buffalo National Park in Canada. A third subspecies, the eastern bison ( B. b. pennsylvanicus ) is no longer considered a valid taxon , being a junior synonym of B. b. bison . References to "woods bison" or "wood bison" from
2976-651: Is found on the plains around the Henry Mountains , Utah , as well as in mountain valleys of the Henry Mountains to an altitude of 3,000 metres (10,000 ft). European bison most commonly live in lightly wooded to fully wooded areas as well as areas with increased shrubs and bushes. European bison can sometimes be found living on grasslands and plains as well. Throughout most of their historical range, landowners have sought restrictions on free-ranging bison. Herds on private land are required to be fenced in. In
3100-499: Is low. Reproduction is dependent on a cow's mass and age. Heavier cows produce heavier calves (weighed in the fall at weaning), and weights of calves are lower for older cows (after age 8). Owing to their size, bison have few predators. Five exceptions are humans , grey wolves , cougars , grizzly bears , and coyotes . Wolves generally take down a bison while in a pack, but cases of a single wolf killing bison have been reported. Grizzly bears also consume bison, often by driving off
3224-504: Is open or semiopen grasslands, as well as sagebrush, semiarid lands, and scrublands. Some lightly wooded areas are also known historically to have supported bison. They also graze in hilly or mountainous areas where the slopes are not steep. Although not particularly known as high-altitude animals, bison in the Yellowstone Park bison herd are frequently found at elevations above 2,400 metres (8,000 ft). The Henry Mountains bison herd
3348-649: Is researching sites in Rice and McPherson Counties . Archaeologists have discovered more than a dozen large settlements along six miles of the Walnut River extending upstream from near its junction with the Arkansas River. These are called the Lower Walnut focus sites. The occupation of these sites has been dated from 1500 to 1720. Some artifacts of Spanish origin have been found at the site. The Rayados probably abandoned
3472-462: Is wounded) and describe the injury sustained by Coronado during that battle. The song "Hitchin' to Quivira" from independent singer-songwriter Tyler Jakes 's 2016 album Mojo Suicide is based on the story of Vázquez de Coronado's expedition. The song "Coronado And The Turk" from singer-songwriter Steve Tilston 's 1992 album Of Moor And Mesa is based on the story of Vázquez de Coronado's expedition. Bison A bison ( pl. : bison )
3596-509: The Antelope Island bison herd are regularly inoculated against brucellosis, parasites, Clostridium infection, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, and bovine vibriosis. The major illnesses in European bison are foot-and-mouth disease and balanoposthitis . Inbreeding of a small population plays a role in a number of genetic defects and lowers immunity to disease; that poses greater risk to
3720-599: The Eastern United States refer to this subspecies, not B. b. athabascae , which was not found in the region. The European bison , B. bonasus , or wisent, or zubr, or colloquially European buffalo, is found in Europe and the Caucasus , reintroduced after being extinct in the wild . While bison species have been traditionally classified in their own genus , modern genetics indicates that they are nested within
3844-688: The Great Plains to search for Quivira. The Turk was probably either Wichita or Pawnee and his intention seems to have been to lead Vázquez de Coronado astray and hope that he got lost in the Great Plains. With the Turk guiding him, Vázquez de Coronado and his army might have crossed the flat and featureless steppe called the Llano Estacado in the Texas Panhandle and Eastern New Mexico , passing through
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3968-712: The Henry Mountains bison herd to be free of brucellosis , a bacterial disease that was imported with non-native domestic cattle to North America. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists considered Bison to be a subgenus, and placed both bison species back into Bos . Relationships of bovines based on nuclear DNA, after Sinding, et al. 2021. Bubalina (true buffalo) Bos primigenius + Bos taurus (aurochs and cattle) Bos mutus (wild yak) Bison bison (American bison) Bison bonasus (European bison/wisent) Bos javanicus (banteng) Bos gaurus (gaur) Bos sauveli (kouprey) Wallowing
4092-742: The Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene in Asia. The earliest members of the bison lineage, known from the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of the Indian Subcontinent ( Bison sivalensis ) and China ( Bison palaeosinensis ), approximately 3.4-2.6 million years ago (Ma) are placed in the subgenus Bison ( Eobison ) . The oldest remains of Eobison in Europe are those Bison georgicus found in Dmanisi , Georgia, dated to around 1.76 Ma. More derived members of
4216-460: The New Laws , and that she and her daughters lived in misery too, a shame for the widow of a conqueror that had provided such valuable service to his majesty. This, as most reports from the early days of New Spain, both positive and negative and regarding all things, have been proven to be false, part of the power struggles among settlers and attempts to exploit the budding new system that tried to find
4340-617: The Nexpa , which may have been either the Santa Cruz or the San Pedro in modern Arizona of modern maps, most likely the northward-flowing San Pedro River. The party followed this river valley until they reached the edge of the wilderness, where, as Friar Marcos had described it to them, they found Chichilticalli. Chichilticalli is in southern Arizona in the Sulphur Springs Valley , within
