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113-527: Basquiat first met Andy Warhol when he sold him a postcard in 1979. Later, when Basquiat was selling painted sweatshirts, he went to the Factory and Warhol purchased some. "I just wanted to meet him, he was an art hero of mine," Basquiat recalled. Bruno Bischofberger became Basquiat's art dealer and organized a one-man show in his Zurich gallery in September 1982. Bischofberger, who also represented Warhol, arranged

226-485: A Polaroid and he went home and within two hours a painting was back, still wet, of him and me together. And I mean, just getting to Christie Street must have taken an hour. He told me his assistant painted it. Dos Cabezas , meaning "two heads" in Spanish, is based on the self-portrait Warhol took with Basquiat. The artwork ignited a close friendship between them which led to a collaboration on numerous paintings. Warhol used

339-624: A dopamine dysregulation syndrome which occurs in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs . The effects of amphetamine on gene regulation are both dose- and route-dependent. Most of the research on gene regulation and addiction is based upon animal studies with intravenous amphetamine administration at very high doses. The few studies that have used equivalent (weight-adjusted) human therapeutic doses and oral administration show that these changes, if they occur, are relatively minor. This suggests that medical use of amphetamine does not significantly affect gene regulation. As of December 2019, there

452-469: A vasovagal response , Raynaud's phenomenon (reduced blood flow to the hands and feet), and tachycardia (increased heart rate). Sexual side effects in males may include erectile dysfunction , frequent erections, or prolonged erections . Gastrointestinal side effects may include abdominal pain , constipation , diarrhea , and nausea . Other potential physical side effects include appetite loss , blurred vision , dry mouth , excessive grinding of

565-554: A 1969 film directed, produced, written and cinematographed by Warhol. The film, starring Viva and Louis Waldon , was the first adult erotic film depicting explicit sex to receive wide theatrical release in the United States . Holly Woodlawn and Candy Darling were noted transgender women who were part of the Factory group, as was drag queen Jackie Curtis . Andy Warhol frequently used these women and other sexual non-conformists in his films, plays, and events. Because of

678-455: A Polaroid he took of Basquiat to create the silkscreen portrait Jean-Michel Basquiat (1982) using his piss painting technique. Although Basquiat and Warhol created several portraits of each other in the following years, Dos Cabezas is their only joint portrait. It sold for $ 7 million at Christie's post-war and contemporary evening sale in November 2010. Dos Cabezas has been exhibited at

791-400: A club which Warhol and his entourage frequently visited. The same year Warhol created the business Factory Additions to handle the business of publishing and printmaking. In June 1968, Warhol was shot by feminist Valerie Solanas at the Factory. The Factory had an open door policy where anyone could enter, but after the shooting, Warhol's longtime partner Jed Johnson built a wall around

904-584: A day, which is roughly 100 times the maximum daily therapeutic dose. Symptoms of a moderate and extremely large overdose are listed below; fatal amphetamine poisoning usually also involves convulsions and coma . In 2013, overdose on amphetamine, methamphetamine, and other compounds implicated in an " amphetamine use disorder " resulted in an estimated 3,788 deaths worldwide ( 3,425–4,145  deaths, 95% confidence ). In rodents and primates, sufficiently high doses of amphetamine cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity , or damage to dopamine neurons, which

1017-461: A fuel substrate. Dextroamphetamine also activates TAAR1 in peripheral organs along the gastrointestinal tract that are involved in the regulation of food intake and body weight. Together, these actions confer an anorexigenic effect that promotes satiety in response to feeding and may decrease binge eating as a secondary effect. Medical reviews of randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that lisdexamfetamine, at doses between 50-70 mg,

1130-627: A greater effect on cataplexy, a symptom more sensitive to the effects of norepinephrine and serotonin. Noradrenergic and serotonergic nuclei in the ARAS are involved in the regulation of the REM sleep cycle and function as "REM-off" cells, with amphetamine's effect on norepinephrine and serotonin contributing to the suppression of REM sleep and a possible reduction of cataplexy at high doses. The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) 2021 clinical practice guideline conditionally recommends dextroamphetamine for

1243-399: A lpha - m ethyl ph en et hyl amine ) is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy , and obesity ; it is also used to treat binge eating disorder in the form of its inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine . Amphetamine was discovered as a chemical in 1887 by Lazăr Edeleanu , and then as a drug in

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1356-550: A lunch meeting between the two artists on October 4, 1982. Warhol documented the meeting in a diary entry, which was posthumously published in The Andy Warhol Diaries (1989): Down to meet Bruno Bischofberger (cab $ 7.50). He brought Jean-Michel Basquiat with him. He's the kid who used the name " Samo " when he used to sit on the sidewalk in Greenwich Village and paint T-shirts, and I'd give him $ 10 here and there…He

1469-481: A more favorable pharmacokinetic profile and easy crushability (especially tablets). Injection into the bloodstream can be dangerous because insoluble fillers within the tablets can block small blood vessels. Chronic overuse of dextroamphetamine can lead to severe drug dependence , resulting in withdrawal symptoms when drug use stops. According to the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) and

1582-461: A nine-month randomized controlled trial of amphetamine treatment for ADHD in children that found an average increase of 4.5  IQ points, continued increases in attention, and continued decreases in disruptive behaviors and hyperactivity. Another review indicated that, based upon the longest follow-up studies conducted to date, lifetime stimulant therapy that begins during childhood is continuously effective for controlling ADHD symptoms and reduces

