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110-496: The Eretnids ( Turkish : Eretna Beyliği ) were a dynasty that ruled a state spanning central and eastern Anatolia from 1335 to 1381. The dynasty's founder, Eretna , was an Ilkhanid officer of Uyghur origin, under Timurtash , who was appointed as the governor of Anatolia. Some time after the latter's downfall, Eretna became the governor under the suzerainty of the Jalayirid ruler Hasan Buzurg . After an unexpected victory at

220-687: A na'ib (viceroy) amidst political turmoil within the Mamluks. This elicited a new expedition by Hasan Kuchak in Eretna's lands. Choosing to stay in Tabriz , Hasan Kuchak dispatched his army to Anatolia under Suleiman Khan's command. The battle took place in the plain of Karanbük (between Sivas and Erzincan) in September–October 1343. Eretna initially faced defeat but was able to flank Suleiman Khan and his guards. The Chobanid army disintegrated when Suleiman Khan fled

330-597: A branch of the larger Altaic family, including Japanese , Korean , Mongolian and Tungusic , with various other language families proposed for inclusion by linguists. Altaic theory has fallen out of favour since the 1960s, and a majority of linguists now consider Turkic languages to be unrelated to any other language family, though the Altaic hypothesis still has a small degree of support from individual linguists. The nineteenth-century Ural-Altaic theory, which grouped Turkish with Finnish , Hungarian and Altaic languages,

440-630: A campaign to retake the city, which was also unsuccessful. Ala al-Din Ali died in Kazova  [ tr ] in August 1380 from the plague amidst another attempt to crush Shadgeldi. His body was transferred to Tokat and then to Kayseri. He was buried in Köşkmedrese beside his father and grandfather. Muhammad II Chelebi was crowned when he was 7 years old. His regent was Kadi Burhan al-Din , who proclaimed himself as

550-458: A century, the death of the seventh Ilkhan , Ghazan ( r.  1295–1304 ), marked the height of the state, and while his brother Öljaitü was capable of maintaining the empire, his conversion to Shiism sped up the impending fall and civil war in the region. Of Uyghur stock, Eretna was born to Jafar or Taiju Bakhshi , a trusted follower of the second Ilkhanid ruler Abaqa Khan ( r.  1265–82 ), and his wife Tükälti. His name Eretna

660-475: A form of consonant mutation whereby a voiced obstruent, such as /b d dʒ ɡ/ , is devoiced to [p t tʃ k] at the end of a word or before a consonant, but retains its voicing before a vowel. In loan words, the voiced equivalent of /k/ is /g/; in native words, it is /ğ/. This is analogous to languages such as German and Russian , but in the case of Turkish it only applies, as the above examples demonstrate, to stops and affricates, not to fricatives. The spelling

770-614: A joint campaign successfully driving the Mamluks from Malatya . The Mamluk governor of Damascus , Yalbugha , and his 24 thousand-strong force marched north and raided Eretnid and Dulkadirid lands. However, this effort failed to regain Mamluk control. According to historian Kemal Göde, Muhammad reversed into conflict with Khoja Ali Shah, whom he killed near Zamantu on 30 May 1358. This deviates from İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı 's earlier work which explains that Khoja Ali Shah led an uprising against Muhammad in 1364 and marched towards Kayseri. Muhammad

880-415: A negative suffix -me to the verb (the suffix comes after the stem but before the tense): Necla okula gitmedi ('Necla did not go to school'). In the case of a verbal sentence, an interrogative clitic mi is added after the verb and stands alone, for example Necla okula gitti mi? ('Did Necla go to school?'). In the case of a nominal sentence, then mi comes after the predicate but before

990-522: A payment of 500 thousand dinars by the Mamluks, who would later transport Qaraja to Cairo for his execution. This did not affect the fate of Muhammad, as he was deposed by his emirs in 1354, and his half-brother Jafar reigned for a year (until 1355). After losing the throne to his half-brother, Muhammad fled to Konya, which had been regained by the Karamanids, and later moved north to Sivas. The governor of Sivas, Ibn Kurd, recognized him and assisted him in

1100-514: A potential rival), as well as several other officers, for their military negligence, a conspiracy was then launched against him. The conspirators included Abu Sa'id's uncle Irinjin, who Chupan had dismissed from the governorship of Diyarbakr . Irinjin was defeated near Mianeh in June 1319. Following these events, Chupan gained almost complete influence over the Ilkhan, and his sons gained prominent positions as

1210-482: A region that was politically crumbling apart. He promoted and reinforced the sharia law in his domains and showed an effort to respect and sustain the ulama , sayyids , and sheikhs (Islamic dignitaries). An exception to the praise he received was al-Maqrizi 's accusation that he allowed the state to later fall apart. Eretna passed away in February, March, or August 1352 and was buried in the kumbet (dome) located in