4464-500: The indigenous peoples of the Plains , it was their principal food source. Native Americans highly valued their relationship with the bison and saw them as sacred, treating them respectfully to ensure their abundance and longevity. In his biography, Lakota teacher and elder John Fire Lame Deer describes the relationship as such: The buffalo gave us everything we needed. Without it we were nothing. Our tipis were made of his skin. His hide
4588-415: The mitochondrial DNA of European bison is more closely related to that of domestic cattle and aurochs (while the mitochondrial DNA of American bison is closely related to that of yaks). This discrepancy is either suggested to be the result of incomplete lineage sorting or ancient introgression . Bison are widely believed to have evolved from a lineage belonging to the extinct genus Leptobos during
4712-774: The plains bison and the wood bison . Herds of importance are found in Yellowstone National Park , Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota , Blue Mounds State Park in Minnesota , Elk Island National Park in Alberta , and Grasslands National Park in Saskatchewan . In 2015, a purebred herd of 350 individuals was identified on public lands in the Henry Mountains of southern Utah via genetic testing of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. This study, published in 2015, also showed
4836-573: The 19th and 20th centuries, but have since rebounded. The wisent in part owes its survival to the Chernobyl disaster, as the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone has become a kind of wildlife preserve for wisent and other rare megafauna such as the Przewalski's horse , though poaching has become a threat in recent years. The American Plains bison is no longer listed as endangered , but this does not mean
4960-484: The 19th century, although the causes of decline and the numbers killed are disputed and debated. Railroads were advertising "hunting by rail", where trains encountered large herds alongside or crossing the tracks. Men aboard fired from the train's roof or windows, leaving countless animals to rot where they died. This overhunting was in part motivated by the U.S. government's desire to limit the range and power of indigenous plains Indians whose diets and cultures depended on
5084-647: The American and European bison. The American species has 15 ribs, while the European bison has 14. The American bison has four lumbar vertebrae, while the European has five. (The difference in this case is that what would be the first lumbar vertebra has ribs attached to it in American bison and is thus counted as the 15th thoracic vertebra, compared to 14 thoracic vertebrae in wisent.) Adult American bison are less slim in build and have shorter legs. American bison tend to graze more, and browse less than their European relatives. Their anatomies reflect this behavioural difference;
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5208-588: The American bison's head hangs lower than the European's. The body of the American bison is typically hairier, though its tail has less hair than that of the European bison. The horns of the European bison point through the plane of their faces, making them more adept at fighting through the interlocking of horns in the same manner as domestic cattle, unlike the American bison, which favours butting. American bison are more easily tamed than their European cousins, and breed with domestic cattle more readily. The bovine tribe (Bovini) split about 5 to 10 million years ago into
5332-632: The Asian water buffalo and the African buffalo . Samuel de Champlain applied the French term buffle to the bison in 1616 (published 1619), after seeing skins and a drawing shown to him by members of the Nipissing First Nation , who said they travelled 40 days (from east of Lake Huron) to trade with another nation who hunted the animals. Though "bison" might be considered more scientifically correct, "buffalo"
5456-678: The Cities of Cíbola, often referred to now as the mythical Seven Cities of Gold . His expedition marked the first European sightings of the Grand Canyon and the Colorado River , among other landmarks. His name is often Anglicized as Vasquez de Coronado or just Coronado . Vázquez de Coronado was born into a noble family in Salamanca , Spain, in 1510 as the second son of Juan Vázquez de Coronado and Isabel de Luján. Juan Vázquez held various positions in
5580-710: The DV) of thiamine. The earliest plausible accounts of captive bison are those of the zoo at Tenochtitlan , the Aztec capital, which held an animal the Spaniards called "the Mexican bull". In 1552, Francisco Lopez de Gomara described Plains Indians herding and leading bison like cattle in his controversial book, Historia general de las Indias . Gomara, having never visited the Americas himself, likely misinterpreted early ethnographic accounts as
5704-458: The Guadalupe River and Gulf of California under the leadership of Hernando de Alarcón . The other component traveled by land, along the trail on which Friar Marcos de Niza had followed Esteban. Vázquez de Coronado and Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza invested large sums of their own money in the venture. Mendoza appointed Vázquez de Coronado the commander of the expedition, with the mission to find
5828-467: The Last Crusade references the "Cross of Coronado". According to the film, this gold cross, discovered in a Utah cave system, was given to Vázquez de Coronado by Hernán Cortés in 1521. Such an event never happened because Vázquez de Coronado would have been 11 or 12 years old in 1521 and still living in Spain. In addition, when Indy captures the cross from robbers aboard a ship off the coast of Portugal,