1695-414: A preference for spending time in places where they have previously used amphetamine. Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use, but is unlikely to occur from long-term medical use at therapeutic doses; in fact, lifetime stimulant therapy for ADHD that begins during childhood reduces the risk of developing substance use disorders as an adult. Pathological overactivation of

1808-724: A pronounced gene-related phenotype ) in the D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for many of the neural adaptations and regulates multiple behavioral effects (e.g., reward sensitization and escalating drug self-administration ) involved in addiction. Once ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed, it induces an addictive state that becomes increasingly more severe with further increases in ΔFosB expression. It has been implicated in addictions to alcohol , cannabinoids , cocaine , methylphenidate , nicotine , opioids , phencyclidine , propofol , and substituted amphetamines , among others. ΔJunD ,

1921-519: A reputation, he was working day and night on his paintings. Warhol used silkscreens so that he could mass-produce images the way corporations mass-produced consumer goods. To increase production, he attracted a ménage of adult film performers, drag queens , socialites, drug addicts, musicians, and free-thinkers who became known as the Warhol Superstars, to help him. These "art-workers" helped him create his paintings, starred in his films, and created

2034-410: A reserve capacity that is normally off-limits. At therapeutic doses, the adverse effects of amphetamine do not impede athletic performance; however, at much higher doses, amphetamine can induce effects that severely impair performance, such as rapid muscle breakdown and elevated body temperature . Amphetamine, specifically the more dopaminergic dextrorotatory enantiomer ( dextroamphetamine ),

2147-515: A reward and motivation), positive reinforcement and positively-valenced emotions, particularly ones involving pleasure . Large recreational doses of dextroamphetamine may produce symptoms of dextroamphetamine overdose . Recreational users sometimes open dexedrine capsules and crush the contents in order to insufflate (snort) it or subsequently dissolve it in water and inject it. Immediate-release formulations have higher potential for abuse via insufflation (snorting) or intravenous injection due to

2260-461: A spectacle that combined art, rock, Warhol films and dancers of all kinds, as well as live S&M enactments and imagery. The Velvet Underground and EPI used the Factory as a place to rehearse and hang out. " Walk on the Wild Side ", Lou Reed's best-known song from his solo career, was released on his second, and first commercially successful, solo album, Transformer (1972). The song relates to

2373-605: A stimulant psychosis that may involve a variety of symptoms, such as delusions and paranoia. A Cochrane review on treatment for amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, and methamphetamine psychosis states that about 5–15% of users fail to recover completely. According to the same review, there is at least one trial that shows antipsychotic medications effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis. Psychosis rarely arises from therapeutic use. Many types of substances are known to interact with amphetamine, resulting in altered drug action or metabolism of amphetamine,

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2486-509: A task) and increase arousal (wakefulness), in turn promoting goal-directed behavior. Stimulants such as amphetamine can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks and are used by some students as a study and test-taking aid. Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, 5–35% of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants, which are primarily used for enhancement of academic performance rather than as recreational drugs. However, high amphetamine doses that are above

2599-564: A time-limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24 hours of their last dose." This review noted that withdrawal symptoms in chronic, high-dose users are frequent, occurring in roughly 88% of cases, and persist for 3–4  weeks with a marked "crash" phase occurring during the first week. Amphetamine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety, drug craving , depressed mood , fatigue , increased appetite , increased movement or decreased movement , lack of motivation, sleeplessness or sleepiness, and lucid dreams . The review indicated that

2712-510: A transcription factor, and G9a , a histone methyltransferase enzyme, both oppose the function of ΔFosB and inhibit increases in its expression. Sufficiently overexpressing ΔJunD in the nucleus accumbens with viral vectors can completely block many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB). Similarly, accumbal G9a hyperexpression results in markedly increased histone 3 lysine residue 9 dimethylation ( H3K9me2 ) and blocks

2825-454: Is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use, but is unlikely to occur from long-term medical use at therapeutic doses. Very high doses can result in psychosis (e.g., hallucinations , delusions and paranoia ) which rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long-term use. Recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses and carry a far greater risk of serious side effects. Amphetamine belongs to

2938-411: Is also used as an athletic performance enhancer and cognitive enhancer , and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant . It is a prescription drug in many countries, and unauthorized possession and distribution of amphetamine are often tightly controlled due to the significant health risks associated with recreational use. The first amphetamine pharmaceutical was Benzedrine , a brand which

3051-424: Is also used recreationally as a euphoriant and aphrodisiac, and like other amphetamines ; is used as a club drug for its energetic and euphoric high. Dextroamphetamine (d-amphetamine) is considered to have a high potential for misuse in a recreational manner since individuals typically report feeling euphoric , more alert, and more energetic after taking the drug. A notable part of the 1960s mod subculture in

3164-472: Is characterized by dopamine terminal degeneration and reduced transporter and receptor function. There is no evidence that amphetamine is directly neurotoxic in humans. However, large doses of amphetamine may indirectly cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity as a result of hyperpyrexia , the excessive formation of reactive oxygen species , and increased autoxidation of dopamine. Animal models of neurotoxicity from high-dose amphetamine exposure indicate that

3277-402: Is characterized by recurrent and persistent episodes of compulsive binge eating. These episodes are often accompanied by marked distress and a feeling of loss of control over eating. The pathophysiology of BED is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve dysfunctional dopaminergic reward circuitry along the cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical loop . As of July 2024, lisdexamfetamine

3390-412: Is dangerous. Amphetamine modulates the activity of most psychoactive drugs. In particular, amphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of stimulants and antidepressants . Amphetamine may also decrease the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics due to its effects on blood pressure and dopamine respectively. Zinc supplementation may reduce