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1320-539: A senior commander during Ghazan's three campaigns against Syria , then under the rule of the Mamelukes . However, later, Chupan's army under the command of Ghazan's chief military officer Qutlugh Shah , was defeated by the Mamelukes in the battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303) . When Qutlugh Shah fled, Chupan stayed with the army, and reached Ghazan in June. Ghazan, furious at the defeat, punished both Qutlugh Shah and Chupan, though

1430-632: A son named Muhammad (d. 1443) and grandson Ahmad, who was attested to be living in 1477. Turkish language To the west, the influence of Ottoman Turkish —the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire —spread as the Ottoman Empire expanded. In 1928, as one of Atatürk's reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey,

1540-689: A superficial similarity to the Germanic runic alphabets . With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages ( c.  6th –11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across Central Asia , covering a vast geographical region stretching from Siberia all the way to Europe and the Mediterranean . The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks , in particular, brought their language, Oghuz —the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into Anatolia during

1650-468: A truce, and then camped near Qazvin . When the shaikh failed, he continued west, with his troops pillaging on the way. Upon reaching Quha, he was a day's journey away from Abu Sa'id's camp, but as night fell, most of his army including Muhammad Beg, uncle of Abu Sa'id deserted him near Ray , taking 30.000 soldier with them, leaving Chupan no choice but to retreat to Herat . Upon reaching Saveh, he sent his wife Sati Beg back to Abu Sa'id. He then traveled in

1760-407: A verb in the form of the copula ol or y (variants of "be"). Examples of both are given below: The two groups of sentences have different ways of forming negation. A nominal sentence can be negated with the addition of the word değil . For example, the sentence above would become Necla öğretmen değil ('Necla is not a teacher'). However, the verbal sentence requires the addition of

1870-565: Is a scant number of surviving buildings and literary works identified with the rule of the Eretnids. This contrasts with the neighboring contemporary states, who left a greater architectural legacy. The Ilkhanate emerged in West Asia under Hulagu Khan ( r.  1256–65 ) as part of the division of the Mongol Empire that started with Möngke Khan 's reign ( r.  1251–59 ). After half

1980-526: Is based on the dialect of Istanbul . This Istanbul Turkish ( İstanbul Türkçesi ) constitutes the model of written and spoken Turkish, as recommended by Ziya Gökalp , Ömer Seyfettin and others. Dialectal variation persists, in spite of the levelling influence of the standard used in mass media and in the Turkish education system since the 1930s. Academic researchers from Turkey often refer to Turkish dialects as ağız or şive , leading to an ambiguity with

2090-435: Is considered even less plausible in light of Altaic's rejection. The theory was based mostly on the fact these languages share three features: agglutination , vowel harmony and lack of grammatical gender. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia . Erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan , these date back to

2200-574: Is mutually intelligible with Azerbaijani . In particular, Turkish-speaking minorities exist in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to the Ottoman Empire , such as Iraq, Bulgaria, Cyprus , Greece (primarily in Western Thrace ), the Republic of North Macedonia , Romania, and Serbia. More than two million Turkish speakers live in Germany; and there are significant Turkish-speaking communities in

2310-612: Is one of the official languages of Cyprus . Turkish has official status in 38 municipalities in Kosovo , including Mamusha, , two in the Republic of North Macedonia and in Kirkuk Governorate in Iraq. Cyprus has requested the European Union to add Turkish as an official language, as it is one of the two official languages of the country. In Turkey, the regulatory body for Turkish is

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2420-534: Is popularly explained to have originated from the Sanskrit word [ratna] Error: {{Lang}}: unrecognized variant: latin ( help ) ( रत्न ) meaning 'jewel'. This name was common among the Uyghurs following the spread of Buddhism , and Eretna may have come from Buddhist parentage. Eretna migrated to Anatolia following his brothers' execution due to a rebellion they joined and his Chobanid master Timurtash 's appointment as

2530-642: Is usually made to match the sound. However, in a few cases, such as ad 'name' (dative ada ), the underlying form is retained in the spelling (cf. at 'horse', dative ata ). Other exceptions are od 'fire' vs. ot 'herb', sac 'sheet metal', saç 'hair'. Most loanwords, such as kitap above, are spelled as pronounced, but a few such as hac 'hajj', şad 'happy', and yad 'strange' or 'stranger' also show their underlying forms. Native nouns of two or more syllables that end in /k/ in dictionary form are nearly all /ğ/ in underlying form. However, most verbs and monosyllabic nouns are underlyingly /k/. The vowels of

2640-431: Is usually referred to as yumuşak g ("soft g"), written ⟨ğ⟩ in Turkish orthography , represents a vowel sequence or a rather weak bilabial approximant between rounded vowels, a weak palatal approximant between unrounded front vowels, and a vowel sequence elsewhere. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, but always follows a vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens

2750-603: The khutbah (sermon). He took the laqab (honorific nickname) Ala al-Din , which was attested in his coins and the Maghrebi traveller Ibn Battuta 's Rihla . Eretna additionally expanded his borders beyond Erzurum. He faced a reduced number of threats to his rule in this period: Despite the intentions of the new Chobanid ruler Malek Ashraf ( r.  1343–57 ) to wage a war against him, such an expedition never came to be. The political vacuum in Mamluk Egypt, following

2860-690: The Aegean region, with its usage extending to Antalya . The nomadic Yörüks of the Mediterranean Region of Turkey also have their own dialect of Turkish. This group is not to be confused with the Yuruk nomads of Macedonia, Greece, and European Turkey, who speak Balkan Gagauz Turkish . The Meskhetian Turks who live in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia as well as in several Central Asian countries, also speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, originating in

2970-555: The Blue Horde . As Chupan had reached the height of his power, he had also sown the seeds of his fall. While Abu Sa'id lacked a treasury, Chupan's son and administrative representative Demasq Kaja spent his wealth extravagantly. This situation annoyed the Ilkhan, who was further influenced against him by his viziers, particularly Rukn al-Din Sa'in, Chupan's own protégé. Chupan's efforts to keep Abu Sa'id from marrying his daughter Bagdad Katun , who

3080-605: The Laz language ). Kastamonu is spoken in Kastamonu and its surrounding areas. Karamanli Turkish is spoken in Greece, where it is called Kαραμανλήδικα . It is the literary standard for the Karamanlides . At least one source claims Turkish consonants are laryngeally-specified three-way fortis-lenis (aspirated/neutral/voiced) like Armenian, although only syllable-finally. The phoneme that

3190-437: The Ottoman Empire period ( c.  1299 –1922) is termed Ottoman Turkish , which was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic that differed considerably and was largely unintelligible to the period's everyday Turkish. The everyday Turkish, known as kaba Türkçe or "vulgar Turkish", spoken by the less-educated lower and also rural members of society, contained a higher percentage of native vocabulary and served as basis for

3300-626: The Perso-Arabic script -based Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with the Latin script -based Turkish alphabet . Some distinctive characteristics of the Turkish language are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination . The basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb . Turkish has no noun classes or grammatical gender . The language makes usage of honorifics and has a strong T–V distinction which distinguishes varying levels of politeness, social distance , age, courtesy or familiarity toward

3410-604: The Second Turkic Khaganate (dated 682–744 CE). After the discovery and excavation of these monuments and associated stone slabs by Russian archaeologists in the wider area surrounding the Orkhon Valley between 1889 and 1893, it became established that the language on the inscriptions was the Old Turkic language written using the Old Turkic alphabet , which has also been referred to as "Turkic runes" or "runiform" due to

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3520-599: The Seljuq Turks , who are both regarded as the ethnic and cultural ancestors of the Ottomans , the administrative language of these states acquired a large collection of loanwords from Arabic and Persian . Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry , was heavily influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters and a great quantity of imported words. The literary and official language during

3630-527: The Trabzon region of northeastern Turkey follows the reduced vowel harmony of Old Anatolian Turkish , with the additional complication of two missing vowels (ü and ı), thus there is no palatal harmony . It is likely that elün meant "your hand" in Old Anatolian. While the 2nd person singular possessive would vary between back and front vowel, -ün or -un, as in elün for "your hand" and kitabun for "your book",

3740-570: The Turkish Language Association ( Türk Dil Kurumu or TDK), which was founded in 1932 under the name Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti ("Society for Research on the Turkish Language"). The Turkish Language Association was influenced by the ideology of linguistic purism : indeed one of its primary tasks was the replacement of loanwords and of foreign grammatical constructions with equivalents of Turkish origin. These changes, together with

3850-645: The Turkoman emirates in Anatolia. Upon the news of his brother Demasq Kaja 's death on 24 August 1327, Timurtash retreated to Kayseri , and following his father's death, he fled to Mamluk Egypt in December while also planning to come into terms with Abu Sa'id. He was later killed on the orders of the Mamluk sultan. Fearing punishment during Timurtash's absence, Eretna took refuge in the court of Badr al-Din Beg of Karaman . Timurtash

3960-522: The Uyghur script , which was also used for Mongolian , to underline the Mongol heritage he sought to represent. Eretna's identification with the Mongol tradition and hesitancy to enact Mamluk sovereignty is in parallel with the overall character of other local rulers, who responded to the downfall of traditional concepts of legitimacy by practicing substantially different means to justify their rule. Still, instead of

4070-573: The 11th century. Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, Mahmud al-Kashgari from the Kara-Khanid Khanate , published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk ( ديوان لغات الترك ). Following the adoption of Islam around the year 950 by the Kara-Khanid Khanate and