5952-698: The Querechos behind and continued southeast in the direction in which the Turk told him that Quivira was located. He and his army descended off the tabletop of the Llano Estacado into the caprock canyon country. He soon met with another group of Indians, the Teyas , enemies of the Querechos. The Teyas, like the Querechos, were numerous and buffalo hunters, although they had additional resources. The canyons they inhabited had trees and flowing streams and they grew or foraged for beans, but not corn. The Spanish, however, did note
6076-416: The Quivirans trying to learn of richer kingdoms just over the horizon. He found nothing but straw-thatched villages of up to two hundred houses and fields containing corn, beans, and squash. A copper pendant was the only evidence of wealth he discovered. The Quivirans were almost certainly the ancestors of the Wichita people. Vázquez de Coronado was escorted to the further edge of Quivira, called Tabas, where
6200-409: The Rayados abandoned their settlement on the arrival of Oñate's expedition may be an indication that they had had previous, unfavorable dealings with the Spanish. In 1594 or 1595, Antonio Gutierrez de Umana and Francisco Leyba de Bonilla led the first known expedition to the Great Plains of Oklahoma and Kansas in more than 50 years. An Indigenous Mexican Jusepe Gutierrez was the lone survivor of
6324-404: The Rayados. Both Jusepe's and Oñate's accounts describe the Rayados as numerous. The more than 1,200 houses which Oñate estimated for the settlement indicates a population of at least 12,000, if the houses were as large as those of later Wichita tribes. Moreover, Chief Catarax told the Spanish explorers that there were additional settlements upstream on that river and on other rivers. The fact that
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#17328519225726448-482: The Spanish peacefully and furnished them with abundant supplies of food" The expedition encountered a "multitude" of bison in the region. It appears these were the same people later called "Rayados." In 1601, Juan de Oñate , founder and governor of New Mexico, led an expedition that followed in the footsteps of Leyba and Umana. Jusepe guided Oñate, more than 70 Spanish soldiers and priests, an unknown number of Indian soldiers and servants, and 700 horses and mules across
6572-399: The Spanish to attack the Rayados, who they alleged were responsible for the deaths of Leyba and Umana a few years earlier. The Escanjaques guided Oñate to a nearby river, probably the Arkansas, where they saw a few hundred Rayados on a hill. The Rayados advanced, throwing dirt into the air as a sign that they were ready for war. Oñate indicated that he did not wish to fight and made peace with
6696-454: The Teyas. A plurality believe they were Caddoan speakers and related to the Wichita. The place where Vázquez de Coronado found the Teyas has also been debated. The mystery may have been cleared up—to the satisfaction of some—by the discovery of a likely Vázquez de Coronado campsite. While Vázquez de Coronado was in the canyon country, his army suffered one of the violent climatic events so common on
6820-486: The Tiguex pueblos and the deaths of hundreds of Native Americans. The Spaniards also captured a Wichita woman, Big Eyes , who had been enslaved by the Tiguex, and who would become a guide for the expedition. From an indigenous informant the Spanish called "the Turk" ( el turco ), Vázquez de Coronado heard of a wealthy nation called Quivira far to the east. In spring 1541, he led his army and priests and indigenous allies onto
6944-406: The Turk garroted (executed). The Turk is regarded as an Indian hero in a display at Albuquerque's Indian Pueblo Cultural Center because his disinformation led Vázquez de Coronado onto the Great Plains and thus relieved the beleaguered pueblos of Spanish depredations for at least a few months. Archaeological evidence suggests that Quivira was in central Kansas with the westernmost village near
7068-709: The United States established Coronado National Memorial near Sierra Vista, Arizona to commemorate his expedition. The nearby Coronado National Forest is also named in his honor. In 1908, Coronado Butte , a summit in the Grand Canyon, was officially named to commemorate him. A large hill northwest of Lindsborg, Kansas, is called Coronado Heights . Coronado High Schools in Lubbock , Texas; El Paso , Texas; Colorado Springs , Colorado; and Scottsdale , Arizona were named for Vázquez de Coronado. Coronado Road in Phoenix, Arizona ,
7192-515: The Walnut River site in the early 18th century. Perhaps they moved a few miles south to Kay County, Oklahoma , where two 18th-century archaeological sites, Deer Creek and Bryson Paddock , of the Wichita are known. They appear to have been much reduced in numbers by then, possibly as a result of European diseases, warfare, and the slave trade in Indians . The descendants of the Rayados were absorbed into
7316-504: The Wichita tribe. A 2020 aerial investigation by Blakeslee discovered a probable Etzanoa ceremonial site near the previously-identified sites along the Walnut River, with its most prominent feature a circular or semi-circular ditch of two meters width and 50 meters in diameter. Archaeologists and historians believe the Rayado Indians spoke a Caddoan language and were a Wichita sub-tribe. Their grass houses, dispersed mode of settlement,
7440-546: The administration of the recently captured Emirate of Granada under Íñigo López de Mendoza , its first Christian governor. Francisco Vázquez de Coronado went to New Spain (present-day Mexico) in 1535 at about age 25, in the entourage of its first Viceroy , Antonio de Mendoza , the son of his father's patron and Vázquez de Coronado's personal friend. In New Spain, he married twelve-year-old Beatriz de Estrada, called "the Saint" ( la Santa ), sister of Leonor de Estrada, ancestor of