3503-507: Is effective for reducing the core symptoms of ADHD (i.e., hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity), enhancing quality of life and academic achievement, and producing improvements in a large number of functional outcomes across 9 categories of outcomes related to academics, antisocial behavior , driving, non-medicinal drug use, obesity, occupation, self-esteem , service use (i.e., academic, occupational, health, financial, and legal services), and social function. One review highlighted

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3616-421: Is high, amphetamine may reduce gastrointestinal motility (the rate at which content moves through the digestive system); however, amphetamine may increase motility when the smooth muscle of the tract is relaxed. Amphetamine also has a slight analgesic effect and can enhance the pain relieving effects of opioids . FDA-commissioned studies from 2011 indicate that in children, young adults, and adults there

3729-458: Is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage, but, in humans with ADHD, long-term use of pharmaceutical amphetamines at therapeutic doses appears to improve brain development and nerve growth. Reviews of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function in several parts of

3842-601: Is known to strongly induce cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) gene expression , a neuropeptide involved in feeding behavior, stress, and reward, which induces observable increases in neuronal development and survival in vitro . The CART receptor has yet to be identified, but there is significant evidence that CART binds to a unique G i /G o -coupled GPCR . Amphetamine also inhibits monoamine oxidases at very high doses, resulting in less monoamine and trace amine metabolism and consequently higher concentrations of synaptic monoamines. In humans,

3955-779: Is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events ( sudden death , heart attack , and stroke ) and the medical use of amphetamine or other ADHD stimulants. However, amphetamine pharmaceuticals are contraindicated in individuals with cardiovascular disease . At normal therapeutic doses, the most common psychological side effects of amphetamine include increased alertness , apprehension, concentration , initiative, self-confidence and sociability, mood swings ( elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood ), insomnia or wakefulness , and decreased sense of fatigue. Less common side effects include anxiety , change in libido , grandiosity , irritability , repetitive or obsessive behaviors, and restlessness; these effects depend on

4068-491: Is no effective pharmacotherapy for amphetamine addiction. Reviews from 2015 and 2016 indicated that TAAR1 -selective agonists have significant therapeutic potential as a treatment for psychostimulant addictions; however, as of February 2016, the only compounds which are known to function as TAAR1-selective agonists are experimental drugs . Amphetamine addiction is largely mediated through increased activation of dopamine receptors and co-localized NMDA receptors in

4181-455: Is not an effective monotherapy for amphetamine addiction. A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2019 assessed the efficacy of 17 different pharmacotherapies used in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for amphetamine and methamphetamine addiction; it found only low-strength evidence that methylphenidate might reduce amphetamine or methamphetamine self-administration. There was low- to moderate-strength evidence of no benefit for most of

4294-466: Is safe and effective for the treatment of moderate-to-severe BED in adults. These reviews suggest that lisdexamfetamine is persistently effective at treating BED and is associated with significant reductions in the number of binge eating days and binge eating episodes per week. Furthermore, a meta-analytic systematic review highlighted an open-label, 12-month extension safety and tolerability study that reported lisdexamfetamine remained effective at reducing

4407-586: Is sufficiently overexpressed, it begins to increase the severity of addictive behavior (i.e., compulsive drug-seeking) with further increases in its expression. While there are currently no effective drugs for treating amphetamine addiction, regularly engaging in sustained aerobic exercise appears to reduce the risk of developing such an addiction. Exercise therapy improves clinical treatment outcomes and may be used as an adjunct therapy with behavioral therapies for addiction. Chronic use of amphetamine at excessive doses causes alterations in gene expression in

4520-478: Is the only USFDA - and TGA -approved pharmacotherapy for BED. Evidence suggests that lisdexamfetamine's treatment efficacy in BED is underpinned at least in part by a psychopathological overlap between BED and ADHD, with the latter conceptualized as a cognitive control disorder that also benefits from treatment with lisdexamfetamine. Lisdexamfetamine's therapeutic effects for BED primarily involve direct action in

4633-405: Is thought to phosphorylate SERT via TAAR1 . Like dopamine, amphetamine has low, micromolar affinity at the human 5-HT1A receptor . Acute amphetamine administration in humans increases endogenous opioid release in several brain structures in the reward system . Extracellular levels of glutamate , the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, have been shown to increase in

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4746-430: Is usually not noticeable, but when respiration is already compromised, it may be evident. Amphetamine also induces contraction in the urinary bladder sphincter , the muscle which controls urination, which can result in difficulty urinating. This effect can be useful in treating bed wetting and loss of bladder control . The effects of amphetamine on the gastrointestinal tract are unpredictable. If intestinal activity

4859-601: The Interview magazine office had an entrance at 19 East 32nd Street. Warhol filmed his MTV talk show Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes at the Factory from 1985 until he died in 1987. Friends of Warhol and "superstars" associated with the Factory included: The Factory became a meeting place of artists and musicians such as Lou Reed , Bob Dylan , and Mick Jagger , as well as writer Truman Capote . Less frequent visitors included Salvador Dalí and Allen Ginsberg . Warhol collaborated with Reed's influential New York rock band

4972-479: The central nervous system after conversion to its pharmacologically active metabolite, dextroamphetamine. Centrally, dextroamphetamine increases neurotransmitter activity of dopamine and norepinephrine in prefrontal cortical regions that regulate cognitive control of behavior. Similar to its therapeutic effect in ADHD, dextroamphetamine enhances cognitive control and may reduce impulsivity in patients with BED by enhancing