4180-411: The 1940s tend to use the older terms of Arabic or Persian origin, the younger generations favor new expressions. It is considered particularly ironic that Atatürk himself, in his lengthy speech to the new Parliament in 1927, used the formal style of Ottoman Turkish that had been common at the time amongst statesmen and the educated strata of society in the setting of formal speeches and documents. After

4290-675: The Battle of Elbistan . He participated in a battle against Nogai of Golden Horde in 1289 during his 20s. Amir Chupan was mentioned as a supporter of Gaykhatu during the latter's successful campaign for the Ilkhanid throne. During Ghazan's fight with Baydu for the throne in 1295, Chupan met with him near the Ustunavand castle and changed sides. He participated in a campaign against Sulaimish of Oirats , who rebelled in Anatolia in 1299. He acted as

4400-536: The Battle of Karanbük, against Mongol warlords competing to restore the Ilkhanate, Eretna claimed independence declaring himself the sultan of his domains. His reign was largely prosperous earning him the nickname Köse Peyghamber ( lit.   ' the beardless prophet ' ). Eretna's son Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad I , although initially preferred over his older brother Jafar , struggled to maintain his authority over

4510-661: The Chobanids and Jalayirids . Back west, Eretna came under the suzerainty of the Jalayirid viceroy of Anatolia, Hasan Buzurg , but had already established his supremacy in the region to a considerable degree. Hasan Buzurg left Eretna as his deputy in Anatolia when he departed east to oppose the Oirat chieftain Ali Padishah's attempt to occupy the Ilkhanid throne. Eretna was officially appointed as

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4620-442: The Chobanids was hindered by Hasan Kuchak's capture of Erzurum and siege of Avnik . He still insisted on his obedience to Suleiman Khan, although by 1341, he had gained enough power to be able to issue his coins in his own name. He first declared his independence in 1341 as it was when he first used the title sultan in his coins. Though, he did not hesitate to send his ambassadors to Cairo to secure Mamluk protection and his status as

4730-606: The Dabbas Tekke and located in the center of the city of Sivas, was built during Eretna's reign as a burial place for his son Sheikh Hasan, who died in 1347. There is a scant number of surviving literary works that were dedicated to the Eretnids. One such text was a short Persian tafsir ( exegesis ) in al-As'ila wa'l-Ajwiba by Aqsara'i commissioned by the Eretnid emir of Amasya, Sayf al-Din Shadgeldi (died 1381). Another instance

4840-521: The French loanword parti ). Some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings; for example betik (originally meaning "book") is now used to mean " script " in computer science . Some examples of modern Turkish words and the old loanwords are: Turkish is natively spoken by the Turkish people in Turkey and by the Turkish diaspora in some 30 other countries. The Turkish language

4950-457: The Ilkhanate was parceled out among them. His sons Timurtash , Shaikh Mahmud , Hasan and Demasq Kaja were given governorships of Anatolia , Georgia , Khorasan and Azerbaijan respectively. He also married Abu Sa'id's sister Sati Beg , whom he had been betrothed to since 1316. However, his son Timurtash rose in rebellion in 1322, claiming to be Mahdi . Chupan went to obtain his surrender personally and even managed to get reappointment to

5060-406: The Ilkhanid court. It was at this time that Abu Sa'id decided to make his move. Using opportunity, on 25 August 1327, Abu Sa'id had one of Chupan's sons, Demasq Kaja , killed, apparently for his activities with a former concubine of Öljaitü's. Hearing this, Chupan marched against Abu Sa'id seeking revenge. he convinced the local religious leader of Simnan, Shaikh 'Ala' al-Daula, to try to negotiate

5170-451: The Ilkhanid governor of the region by Ilkhan Abu Sa'id and his father, Chupan . Eretna's master Timurtash eventually rebelled against the Ilkhanate in 1323, during which time Eretna went into hiding. However, the Ilkhan's weak authority and influence over the state of Timurtash's father, Chupan, led to the pardoning of Timurtash and the restoration of his position as the governor of Anatolia. He later led an extensive series of campaigns against

5280-559: The Karamanids, in hopes that he could claim Kayseri for himself. He wasn't successful, getting arrested when Ali uncovered his true intentions. In addition, the Dulkadirids gained control of Pınarbaşı . The Emir of Sivas, Hajji Ibrahim, who allied with the leader of Samargar, Hizir Beg, rescued Burhan al-Din and imprisoned Ali instead. Hajji Ibrahim further appointed Hizir Beg as the governor of Kayseri and kept Ali in isolation in Sivas. Although Ali

5390-515: The Latin alphabet for speakers of eastern dialects. Some immigrants to Turkey from Rumelia speak Rumelian Turkish , which includes the distinct dialects of Ludogorie , Dinler, and Adakale, which show the influence of the theorized Balkan sprachbund . Kıbrıs Türkçesi is the name for Cypriot Turkish and is spoken by the Turkish Cypriots . Edirne is the dialect of Edirne . Ege is spoken in