7564-448: The advance guard, and asked who we were." As Vázquez de Coronado described them, the Querechos were nomads, following the buffalo herds on the plains. The Querechos were numerous. Chroniclers mentioned one settlement of two hundred tipis—which implies a population of more than one thousand people living together for at least part of the year. Authorities agree that the Querechos (Becquerel's) were Apache Indians. Vázquez de Coronado left
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#17328519225727688-490: The bend of the Dos Cabezas and Chiricahua Mountains . This fits the chronicle of Laus Deo description, which reports that "at Chichilticalli the country changes its character again and the spiky vegetation ceases. The reason is that ... the mountain chain changes its direction at the same time that the coast does. Here they had to cross and pass the mountains in order to get into the level country." There Vázquez de Coronado met
7812-426: The better part of valor. Oñate estimated that three hundred Spanish soldiers would be needed to confront the Rayados, and he turned his soldiers around to return to New Mexico. Oñate feared a Rayados attack, but apparently it was the Escanjaques who attacked as they turned to New Mexico. Oñate claimed that many Escanjaques were killed in the battle, but many of his soldiers were wounded. After two hours, Oñate broke off
7936-416: The bison's population to nearly 150,000, and it is officially no longer considered an endangered species . However, from a genetic standpoint, most of these animals are actually hybrids with domestic cattle and only two populations in Yellowstone National Park in the United States and Elk Island National Park in Canada remain as genetically pure bison. These genetically pure animals account for only ~5% of
8060-427: The buffalo herds. The overhunting of the bison reduced their population to hundreds. The American bison's nadir came in 1889, with an estimated population of only 1,091 animals (both wild and captive). Repopulation attempts via enforced protection of government herds and extensive ranching began in 1910 and have continued (with excellent success) to the present day, with some caveats. Extensive farming has increased
8184-402: The buffalos ( Bubalus and Syncerus ) and a group leading to bison and taurine cattle. Genetic evidence from nuclear DNA indicates that the closest living relatives of bison are yaks , with bison being nested within the genus Bos , rendering Bos without including bison paraphyletic . While nuclear DNA indicates that both extant bison species are each other's closest living relatives,
8308-554: The combat, retired from the field, and led his group to New Mexico. An Escanjaque captured by Oñate, and later named Miguel, drew a map of the region for the Spanish. He called the "Great Settlement" of the Rayados, "Etzanoa" or "Tzanoa." Limited private tours of the site can be arranged through the Cherokee Strip Land Run Museum in Arkansas City. A visitor's center is planned. 37°04′03″N 97°00′40″W / 37.06750°N 97.01111°W / 37.06750; -97.01111 Francisco V%C3%A1squez de Coronado This
8432-415: The community of Hawikuh (of which the preferred Zuni word is Hawikku). The residents refused, denying the expedition entrance to the community. Vázquez de Coronado and his expeditionaries attacked the Zunis. The ensuing skirmish constituted the extent of what can be called the Spanish Conquest of Cíbola. He never personally led his men-at-arms in any subsequent battles. During the battle, Vázquez de Coronado
8556-460: The corn, beans, and squash that they grew in their fields. Oñate restrained his Escanjaque guides from looting the town and sent them home. Catarax, who had been chained, was rescued by the Rayados in a bold raid. The next day Oñate and his army proceeded onward through the settlement for three leagues (eight miles) without seeing many Rayados. The Spaniards were warned, however, that the Rayados were assembling an army to attack them. Discretion seemed
8680-408: The country made it necessary to follow the river valley until he could find a passage across the mountains to the course of the Yaqui River . He traveled alongside this stream for some distance, then crossed to the Rio Sonora , which he followed nearly to its source before a pass (now known as Montezuma Pass ) was discovered. On the southern side of the Huachuca Mountains he found a stream he called
8804-498: The currently extant American bison population, reflecting the loss of most of the species' genetic diversity. As of July 2015, an estimated 4,900 bison lived in Yellowstone National Park , the largest U.S. bison population on public land. During 1983–1985 visitors experienced 33 bison-related injuries (range = 10–13/year), so the park implemented education campaigns. After years of success, five injuries associated with bison encounters occurred in 2015, because visitors did not maintain
8928-523: The de Alvarado family and daughter of Treasurer and Governor Alonso de Estrada y Hidalgo, Lord of Picón , and his wife Marina Flores Gutiérrez de la Caballería , from a converso Jewish family. Vázquez de Coronado inherited a large portion of a Mexican encomendero estate through Beatriz and had eight children by her. Vázquez de Coronado was the Governor of the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia (New Galicia),
9052-486: The early Spanish accounts of expeditions to Kansas. These clearer translations allowed Blakeslee to match written descriptions to archaeological sites. He located the 1601 Spanish battle site in Arkansas City. During road construction in the area in 1994, thousands of artifacts were unearthed. Residents of Arkansas City regularly unearthed artifacts, such as potsherds or flint points. Kansas State Archaeologist Robert Hoard
9176-418: The expedition. Leaving New Mexico and traveling east and north for more than a month, Jusepe said that they found a "very large settlement." He said it extended for more than 10 leagues (about 26 miles) along a river and was two leagues wide. The houses had straw roofs and were built close together, but between clusters of houses were fields of maize, squash, and beans. The Indians were numerous, but "received