5085-428: The firing rate of dopamine neurons, preventing a hyper-dopaminergic state. Amphetamine is also a substrate for the presynaptic vesicular monoamine transporter , VMAT2 . Following amphetamine uptake at VMAT2, amphetamine induces the collapse of the vesicular pH gradient, which results in the release of dopamine molecules from synaptic vesicles into the cytosol via dopamine efflux through VMAT2. Subsequently,

5198-531: The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis . In December 2017, the first study assessing the interaction between amphetamine and human carbonic anhydrase enzymes was published; of the eleven carbonic anhydrase enzymes it examined, it found that amphetamine potently activates seven, four of which are highly expressed in the human brain , with low nanomolar through low micromolar activating effects. Based upon preclinical research, cerebral carbonic anhydrase activation has cognition-enhancing effects; but, based upon

5311-523: The indirect activation of both dopamine D 1 receptor and α 2 -adrenergic receptor in the prefrontal cortex . A systematic review from 2014 found that low doses of amphetamine also improve memory consolidation , in turn leading to improved recall of information . Therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency, an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals. Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency (motivation to perform

5424-528: The lateral hypothalamus , leading to significantly reduced cerebrospinal orexin levels; this reduction is a diagnostic biomarker for type 1 narcolepsy. Lateral hypothalamic orexin neurons innervate every component of the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), which includes noradrenergic , dopaminergic , histaminergic , and serotonergic nuclei that promote wakefulness . Amphetamine’s therapeutic mode of action in narcolepsy primarily involves increasing monoamine neurotransmitter activity in

5537-508: The mesocorticolimbic projection , which arise through transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms. The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are Delta FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog B ( ΔFosB ), cAMP response element binding protein ( CREB ), and nuclear factor-kappa B ( NF-κB ). ΔFosB is the most significant biomolecular mechanism in addiction because ΔFosB overexpression (i.e., an abnormally high level of gene expression which produces

5650-476: The mesolimbic pathway , a dopamine pathway that connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens , plays a central role in amphetamine addiction. Individuals who frequently self-administer high doses of amphetamine have a high risk of developing an amphetamine addiction, since chronic use at high doses gradually increases the level of accumbal ΔFosB , a "molecular switch" and "master control protein" for addiction. Once nucleus accumbens ΔFosB

5763-413: The minimum effective dose of amphetamine when it is used for the treatment of ADHD. In general, there is no significant interaction when consuming amphetamine with food, but the pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of amphetamine, respectively. Acidic substances reduce the absorption of amphetamine and increase urinary excretion, and alkaline substances do

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5876-504: The neurobiological effects of physical exercise suggests that daily aerobic exercise, especially endurance exercise (e.g., marathon running ), prevents the development of drug addiction and is an effective adjunct therapy (i.e., a supplemental treatment) for amphetamine addiction. Exercise leads to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment, particularly for psychostimulant addictions. In particular, aerobic exercise decreases psychostimulant self-administration, reduces

5989-457: The phenethylamine class . It is also the parent compound of its own structural class, the substituted amphetamines , which includes prominent substances such as bupropion , cathinone , MDMA , and methamphetamine . As a member of the phenethylamine class, amphetamine is also chemically related to the naturally occurring trace amine neuromodulators, specifically phenethylamine and N -methylphenethylamine , both of which are produced within

6102-504: The prefrontal cortex . Stimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine are effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems. Approximately 80% of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms. Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members, perform better in school, are less distractible and impulsive, and have longer attention spans. The Cochrane reviews on

6215-603: The presynaptic neuron either through DAT or by diffusing across the neuronal membrane directly. As a consequence of DAT uptake, amphetamine produces competitive reuptake inhibition at the transporter. Upon entering the presynaptic neuron, amphetamine activates TAAR1 which, through protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC) signaling, causes DAT phosphorylation . Phosphorylation by either protein kinase can result in DAT internalization ( non-competitive reuptake inhibition), but PKC-mediated phosphorylation alone induces

6328-405: The reinstatement (i.e., relapse) of drug-seeking, and induces increased dopamine receptor D 2 (DRD2) density in the striatum . This is the opposite of pathological stimulant use, which induces decreased striatal DRD2 density. One review noted that exercise may also prevent the development of a drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or c-Fos immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of

6441-432: The reversal of dopamine transport through DAT (i.e., dopamine efflux ). Amphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium, an effect which is associated with DAT phosphorylation through an unidentified Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CAMK)-dependent pathway, in turn producing dopamine efflux. Through direct activation of G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels , TAAR1 reduces

6554-422: The reward system . Drug tolerance develops rapidly in amphetamine abuse (i.e., recreational amphetamine use), so periods of extended abuse require increasingly larger doses of the drug in order to achieve the same effect. According to a Cochrane review on withdrawal in individuals who compulsively use amphetamine and methamphetamine, "when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue amphetamine use, many report

6667-496: The superstars and life of the Factory. He mentions Holly Woodlawn , Candy Darling , Joe Dallesandro , Jackie Curtis and Joe Campbell (referred to in the song by his Factory nickname Sugar Plum Fairy). Andy Warhol commented on mainstream America through his art while disregarding its conservative social views. Almost all his work filmed at the Factory featured nudity, graphic sexuality, drug use , same-sex relations and transgender characters in much greater proportion to what

6780-529: The ARAS. This includes noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus , dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area , histaminergic neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus , and serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus . Dextroamphetamine, the more dopaminergic enantiomer of amphetamine, is particularly effective at promoting wakefulness because dopamine release has the greatest influence on cortical activation and cognitive arousal, relative to other monoamines. In contrast, levoamphetamine may have