5500-567: The Latin script, encoded for many of the dialectal variations between Turkish dialects, the modern Latin script fails to do this. Examples of this are the presence of the nasal velar sound [ŋ] in certain eastern dialects of Turkish which was represented by the Ottoman letter /ڭ/ but that was merged into /n/ in the Latin script. Additionally are letters such as /خ/, /ق/, /غ/ which make the sounds [ɣ], [q], and [x], respectively in certain eastern dialects but that are merged into [g], [k], and [h] in western dialects and are therefore defectively represented in

5610-460: The Mamluks, who confirmed him as the Mamluk governor of Anatolia. On the contrary, Eretna did very little to uphold Mamluk sovereignty, minting coins on behalf of the new Chobanid puppet Suleiman Khan in 1339. Thus, the Mamluks started viewing the rising Turkoman leader Zayn al-Din Qaraja of Dulkadir more favorably. In 1338–9, Eretna lost Darende to Qaraja, who was continuing to enlarge his realm at

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5720-548: The Mongols, who were numerous in the region from Kütahya to Sivas, Eretna appointed mamluks (slave-soldiers) and local Turks in administrative positions fearing the rebirth of the Mongol rule. Eretna was a fluent Arabic -speaker according to Ibn Battuta and was considered a scholar among the scholars of his era. He was famously known as Köse Peyghamber ( lit.   ' the beardless prophet ' ) by his subjects who looked upon him favorably because his rule preserved order in

5830-529: The SOV structure has diminished relevance and may vary. The SOV structure may thus be considered a "pragmatic word order" of language, one that does not rely on word order for grammatical purposes. Consider the following simple sentence which demonstrates that the focus in Turkish is on the element that immediately precedes the verb: Ahmet Ahmet yumurta-yı Chupan Amir Chūpān ( Persian : امیر چوپان ; died November 1327), also spelt Choban or Coban ,

5940-466: The TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries. In 1935, the TDK published a bilingual Ottoman-Turkish /Pure Turkish dictionary that documents the results of the language reform. Owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before

6050-539: The Turkish language are, in their alphabetical order, ⟨a⟩ , ⟨e⟩ , ⟨ı⟩ , ⟨i⟩ , ⟨o⟩ , ⟨ö⟩ , ⟨u⟩ , ⟨ü⟩ . The Turkish vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by how and where they are articulated focusing on three key features: front and back , rounded and unrounded and vowel height . Vowels are classified [±back], [±round] and [±high]. The only diphthongs in

6160-472: The Turkoman contemporaries of the Eretnids, who ruled comparably smaller realms. Köşkmedrese is a khanqah that was used as the burial place of the Eretnid sultans and consorts. According to the now-vanished inscriptions on the building, it was built by Eretna in memory of his consort Suli Pasha in 1339. The name Kaluyan, possibly that of an Armenian architect, appears on the building. Güdük Minaret , also known as

6270-625: The Ulus, despite attempts by the Amir Sevinch to gain the position for himself. Moreover, Chupan was betrothed to Sati Beg , another daughter of Öljeitü in 1317. Chupan attempted to neutralize the influence of the viziers. In 1318, he convinced the discredited former vizier Rashid-al-Din Hamadani to return to the Ilkhanid court. Rashid, who had many enemies, was accused of poisoning Öljeitü soon after he returned. Chupan promptly turned on him, and Rashid-al-Din

6380-572: The United States, France, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Due to the cultural assimilation of Turkish immigrants in host countries, not all ethnic members of the diaspora speak the language with native fluency. In 2005, 93% of the population of Turkey were native speakers of Turkish, about 67 million at the time, with Kurdish languages making up most of

6490-401: The addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a single person out of respect. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of the Turkic family. Other members include Azerbaijani , spoken in Azerbaijan and north-west Iran , Gagauz of Gagauzia , Qashqai of south Iran and the Turkmen of Turkmenistan . Historically the Turkic family was seen as

6600-437: The adoption of the new Turkish alphabet in 1928, shaped the modern Turkish language spoken today. The TDK became an independent body in 1951, with the lifting of the requirement that it should be presided over by the Minister of Education. This status continued until August 1983, when it was again made into a governmental body in the constitution of 1982 , following the military coup d'état of 1980 . Modern standard Turkish

6710-406: The aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a language reform to replace loanwords of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by

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6820-407: The areas of Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin and sharing similarities with Azerbaijani , the language of Azerbaijan. The Central Anatolia Region speaks Orta Anadolu . Karadeniz , spoken in the Eastern Black Sea Region and represented primarily by the Trabzon dialect, exhibits substratum influence from Greek in phonology and syntax ; it is also known as Laz dialect (not to be confused with

6930-404: The capital initially situated in Sivas and later Kayseri. Eretna benefited from the support of the significant population of Mongol tribes in Central Anatolia (referred to as Qara Tatars in sources) in asserting his rule. He thus highlighted his succession to the Mongol tradition despite his Uyghur origin. When he stopped referring to an overlord after 1341–2 and issued his own coins, he utilized