9300-667: The females were fertile. The crossbred animals did not demonstrate any form of hybrid vigor , so the practice was abandoned. Wisent-American bison hybrids were briefly experimented with in Germany (and found to be fully fertile) and a herd of such animals is maintained in Russia. A herd of cattle-wisent crossbreeds ( zubron ) is maintained in Poland. First-generation crosses do not occur naturally, requiring caesarean delivery. First-generation males are infertile. The U.S. National Bison Association has adopted
9424-599: The first non-Native Americans to do so. After trying and failing to climb down into the canyon to reach the river, the expedition reported that they would not be able to use the Colorado River to link up with Hernando de Alarcón's fleet. After this, the main body of the expedition began its journey to the next populated center of pueblos, along another large river to the east, the Rio Grande in New Mexico . Hernando de Alvarado
9548-519: The fleet. Soon after arriving at the camp he set out from the valley of Corazones in Sonora and traveled overland in a north/northwesterly direction until he arrived at the junction of the Colorado River and Gila River . There, indigenous informants, probably the Cocomaricopa (see Seymour 2007b), told him that Alarcón's sailors had buried supplies and left a note in a bottle. The supplies were retrieved, and
9672-587: The future New Mexico side of the state line, not the Arizona side as has been thought by historians since the 1940s. Also, most scholars believe Quivira was about thirty miles east of the great bend of the Arkansas River , ending about twenty miles west-southwest of the location depicted on the map, with Quivira being mostly on tributaries of the Arkansas River instead of directly on the Kansas River . For details, see
9796-1111: The genus Bos , which includes, among others, cattle, yaks and gaur , being most closely related to yaks. Bison are sometimes bred with domestic cattle and produce offspring called beefalo , in North America, or żubroń , in Poland. The American bison and the European bison (wisent) are the largest surviving terrestrial animals in North America and Europe. They are typical artiodactyl (cloven hooved) ungulates, and are similar in appearance to other bovines such as cattle and true buffalo. They are broad and muscular with shaggy coats of long hair. Adults grow up to 2 metres (6 feet 7 inches) in height and 3.5 m (11 ft 6 in) in length for American bison and up to 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) in height and 2.9 m (9 ft 6 in) in length for European bison. American bison can weigh from around 400 to 1,270 kilograms (880 to 2,800 pounds) and European bison can weigh from 800 to 1,000 kg (1,800 to 2,200 lb). European bison tend to be taller than American bison. Bison are nomadic grazers and travel in herds . The bulls leave
9920-519: The genus are placed in the subgenus Bison ( Bison ), which first appeared towards the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 1.2 Ma, with early members of the subgenus including the widespread Bison schoetensacki . The steppe bison ( Bison priscus ) first appeared during the mid- Middle Pleistocene in eastern Eurasia, and subsequently became widely distributed across Eurasia. During the late Middle Pleistocene, around 195,000-135,000 years ago,
10044-462: The group, who proved to be friendly and generous. Oñate said that, unlike the Escanjaques, the Rayados were "united, peaceful, and settled." They showed deference to their chief, named Catarax, whom Oñate detained as a guide and hostage, although "treating him well." Catarax led Oñate and the Escanjaques across the Arkansas to a settlement on the eastern bank, a few miles from the river. The settlement
10168-527: The heading below, "Location of Quivira...." Vázquez de Coronado traveled north on one side or the other of today's Arizona–New Mexico state line, and from the headwaters of the Little Colorado River , he continued on until he came to the Zuni River . He followed the river until he entered the territory controlled by the Zuni . The members of the expedition were almost starving and demanded entrance into
10292-467: The herds of females at two or three years of age, and join a herd of males, which usually are smaller than female herds. Mature bulls rarely travel alone. Towards the end of the summer, for the reproductive season, the sexes necessarily commingle. American bison are known for living in the Great Plains , but formerly had a much larger range, including much of the eastern United States and parts of Mexico. Both species were hunted close to extinction during
10416-412: The higher quality forage that regrows after the burn. Wisent tend to browse on shrubs and low-hanging trees more often than do the American bison, which prefer grass to shrubbery and trees. Female bison ("cows") typically reproduce after three years of age and can continue beyond 19 years of age. Cows produce calves annually as long as their nutrition is sufficient, but not after years when weight gain
10540-478: The horns borne by both males and females, but their massive heads can be used as battering rams, effectively using the momentum produced by what is a typical weight of 900 to 1,200 kilograms (2,000 to 2,700 lb) moving at 50 km/h (30 mph). The hind legs can also be used to kill or maim with devastating effect. In the words of early naturalists, they were dangerous, savage animals that feared no other animal and in prime condition could best any foe except for