6893-592: The Factory for his friends before they were released for public audiences. When traditional theaters refused to screen his more provocative films, Warhol sometimes turned to night-clubs or porn theaters, including the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre and the 55th Street Playhouse , for their distribution. The following list includes all movies filmed entirely or partly at the Factory. 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Amphetamine Amphetamine (contracted from

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7006-482: The Factory for nothing. It was where the assembly line for the silkscreens happened. While one person was making a silkscreen, somebody else would be filming a screen test . Every day something new." Due to the mess his work was causing at home, Warhol wanted to find a studio where he could paint. A friend of his found an old unoccupied firehouse on 159 East 87th Street where Warhol began working in January 1963. No one

7119-1140: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), amphetamine is contraindicated in people with a history of drug abuse , cardiovascular disease , severe agitation , or severe anxiety. It is also contraindicated in individuals with advanced arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), glaucoma (increased eye pressure), hyperthyroidism (excessive production of thyroid hormone), or moderate to severe hypertension . These agencies indicate that people who have experienced allergic reactions to other stimulants or who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) should not take amphetamine, although safe concurrent use of amphetamine and monoamine oxidase inhibitors has been documented. These agencies also state that anyone with anorexia nervosa , bipolar disorder , depression, hypertension, liver or kidney problems, mania , psychosis , Raynaud's phenomenon , seizures , thyroid problems, tics , or Tourette syndrome should monitor their symptoms while taking amphetamine. Evidence from human studies indicates that therapeutic amphetamine use does not cause developmental abnormalities in

7232-485: The UK was recreational amphetamine use, which was used to fuel all-night dances at clubs like Manchester's Twisted Wheel . Newspaper reports described dancers emerging from clubs at 5 a.m. with dilated pupils. Mods used the drug for stimulation and alertness , which they viewed as different from the intoxication caused by alcohol and other drugs. Dr. Andrew Wilson argues that for a significant minority, "amphetamines symbolised

7345-608: The Velvet Underground in 1965, and designed the noted cover for The Velvet Underground & Nico , the band's debut album. It featured a plastic image of a yellow banana, which users could peel off to reveal a flesh-hued version of the banana. Warhol also designed the album cover for the Rolling Stones ' album Sticky Fingers . Warhol included the Velvet Underground in the Exploding Plastic Inevitable ,

7458-527: The amount of amphetamine used is the primary factor in determining the likelihood and severity of adverse effects. Amphetamine products such as Adderall , Dexedrine, and their generic equivalents are currently approved by the U.S. FDA for long-term therapeutic use. Recreational use of amphetamine generally involves much larger doses, which have a greater risk of serious adverse drug effects than dosages used for therapeutic purposes. Cardiovascular side effects can include hypertension or hypotension from

7571-458: The atmosphere for which the Factory became legendary. Warhol began looking for a new Factory location in 1967 because the building was scheduled to be demolished. The location is now the entrance to the parking garage of One Dag . He then relocated his studio to the sixth floor of the Decker Building at 33 Union Square West near the corner of East 16th Street , near Max's Kansas City ,

7684-477: The brain, such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia . Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long-term continuous amphetamine use for the treatment of ADHD. Randomized controlled trials of continuous stimulant therapy for the treatment of ADHD spanning 2 years have demonstrated treatment effectiveness and safety. Two reviews have indicated that long-term continuous stimulant therapy for ADHD

7797-506: The brain. The concentrations of the main neurotransmitters involved in reward circuitry and executive functioning, dopamine and norepinephrine, increase dramatically in a dose-dependent manner by amphetamine because of its effects on monoamine transporters . The reinforcing and motivational salience -promoting effects of amphetamine are due mostly to enhanced dopaminergic activity in the mesolimbic pathway . The euphoric and locomotor-stimulating effects of amphetamine are dependent upon

7910-500: The club. After about a decade, the club was reimagined by BlackBook Magazine columnist Steve Lewis & Co. as Le Palace de Beauté , where RuPaul often performed. After the Underground closed, Petco opened, moving in 2022, to 44 Union Square, the former Tammany Hall . In 1984, Warhol moved his art studio to 22 East 33rd Street , a conventional office building. His television studio had an entrance at 158 Madison Avenue and

8023-438: The cognitive processes responsible for overriding prepotent feeding responses that precede binge eating episodes. In addition, dextroamphetamine's actions outside of the central nervous system may also contribute to its treatment effects in BED. Peripherally, dextroamphetamine triggers lipolysis through noradrenergic signaling in adipose fat cells, leading to the release of triglycerides into blood plasma to be utilized as

8136-422: The constant drug use and the presence of sexually liberal artists and radicals, drugged orgies were a frequent happening at the Factory. Warhol met Ondine at an orgy in 1962: I was at an orgy, and [Warhol] was, ah, this great presence in the back of the room. And this orgy was run by a friend of mine, and, so, I said to this person, "Would you please mind throwing that thing [Warhol] out of here?" And that thing

8249-792: The cytosolic dopamine molecules are released from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft via reverse transport at DAT . Similar to dopamine, amphetamine dose-dependently increases the level of synaptic norepinephrine, the direct precursor of epinephrine . Based upon neuronal TAAR1 mRNA expression, amphetamine is thought to affect norepinephrine analogously to dopamine. In other words, amphetamine induces TAAR1-mediated efflux and non-competitive reuptake inhibition at phosphorylated NET , competitive NET reuptake inhibition, and norepinephrine release from VMAT2 . Amphetamine exerts analogous, yet less pronounced, effects on serotonin as on dopamine and norepinephrine. Amphetamine affects serotonin via VMAT2 and, like norepinephrine,