7040-456: The capital. His 13-year-old son, Ala al-Din Ali , was largely not allowed to interfere in administrative matters by the local emirs, who had been enjoying a substantial degree of autonomy since Eretna's demise. Ali lacked necessary skills of governance and was described to have only cared for personal pleasures. The state's borders continued to shrink, and the capital temporarily came under Karamanid control. Kadi Burhan al-Din rose to power as

7150-513: The continuing work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language, mostly from English. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance. However, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka , "political party"—also failed to meet with popular approval ( fırka has been replaced by

7260-471: The country is very high. The rising presence of this very similar language in Azerbaijan and the fact that many children use Turkish words instead of Azerbaijani words due to satellite TV has caused concern that the distinctive features of the language will be eroded. Many bookstores sell books in Turkish language along Azerbaijani language ones, with Agalar Mahmadov, a leading intellectual, voicing his concern that Turkish language has "already started to take over

7370-531: The courtyard of Köşkmedrese in Kayseri. Muhammad was liked by most Eretnid emirs (regional feudal lords), and upon his father's death, Eretna's vizier (chief minister), Khoja Ali, secretly invited Muhammad to Kayseri to become the new sultan, although Muhammad's older brother Jafar was already residing there. Jafar was imprisoned by Muhammad for some time, but he eventually escaped to Egypt . However, Muhammad's rule did not fare well due to his debaucherous behaviour and unfair treatment of his siblings. Since he

7480-633: The death of Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (1341; r.  1293–94, 1299–1309 ), allowed Eretna to take Darende from the Mamluks. The Dulkadirid ruler Qaraja's focus in pillaging the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and tensions with the Mamluk emirs also made an attack from the south unlikely. Eretna further took advantage of the Karamanid ruler Ahmed 's death in 1350, capturing Konya. Overall, Eretna's realm extended from Konya to Ankara and Erzurum, also incorporating Kayseri, Amasya , Tokat , Çorum , Develi , Karahisar , Zile , Canik , Ürgüp , Niğde , Aksaray , Erzincan, Şebinkarahisar , and Darende, with

7590-441: The direction of Tabas , with the intention of finding refuge in Transoxiana. Upon reaching the Murghab River, he changed his mind and headed for Khurasan. He was given a friendly welcome into Herat by the local Kartid ruler, Ghiyath ud-Din. However he was soon strangled to death under orders of Abu Sa'id in 1327. Chupan and his son Chilaun were both killed. As Chupan's friend, Ghiyath ordered that he be killed by strangulation, which

7700-437: The eastern part of the realm, including Erzincan, Erzurum, and Bayburt , had come under the rule of a local figure, Ahi Ayna . Ala al-Din Ali was crowned at 13 years old, following the murder of his father. Ali was particularly known to have solely cared for pleasure and lacked the skills to consolidate his authority. He was largely disregarded in political matters. After Muhammad's death, local emirs obtained control of much of

7810-426: The expanse of Eretna. Having been robbed of the wealth he had stored in the latter city, Eretna confronted the Mamluk sultan, who brought up his failure to declare Mamluk sovereignty. In return, Eretna finally minted coins for the Mamluks in 1339–40. Despite the loss of Darende, Eretna was able to gain control of Konya from the Karamanids as well as Sivas on an unknown date. Eretna's attempt to be on good terms with

7920-473: The governor of Anatolia by Hasan Buzurg following his victory against Ali Padishah. However, shortly after, Hasan Kuchak gained power in the Ilkhanid domains in the east in 1338. Hasan Kuchak was the son of Timurtash and had effectively become the pretender of his father's legacy. He defeated the Jalayirids near Aladağ and pillaged Erzincan . Due to constant upheavals in the east, Eretna forged an alliance with

8030-468: The lack of ü vowel in the Trabzon dialect means -un would be used in both of these cases — elun and kitabun . With the exceptions stated below, Turkish words are oxytone (accented on the last syllable). Turkish has two groups of sentences: verbal and nominal sentences. In the case of a verbal sentence, the predicate is a finite verb, while the predicate in nominal sentence will have either no overt verb or

8140-466: The language are found in loanwords and may be categorised as falling diphthongs usually analyzed as a sequence of /j/ and a vowel. The principle of vowel harmony, which permeates Turkish word-formation and suffixation, is due to the natural human tendency towards economy of muscular effort. This principle is expressed in Turkish through three rules: The second and third rules minimize muscular effort during speech. More specifically, they are related to

8250-429: The language reform, the Turkish education system discontinued the teaching of literary form of Ottoman Turkish and the speaking and writing ability of society atrophied to the point that, in later years, Turkish society would perceive the speech to be so alien to listeners that it had to be "translated" three times into modern Turkish: first in 1963, again in 1986, and most recently in 1995. The past few decades have seen