10664-439: The inland trail. Aside from his mission to verify Friar de Niza's report, Melchior Díaz had also taken notice of the forage and food situation along the trail, and reported that the land along the route would not be able to support a large concentrated body of soldiers and animals. Vázquez de Coronado, therefore, decided to divide his expedition into small groups and time their departures so that grazing lands and water holes along
10788-561: The late Middle Pleistocene, where it existed in sympatry with the steppe bison. Its relationship with other extinct bison species is unclear, though it appears to be only distantly related to the steppe and American bisons, with possibly some interbreeding between the two lineages during the Middle Pleistocene. The steppe bison survived into the early-mid Holocene in Alaska-Yukon and eastern Siberia, before becoming extinct. During
10912-545: The location of Etzanoa was finally discovered when a local teen found a cannonball linked to a battle near present-day Arkansas City that took place in the year 1601. Local researchers used this artifact to pinpoint the location of Etzanoa. Donald Blakeslee, an archaeologist at the Wichita State University , has led recent research on Etzanoa. In 2013, historians at the University of California, Berkeley , retranslated
11036-484: The main body of Vázquez de Coronado's expedition but was unable to do so because of the extreme distance to Cibola. He traveled up the Sea of Cortés and then the Colorado River. In this exploration, he hauled some supplies for Vázquez de Coronado, but eventually, he buried them with a note in a bottle. Melchior Díaz was sent down from Cíbola by Vázquez de Coronado to take charge of the camp of Corazones and to establish contact with
11160-504: The mid-1980s, concerning an unknown number of animals then. The first census of the bison occurred in 1996, which recorded 45,235 bison on 745 farms, and grew to 195,728 bison on 1,898 farms for the 2006 census. Several pet food companies use bison as a red meat alternative in dog foods. The companies producing these formulas include Natural Balance Pet Foods , Freshpet , the Blue Buffalo Company, Solid Gold, Canidae, and Taste of
11284-472: The more familiar pastoralist relationship of the Old World . Today, bison are increasingly raised for meat , hides , wool , and dairy products. The majority of bison in the world are raised for human consumption or fur clothing. Bison meat is generally considered to taste very similar to beef, but is lower in fat and cholesterol , yet higher in protein than beef, which has led to the development of beefalo ,
11408-443: The mythical Seven Cities of Gold . This is the reason he pawned his wife's estates and was lent 70,000 pesos. In the autumn of 1539, Mendoza ordered Melchior Díaz , commander of the Spanish outpost at San Miguel de Culiacán , to investigate Friar de Niza's findings, and on November 17, 1539, Díaz departed for Cíbola with fifteen horsemen. At the ruins of Chichilticalli, he turned around because of "snows and fierce winds from across
11532-442: The neighboring land of Harahey began. He summoned the "Lord of Harahey" who, with two hundred followers, came to meet with the Spanish. He was disappointed. The Harahey Indians were "all naked – with bows, and some sort of things on their heads, and their privy parts slightly covered". They were not the wealthy people Vázquez de Coronado sought. Disappointed, he returned to New Mexico. Before leaving Quivira, Vázquez de Coronado ordered
11656-739: The newly appointed provincial superior of the Franciscan order in the New World, Marcos de Niza ), and several slaves, both natives and Africans. Many other family members and servants also joined the party. He followed the Sinaloan coast northward, keeping the Gulf of California on his left to the west until he reached the northernmost Spanish settlement in Mexico, San Miguel de Culiacán , about March 28, 1540, whereupon he rested his expedition before they began trekking
11780-442: The north. By this time, Vázquez de Coronado seems to have lost his confidence that fortune awaited him. He sent most of his expedition back to New Mexico and continued with only forty Spanish soldiers and priests and an unknown number of Indian soldiers, servants, and guides. Vázquez de Coronado, thus, dedicated himself to a reconnaissance rather than a mission of conquest. After more than thirty days journey, Vázquez de Coronado found
11904-463: The note stated that Alarcón's men had rowed up the river as far as they could, searching in vain for the Vázquez de Coronado expedition. They had given up and decided to return to their departure point because worms were eating holes in their boats. Díaz named the river the "Firebrand (Tizón) River" because the indigenous people of the area used firebrands to keep their bodies warm in the winter. Díaz died on
12028-482: The pack and consuming the wolves' kill. Grizzly bears and coyotes also prey on bison calves. Historically and prehistorically, lions , cave lions , tigers , dire wolves , Smilodon , Homotherium , cave hyenas , and Neanderthals posed threats to bison. For American bison, a main illness is malignant catarrhal fever , though brucellosis is a serious concern in the Yellowstone Park bison herd. Bison in
12152-528: The pipe leaning against it, was our sacred altar. The name of the greatest of all Sioux was Tatanka Iyotake—Sitting Bull . When you killed off the buffalo you also killed the Indian—the real, natural, "wild" Indian. European colonials were almost exclusively accountable for the near-extinction of the American bison in the 1800s. At the beginning of the century, tens of millions of bison roamed North America. Colonists slaughtered an estimated 50 million bison during
12276-457: The plains. Oñate met Apache Indians in the Texas Panhandle and, later, a large encampment of Escanjaques . The Escanjaques showed him the way to a large settlement about 30 miles away of a people whom Oñate called "Rayados." Rayado means "striped" in Spanish , referring to their custom of painting or tattooing their faces. The Escanjaques, enemies of the Rayados, attempted to enlist the help of