8362-504: The elevator and put in a Dutch door so that visitors would have be buzzed in. In 1969, Warhol co-founded Interview magazine and the Factory transformed "from an all-night party to an all-day office, from hell-on-earth to down-to-earth." In 1973, Warhol moved the Factory to 860 Broadway at the north end of Union Square. He filmed his television series Andy Warhol's TV at the Factory from 1980 to 1983. The nightclub Underground operated at 860 Broadway from 1980 to 1989. It

8475-456: The expression of ΔFosB (i.e., they cause the brain to produce more of it), chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological state of addiction. Consequently, ΔFosB is the most significant factor involved in both amphetamine addiction and amphetamine-induced sexual addictions , which are compulsive sexual behaviors that result from excessive sexual activity and amphetamine use. These sexual addictions are associated with

8588-589: The fetus or newborns (i.e., it is not a human teratogen ), but amphetamine abuse does pose risks to the fetus. Amphetamine has also been shown to pass into breast milk, so the IPCS and the FDA advise mothers to avoid breastfeeding when using it. Due to the potential for reversible growth impairments, the FDA advises monitoring the height and weight of children and adolescents prescribed an amphetamine pharmaceutical. The adverse side effects of amphetamine are many and varied, and

8701-660: The following art institutions: The Factory The Factory was Andy Warhol 's studio in Manhattan , New York City , which had four locations between 1963 and 1987. The Factory became famed for its parties in the 1960s. It was the hip hangout spot for artists, musicians, celebrities, and Warhol's superstars . The original Factory was often referred to as the Silver Factory. In the studio, Warhol's workers would make silkscreens and lithographs under his direction. Speaking in 2002, musician John Cale said, "It wasn't called

8814-426: The highest efficacy (i.e., abstinence rate) and acceptability (i.e., lowest dropout rate). Other treatment modalities examined in the analysis included monotherapy with contingency management or community reinforcement approach, cognitive behavioral therapy , 12-step programs , non-contingent reward-based therapies, psychodynamic therapy , and other combination therapies involving these. Additionally, research on

8927-607: The human body. Phenethylamine is the parent compound of amphetamine, while N -methylphenethylamine is a positional isomer of amphetamine that differs only in the placement of the methyl group . Amphetamine is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy (a sleep disorder), obesity , and, in the form of lisdexamfetamine , binge eating disorder . It is sometimes prescribed off-label for its past medical indications , particularly for depression and chronic pain . Long-term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species

9040-434: The human brain. Dextroamphetamine is a more potent agonist of TAAR1 than levoamphetamine. Consequently, dextroamphetamine produces greater CNS stimulation than levoamphetamine, roughly three to four times more, but levoamphetamine has slightly stronger cardiovascular and peripheral effects. In certain brain regions, amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft . Amphetamine can enter

9153-461: The induction of ΔFosB-mediated neural and behavioral plasticity by chronic drug use, which occurs via H3K9me2 -mediated repression of transcription factors for ΔFosB and H3K9me2-mediated repression of various ΔFosB transcriptional targets (e.g., CDK5 ). ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards , such as palatable food, sex, and exercise. Since both natural rewards and addictive drugs induce

9266-431: The interacting substance, or both. Inhibitors of enzymes that metabolize amphetamine (e.g., CYP2D6 and FMO3 ) will prolong its elimination half-life , meaning that its effects will last longer. Amphetamine also interacts with MAOIs , particularly monoamine oxidase A inhibitors, since both MAOIs and amphetamine increase plasma catecholamines (i.e., norepinephrine and dopamine); therefore, concurrent use of both

9379-445: The late 1920s. It exists as two enantiomers : levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine . Amphetamine properly refers to a specific chemical, the racemic free base , which is equal parts of the two enantiomers in their pure amine forms. The term is frequently used informally to refer to any combination of the enantiomers, or to either of them alone. Historically, it has been used to treat nasal congestion and depression. Amphetamine

9492-668: The magnitude and speed by which it increases synaptic dopamine and norepinephrine concentrations in the striatum . Amphetamine has been identified as a potent full agonist of trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), a G s -coupled and G q -coupled G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) discovered in 2001, which is important for regulation of brain monoamines. Activation of TAAR1 increases cAMP Tooltip cyclic adenosine monophosphate production via adenylyl cyclase activation and inhibits monoamine transporter function. Monoamine autoreceptors (e.g., D 2 short , presynaptic α 2 , and presynaptic 5-HT 1A ) have

9605-427: The neuronal monoamine transporters , amphetamine also inhibits both vesicular monoamine transporters , VMAT1 and VMAT2 , as well as SLC1A1 , SLC22A3 , and SLC22A5 . SLC1A1 is excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3), a glutamate transporter located in neurons, SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in astrocytes , and SLC22A5 is a high-affinity carnitine transporter. Amphetamine

9718-443: The nucleus accumbens; magnesium ions inhibit NMDA receptors by blocking the receptor calcium channel . One review suggested that, based upon animal testing, pathological (addiction-inducing) psychostimulant use significantly reduces the level of intracellular magnesium throughout the brain. Supplemental magnesium treatment has been shown to reduce amphetamine self-administration (i.e., doses given to oneself) in humans, but it

9831-795: The number of binge eating days for the duration of the study. In addition, both a review and a meta-analytic systematic review found lisdexamfetamine to be superior to placebo in several secondary outcome measures, including persistent binge eating cessation, reduction of obsessive-compulsive related binge eating symptoms, reduction of body-weight, and reduction of triglycerides. Lisdexamfetamine, like all pharmaceutical amphetamines, has direct appetite suppressant effects that may be therapeutically useful in both BED and its comorbidities. Based on reviews of neuroimaging studies involving BED-diagnosed participants, therapeautic neuroplasticity in dopaminergic and noradrenergic pathways from long-term use of lisdexamfetamine may be implicated in lasting improvements in