8360-497: The latter was dealt with more leniently. He also met Zahid Gilani sometime during reign of Ghazan. On 19 March 1305 Chupan was betrothed to the daughter of Ghazan's successor Öljeitü , Dowlandi Khatun. In 1307 he was given command of one of four armies assigned to quell the rebellious province of Gilan . Marching from Ardabil , he convinced the rulers of Astara and Gaskar to surrender peacefully, and then met up with Öljeitü. Qutlugh Shah's army, however, did not fare so well, and he

8470-531: The latter's position across the Kur River was in danger. Several of Abu Sa'id's officers had deserted, leaving his army weakened. He rushed to his master's position, only to find the troops of the Blue Horde already in flight. Nevertheless, Chupan inflicted heavy casualties upon the enemy. The matter of Abu Sa'id's officers fleeing still needed to be addressed. When the amir enacted punishment against Qurumushi (also

8580-513: The linguistic concept of accent , which is also covered with these words. Several universities, as well as a dedicated work-group of the Turkish Language Association, carry out projects investigating Turkish dialects. As of 2002 work continued on the compilation and publication of their research as a comprehensive dialect- atlas of the Turkish language. Although the Ottoman alphabet, being slightly more phonetically ambiguous than

8690-402: The modern Turkish language. While visiting the region between Adıyaman and Adana , Evliya Çelebi recorded the "Turkman language" and compared it with his own Turkish: Reforms Kemalism After the foundation of the modern state of Turkey and the script reform , the Turkish Language Association (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , with

8800-410: The national and natural dialects of Azerbaijan". However, the presence of Turkish as foreign language is not as high as Russian. In Uzbekistan, the second most populated Turkic country, a new TV channel Foreign Languages TV was established in 2022. This channel has been broadcasting Turkish lessons along with English, French, German and Russian lessons. Turkish is the official language of Turkey and

8910-424: The new vizier and further dispatched Ali to command several largely unsuccessful campaigns. Ali died of the plague in August 1380 amidst one of those expeditions. The fourth Eretnid sultan, Muhammad II Chelebi was 7 years old when his father died. His regent Burhan al-Din toppled him in less than a year and proclaimed himself as the new sultan by January 1381, ending the Eretnid dynasty's political presence. There

9020-485: The personal ending, so for example Necla, siz öğretmen misiniz ? ('Necla, are you [formal, plural] a teacher?'). Word order in simple Turkish sentences is generally subject–object–verb , as in Korean and Latin , but unlike English, for verbal sentences and subject-predicate for nominal sentences. However, as Turkish possesses a case-marking system, and most grammatical relations are shown using morphological markers, often

9130-435: The phenomenon of labial assimilation: if the lips are rounded (a process that requires muscular effort) for the first vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels. If they are unrounded for the first vowel, the speaker does not make the additional muscular effort to round them subsequently. Grammatical affixes have "a chameleon-like quality", and obey one of the following patterns of vowel harmony: Practically,

9240-584: The post by Abu Sa'id. Abu Sa'id sometime fell in love with Baghdad Khatun , one of emir Chupan's daughters. The emir's efforts to keep Abu Sa'id from marrying his daughter, who was still married to Hasan Buzurg (another powerful kingmaker of the era), did not help the situation. Abu Said approached Chupan in 1325, claiming her unsuccessfully. Chupan sent his daughter and son-in-law to Karabakh instead while himself went against Özbeg and Tarmashirin who invaded Azerbaijan and Khorasan respectively. Same year Chupan defeated another force led by Özbeg, and even invaded

9350-638: The preceding vowel. In native Turkic words, the sounds [c] , [ɟ] , and [l] are mainly in complementary distribution with [k] , [ɡ] , and [ɫ] ; the former set occurs adjacent to front vowels and the latter adjacent to back vowels. The distribution of these phonemes is often unpredictable, however, in foreign borrowings and proper nouns. In such words, [c] , [ɟ] , and [l] often occur with back vowels: some examples are given below. However, there are minimal pairs that distinguish between these sounds, such as kar [kɑɾ] "snow" vs kâr [cɑɾ] "profit". Turkish orthography reflects final-obstruent devoicing ,

9460-440: The principles of i-type vowel harmony in practice: Türkiye' dir ("it is Turkey"), kapı dır ("it is the door"), but gün dür ("it is the day"), palto dur ("it is the coat"). These are four word-classes that are exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony: The road sign in the photograph above illustrates several of these features: The rules of vowel harmony may vary by regional dialect. The dialect of Turkish spoken in

9570-648: The region with the former vizier Khoja Ali Shah's son Hajji Ibrahim in Sivas, Sheikh Najib in Tokat, and Hajji Shadgeldi Pasha in Amasya. The Karamanids invaded Niğde and Aksaray, and local Mongol tribes started disrupting the public order. In 1375, when Ali was in the midst of a feast in his hammam in Kayseri, the Karamanids captured the city with the help of the Mongol tribes of Samargar and Chaykazan, prompting Ali to flee to Sivas. The local judge Kadi Burhan al-Din tried to fend off