12400-587: The plains. "A tempest came up one afternoon with a very high wind and hail ... The hail broke many tents and tattered many helmets, and wounded many of the horses, and broke all the crockery of the army, and the gourds which was no small loss." In 1993, Jimmy Owens found crossbow points in Blanco Canyon in Crosby County , Texas , near the town of Floydada in Floyd County . Archaeologists subsequently searched
12524-552: The population bottleneck caused by the great slaughter of American bison during the 19th century, the number of bison remaining alive in North America declined to as low as 541. During that period, a handful of ranchers gathered remnants of the existing herds to save the species from extinction. These ranchers bred some of the bison with cattle in an effort to produce "cattleo" (today called " beefalo "). Accidental crossings were also known to occur. Generally, male domestic bulls were crossed with bison cows, producing offspring of which only
12648-666: The population. The name 'bison' was first used for the European species ; ancient Greek authors Pausanias and Oppian in 2nd-century AD wrote about them in Greek as βίσων bisōn . Roman authors Pliny the Elder and Gaius Julius Solinus used the word bĭson in Latin as well. It was made into a genus name by Charles Hamilton Smith in 1827. Although called "buffalo" in American English, they are only distantly related to two "true buffalo",
12772-560: The presence of mulberries, roses, grapes, walnuts, and plums. An intriguing event was Vázquez de Coronado's meeting among the Teyas an old blind bearded man who said that he had met many days before "four others like us". He was probably talking about Cabeza de Vaca , who with Esteban and two other Spanish survivors of the Narváez expedition to Florida made his way across southern Texas six years before Vázquez de Coronado. Scholars differ in their opinions as to which historical Indian group were
12896-501: The present-day communities of Hereford and Canadian . The Spanish were awed by the Llano. "The country they [the buffalo] traveled over was so smooth that if one looked at them the sky could be seen between their legs." Men and horses became lost in the featureless plain and Vázquez de Coronado felt like he had been swallowed up by the sea. On the Llano, Vázquez de Coronado encountered vast herds of bison —the American buffalo. "I found such
13020-419: The process of wallowing, bison may become infected by the fatal disease anthrax , which may occur naturally in the soil. Bison temperament is often unpredictable. They usually appear peaceful, unconcerned, or even lazy, but they may attack without warning or apparent reason. They can move at speeds up to 56 km/h (35 mph) and cover long distances at a lumbering gallop. Their most obvious weapons are
13144-466: The required distance of 75 ft (23 m) from bison while hiking or taking pictures. Bison is an excellent source of complete protein and a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of multiple vitamins, including riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B 6 , and vitamin B 12 , and is also a rich source of minerals, including iron, phosphorus, and zinc. Additionally, bison is a good source (10% or more of
13268-457: The same species of plants across years. Protein concentrations of the plants they eat tend to be highest in the spring and decline thereafter, reaching their lowest in the winter. In Yellowstone National Park, bison browsed willows and cottonwoods, not only in the winter when few other plants are available, but also in the summer. Bison are thought to migrate to optimize their diet, and will concentrate their feeding on recently burned areas due to
13392-421: The ship can be seen to be named The Coronado . In the classic young adult novel , The King's Fifth by Scott O'Dell , the main characters, Estéban de Sandoval and Blas de Mendoza, seek Coronado's expedition and temporarily join it. It is there that they meet the third main character, Zia Troyano, a teenage Zuni Native American. Sandoval and Mendoza participate in the battle of Hawikuh (during which Sandoval
13516-476: The site and found pottery sherds, more than forty crossbow points, and dozens of horseshoe nails of Spanish manufacture, plus a Mexican-style stone blade. This find strengthens the evidence that Vázquez de Coronado found the Teyas in Blanco Canyon. Another guide, probably Pawnee and named Ysopete, and probably Teyas as well told Vázquez de Coronado that he was going in the wrong direction, saying Quivira lay to
13640-527: The small town of Lyons on Cow Creek, extending twenty miles east to the Little Arkansas River , and north another twenty miles to the town of Lindsborg on a tributary of the Smoky Hill River . Tabas was likely on the Smoky Hill River. Archaeologists have found numerous 16th-century sites in these areas that probably include some of the settlements visited by Vázquez de Coronado. At Harahey "was
13764-570: The species is secure. Genetically pure B. b. bison currently number only about 20,000, separated into fragmented herds—all of which require active conservation measures. The wood bison is on the endangered species list in Canada and is listed as threatened in the United States, though numerous attempts have been made by beefalo ranchers to have it entirely removed from the Endangered Species List . Although superficially similar, physical and behavioural differences exist between