9944-507: The occurrence of hyperpyrexia (i.e., core body temperature  ≥ 40 °C) is necessary for the development of amphetamine-induced neurotoxicity. Prolonged elevations of brain temperature above 40 °C likely promote the development of amphetamine-induced neurotoxicity in laboratory animals by facilitating the production of reactive oxygen species, disrupting cellular protein function, and transiently increasing blood–brain barrier permeability. An amphetamine overdose can result in

10057-762: The only post-synaptic receptor at which amphetamine is known to bind is the 5-HT1A receptor , where it acts as an agonist with low micromolar affinity. The full profile of amphetamine's short-term drug effects in humans is mostly derived through increased cellular communication or neurotransmission of dopamine , serotonin , norepinephrine , epinephrine , histamine , CART peptides , endogenous opioids , adrenocorticotropic hormone , corticosteroids , and glutamate , which it affects through interactions with CART , 5-HT1A , EAAT3 , TAAR1 , VMAT1 , VMAT2 , and possibly other biological targets . Amphetamine also activates seven human carbonic anhydrase enzymes, several of which are expressed in

10170-419: The onset of fatigue ), while improving reaction time . Amphetamine improves endurance and reaction time primarily through reuptake inhibition and release of dopamine in the central nervous system. Amphetamine and other dopaminergic drugs also increase power output at fixed levels of perceived exertion by overriding a "safety switch", allowing the core temperature limit to increase in order to access

10283-447: The opposite effect of TAAR1, and together these receptors provide a regulatory system for monoamines. Notably, amphetamine and trace amines possess high binding affinities for TAAR1, but not for monoamine autoreceptors. Imaging studies indicate that monoamine reuptake inhibition by amphetamine and trace amines is site specific and depends upon the presence of TAAR1 co-localization in the associated monoamine neurons. In addition to

10396-435: The opposite. Due to the effect pH has on absorption, amphetamine also interacts with gastric acid reducers such as proton pump inhibitors and H 2 antihistamines , which increase gastrointestinal pH (i.e., make it less acidic). Amphetamine exerts its behavioral effects by altering the use of monoamines as neuronal signals in the brain, primarily in catecholamine neurons in the reward and executive function pathways of

10509-663: The other medications used in RCTs, which included antidepressants (bupropion, mirtazapine , sertraline ), antipsychotics ( aripiprazole ), anticonvulsants ( topiramate , baclofen , gabapentin ), naltrexone , varenicline , citicoline , ondansetron , prometa , riluzole , atomoxetine , dextroamphetamine, and modafinil . A 2018 systematic review and network meta-analysis of 50 trials involving 12 different psychosocial interventions for amphetamine, methamphetamine, or cocaine addiction found that combination therapy with both contingency management and community reinforcement approach had

10622-408: The price of alternative colors to $ 20,000 each. Warhol used a large portion of his income to finance the Factory. Billy Name brought in the red couch which became a prominent furnishing at the Factory, finding it on the sidewalk of 47th street during one of his "midnight outings." The sofa quickly became a favorite place for Factory guests to crash overnight, usually after coming down from speed . It

10735-670: The quality of evidence for these findings is low and is consequently reflected in the AASM's conditional recommendation for dextroamphetamine as a treatment option for narcolepsy. In 2015, a systematic review and a meta-analysis of high quality clinical trials found that, when used at low (therapeutic) doses, amphetamine produces modest yet unambiguous improvements in cognition, including working memory , long-term episodic memory , inhibitory control , and some aspects of attention , in normal healthy adults; these cognition-enhancing effects of amphetamine are known to be partially mediated through

10848-443: The regulation of eating behaviors that are observed even after the drug is discontinued. Narcolepsy is a chronic sleep-wake disorder that is associated with excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy , and sleep paralysis . Patients with narcolepsy are diagnosed as either type 1 or type 2, with only the former presenting cataplexy symptoms. Type 1 narcolepsy results from the loss of approximately 70,000 orexin -releasing neurons in

10961-413: The risk of developing a substance use disorder as an adult. Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems ; these functional impairments involve impaired dopamine neurotransmission in the mesocorticolimbic projection and norepinephrine neurotransmission in the noradrenergic projections from the locus coeruleus to

11074-530: The same scheme for his recently leased loft. Name covered the whole factory in silver, even the elevator. Warhol's years at the Factory were known as the Silver Era. Aside from the prints and paintings, Warhol produced shoes, films, sculptures and commissioned work in various genres to brand and sell items with his name. His first commissions consisted of a single silkscreen portrait for $ 25,000, with additional canvases in other colors for $ 5,000 each. He later increased

11187-568: The severity of withdrawal symptoms is positively correlated with the age of the individual and the extent of their dependence. Mild withdrawal symptoms from the discontinuation of amphetamine treatment at therapeutic doses can be avoided by tapering the dose. An amphetamine overdose can lead to many different symptoms, but is rarely fatal with appropriate care. The severity of overdose symptoms increases with dosage and decreases with drug tolerance to amphetamine. Tolerant individuals have been known to take as much as 5 grams of amphetamine in

11300-425: The smart, on-the-ball, cool image" and that they sought "stimulation not intoxication [...] greater awareness, not escape" and " confidence and articulacy" rather than the " drunken rowdiness of previous generations." Dextroamphetamine's dopaminergic (rewarding) properties affect the mesocorticolimbic circuit ; a group of neural structures responsible for incentive salience (i.e., "wanting"; desire or craving for