13888-560: The state of Montana , free-ranging bison on public land are legally shot, due to transmission of disease to cattle and damage to public property. In 2013, Montana legislative measures concerning the bison were proposed and passed, but opposed by Native American tribes as they impinged on sovereign tribal rights. Three such bills were vetoed by Steve Bullock , the governor of Montana. The bison's circumstances remain an issue of contention between Native American tribes and private landowners. Bison are ruminants , able to ferment cellulose in
14012-681: The steppe bison migrated across the Bering land bridge into North America, becoming ancestral to North American bison species, including the large Bison latifrons , and the smaller Bison antiquus , which became extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene. Modern American bison are thought to have evolved from B. antiquus during the Late Pleistocene-Holocene transition via the intermediate form Bison occidentalis . The European bison, Bison bonasus, first appeared in Europe during
14136-469: The trail could recover. At intervals along the trail, Vázquez de Coronado established camps and stationed garrisons of soldiers to keep the supply route open. For example, in September 1540, Melchior Díaz, along with "seventy or eighty of the weakest and least reliable men" in Vázquez de Coronado's army, remained at the town of San Jerónimo, in the valley of Corazones, or "Hearts". Once the scouting and planning
14260-540: The trip back to the camp in the valley of the Corazones. While at Hawikuh, Vázquez de Coronado sent another scouting expedition overland to find the Colorado River, led by Don García López de Cárdenas. The expedition returned to Hopi territory to acquire scouts and supplies. Members of Cárdenas's party eventually reached the South Rim of the Grand Canyon , where they could see the Colorado River thousands of feet below, becoming
14384-594: The wilderness". Díaz had encountered Vázquez de Coronado before he had departed San Miguel de Culiacán, and reported that initial investigations into Friar de Niza's report disproved the existence of the bountiful land he had described. Díaz's report was delivered to Viceroy Mendoza on March 20, 1540. Vázquez de Coronado set out from Compostela on February 23, 1540, at the head of a much larger expedition composed of about 400 European men-at-arms (mostly Spaniards), 1,300 to 2,000 Mexican Indian allies, four Franciscan friars (the most notable of whom were Juan de Padilla and
14508-542: Was buried under the altar of the Church of Santo Domingo in Mexico City. Within a year of arriving in New Spain, he married Beatriz de Estrada, called "the saint". Beatriz was the second daughter of Alonso de Estrada and Marina de la Caballería ; niece of Diego de Caballeria . The Estrada-Coronado union was a carefully calculated political union that Francisco and Marina orchestrated. Through this marriage, Francisco became
14632-468: Was deserted, the inhabitants having fled. It contained "more than twelve hundred houses, all established along the bank of another good-sized river which flowed into the large one [probably the Arkansas]." The settlement of the Rayados was similar to those seen by Coronado in Quivira sixty years before. The homesteads were dispersed; the houses round, thatched with grass and surrounded by large granaries to store
14756-466: Was done, Vázquez de Coronado led the first group of soldiers up the trail. They were horsemen and foot soldiers who were able to travel quickly, while the main bulk of the expedition would set out later. After leaving Culiacán on April 22, 1540, Vázquez de Coronado followed the coast, "bearing off to the left", as Mota Padilla says, by an extremely rough way, to the Sinaloa River . The configuration of
14880-467: Was injured. During the weeks that the expedition stayed at Zuni, he sent out several scouting expeditions. The first scouting expedition was led by Pedro de Tovar . This expedition headed northwest to the Hopi communities they recorded as Tusayan. Upon arrival, the Spanish were also denied entrance to the village that they came across and, once again, resorted to using force to enter. Materially, Hopi territory
15004-514: Was just as poor as that of the Zuni in precious metals, but the Spaniards did learn that a large river (the Colorado ) lay to the west. Three leaders affiliated with the Vázquez de Coronado expedition were able to reach the Colorado River . The first was Hernando de Alarcón , then Melchior Díaz and lastly García López de Cárdenas . Alarcón's fleet was tasked to carry supplies and to establish contact with
15128-499: Was named after Vázquez de Coronado. Similarly, Interstate 40 through Albuquerque has been named the Coronado Freeway. Coronado, California is not named after Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, but is named after Coronado Islands , which were named in 1602 by Sebastián Vizcaíno who called them Los Cuatro Coronados (the four crowned ones) to honor four martyrs. The mineral Coronadite is named after him. Indiana Jones and
15252-539: Was our bed, our blanket, our winter coat. It was our drum, throbbing through the night, alive, holy. Out of his skin we made our water bags. His flesh strengthened us, became flesh of our flesh. Not the smallest part of it was wasted. His stomach, a red-hot stone dropped into it, became our soup kettle. His horns were our spoons, the bones our knives, our women's awls and needles. Out of his sinews we made our bowstrings and thread. His ribs were fashioned into sleds for our children, his hoofs became rattles. His mighty skull, with
15376-464: Was sent to the east, and found several villages around the Rio Grande . Vázquez de Coronado had one commandeered for his winter quarters, Coofor, which is across the river from present-day Bernalillo near Albuquerque, New Mexico . During the winter of 1540–41, his army found themselves in conflict with the Rio Grande natives, which led to the brutal Tiguex War . This war resulted in the destruction of
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