11413-502: The striatum following exposure to amphetamine. This increase in extracellular glutamate presumably occurs via the amphetamine-induced internalization of EAAT3 , a glutamate reuptake transporter, in dopamine neurons. Amphetamine also induces the selective release of histamine from mast cells and efflux from histaminergic neurons through VMAT2 . Acute amphetamine administration can also increase adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosteroid levels in blood plasma by stimulating

11526-413: The teeth , nosebleed, profuse sweating, rhinitis medicamentosa (drug-induced nasal congestion), reduced seizure threshold , tics (a type of movement disorder), and weight loss . Dangerous physical side effects are rare at typical pharmaceutical doses. Amphetamine stimulates the medullary respiratory centers , producing faster and deeper breaths. In a normal person at therapeutic doses, this effect

11639-603: The therapeutic range can interfere with working memory and other aspects of cognitive control. Amphetamine is used by some athletes for its psychological and athletic performance-enhancing effects , such as increased endurance and alertness; however, non-medical amphetamine use is prohibited at sporting events that are regulated by collegiate, national, and international anti-doping agencies. In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses, amphetamine has been shown to increase muscle strength , acceleration, athletic performance in anaerobic conditions , and endurance (i.e., it delays

11752-656: The treatment of both type 1 and type 2 narcolepsy. Treatment with pharmaceutical amphetamines is generally less preferred relative to other stimulants (e.g., modafinil ) and is considered a third-line treatment option. Medical reviews indicate that amphetamine is safe and effective for the treatment of narcolepsy. Amphetamine appears to be most effective at improving symptoms associated with hypersomnolence , with three reviews finding clinically significant reductions in daytime sleepiness in patients with narcolepsy. Additionally, these reviews suggest that amphetamine may dose-dependently improve cataplexy symptoms. However,

11865-591: The treatment of ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults with pharmaceutical amphetamines stated that short-term studies have demonstrated that these drugs decrease the severity of symptoms, but they have higher discontinuation rates than non-stimulant medications due to their adverse side effects . A Cochrane review on the treatment of ADHD in children with tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome indicated that stimulants in general do not make tics worse, but high doses of dextroamphetamine could exacerbate tics in some individuals.   Binge eating disorder (BED)

11978-501: The user's personality and current mental state. Amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia ) can occur in heavy users. Although very rare, this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long-term therapy. According to the FDA, "there is no systematic evidence" that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility. Amphetamine has also been shown to produce a conditioned place preference in humans taking therapeutic doses, meaning that individuals acquire

12091-522: Was being shown in mainstream cinema. By making the films, Warhol created a sexually lenient environment at the Factory for the " happenings " staged there, which included fake weddings between drag queens, porn film rentals, and vulgar plays. What was called free love took place in the studio, as sexuality in the 1960s was becoming more open and embraced as a high ideal. Warhol used footage of sexual acts between his friends in his work, such as in Blue Movie ,

12204-517: Was eager to go there, so the rent was $ 150 a month. A few months later, Warhol was informed that the building would have to be vacated soon, and in November he found another loft on the fifth floor at 231 East 47th Street in Midtown Manhattan , which would become the first Factory. In 1963, artist Ray Johnson took Warhol to a "haircutting party" at Billy Name 's apartment, decorated with tin foil and silver paint, and Warhol asked him to do

12317-460: Was featured in many photographs and films from the Silver era, including Blow Job (1963) and Couch (1964). During the move in 1968, the couch was stolen while left unattended on the sidewalk for a short time. Many Warhol films, including those made at the Factory, were first (or later) shown at the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre or 55th Street Playhouse . By the time Warhol had achieved

12430-464: Was just one of those kids who drove me crazy. He's black but some people say he's Puerto Rican so I don't know. And then Bruno discovered him and now he’s on Easy Street. He's got a great loft on Christie Street . He was a middle-class Brooklyn kid—I mean, he went to college and things—and he was trying to be like that, painting in the Greenwich Village. And so had lunch for them and then I took

12543-483: Was owned by Maurice Brahms, a former partner of Steve Rubell and Ian Schrager , the original owners of Studio 54 , and Jay Levy after Club 54 closed, due to jailing of Steve Rubell and Ian Schrager. The club opened on February 28, 1980. John Blair got his start there. Baird Jones promoted Thursday, Friday, and Saturday night parties from 1983 to 1986. Music videos for " I Want To Know What Love Is " by Foreigner and " Word Up! " by Cameo were filmed at

12656-399: Was thrown out of there, and when he came up to me the next time, he said to me, "Nobody has ever thrown me out of a party." He said, "You know? Don't you know who I am?" And I said, "Well, I don't give a good flying fuck who you are. You just weren't there. You weren't involved..." Warhol started shooting movies in the Factory around 1963, when he began work on Kiss . He screened his films at

12769-835: Was used to treat a variety of conditions. Currently, pharmaceutical amphetamine is prescribed as racemic amphetamine, Adderall , dextroamphetamine , or the inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine . Amphetamine increases monoamine and excitatory neurotransmission in the brain, with its most pronounced effects targeting the norepinephrine and dopamine neurotransmitter systems . At therapeutic doses, amphetamine causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria , change in desire for sex , increased wakefulness , and improved cognitive control . It induces physical effects such as improved reaction time, fatigue resistance, decreased appetite , elevated heart rate, and increased muscle strength. Larger doses of amphetamine may impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown . Addiction

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