9680-454: The remainder. Azerbaijani language , official in Azerbaijan, is mutually intelligible with Turkish and speakers of both languages can understand them without noticeable difficulty, especially when discussion comes on ordinary, daily language. Turkey has very good relations with Azerbaijan, with a multitude of Turkish companies and authorities investing there, while the influence of Turkey in

9790-469: The remark "may their dominion live on and their majesty be eternal." There, she was described as "the Bilqis of the age and time," " Banu of Iran -zamin of the time," and "pride of the illustrious family ( urugh ) of Chingiz Khan ." Muhammad is reputed to have had 2 sons, Yusuf Chelebi (died 1434) and Ahmad (d. 1433), and 3 daughters, Neslikhan Khatun (d. 1455), Aisha (d. 1436), and Fatima (d. 1430). Ahmad had

9900-508: The restoration of his rule. In April 1355, Muhammad faced Jafar at the Battle of Yalnızgöz. Muhammad came to terms with the vizier Ali Khoja and killed Jafar, reclaiming his rule. In 1361, as a reprisal to a raid by Tatars of the Chavdar  [ tr ] tribe, Ottoman ruler Murad I captured Ankara Castle from the Eretnids. Muhammad allied himself with the Dulkadirids in September 1362 in

10010-415: The ruler by January 1381. According to Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani , Muhammad was killed by Kadi Burhan al-Din in 1390. There are no surviving mosques, madrasas , caravanserais , hospitals, or bridges dated back to Eretna's rule, except for tombs. Similarly, the overall Eretnid period in Anatolia was unproductive in terms of architectural legacy. This contrasts with the large legacy produced by

10120-480: The scene. Eretna's victory was unexpected for most actors in the region. This victory resulted in the Eretnid annexation of Erzincan and several cities further east, also marking the beginning of Eretna's independent reign. Hasan Kuchak's death at the hands of his wife prevented any retaliation for Eretna's earlier victory. After the battle and Hasan Kuchak's death, Eretna assumed the title sultan , dispersed coins in his name, and formally declared sovereignty as part of

10230-512: The state and was quickly deposed by Jafar. Shortly after, he managed to restore his throne, although he could not prevent some portion of his territories from getting annexed by local Turkoman lords, the Dulkadirids to the south, and the Ottomans to the west. In 1365, when he had recently put an end to the revolt of his vizier (chief minister), he was murdered by his emirs (vassals) in Kayseri ,

10340-720: The states in the east but continued trade along the Silk Road . Coins Eretna minted in the name of the Chobanid-backed pretender Suleiman Khan forms a continuity with Eretna's coins as an independent sultan. The coinage of Eretna's son Muhammad and grandson Ali were derived from the Mongol tradition. Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad's coinage was more innovative, and his son's largely used older motifs. Eretna's parents were Jafar or Taiju Bakhshi and his wife Tükälti. Eretna's elder brothers were Emir Taramtaz and Suniktaz. There were possibly two additional brothers of Eretna. Emir of Erzincan, Mutahharten

10450-432: The twofold pattern (also referred to as the e-type vowel harmony) means that in the environment where the vowel in the word stem is formed in the front of the mouth, the suffix will take the e-form, while if it is formed in the back it will take the a-form. The fourfold pattern (also called the i-type) accounts for rounding as well as for front/back. The following examples, based on the copula -dir ("[it] is"), illustrate

10560-509: Was Muhammad II Chelebi . Khuvand Islamshah Khatun was either the mother or consort of Ali. She appears in records as a noble carrying weight in the Eretnid court, where she ordered a copy of the Ilkhanid Tavarikh-i Jahangusha-yi Ghazani . The possibility that she was Ali's consort is supported by a reference to him as the person of the highest authority, or Shahzada-yi Jahan , along with her, Khuvandegar Khatun, and

10670-450: Was Eretna's nephew among others. Eretna had a sister who married the Chobanid prince Timurtash. According to the work of history commissioned by the Karamanids, Karamanname , Eretna had a paternal uncle named Ali. Eretna's wives included Suli Pasha (died 1339), Togha Khatun and Isfahan Shah Khatun. He was known to have had three sons: Hasan, Muhammad, and Jafar. The oldest son, Sheikh Hasan

10780-826: Was a Chupanid noble of the Ilkhanate , and nominal general of the Mongol Empire . He was ennobled by Emperor Taiding of Yuan as Duke of Yi (翊國公). Chupan's father Malek participated in the Siege of Baghdad in 1258 while his uncle Akrunchi participated in a campaign in Georgia in 1318. His grandfather was Tudaun from the Suldus clan and was directly descended from Chilaun, who was one of Genghis Khan 's four great companions. Tudaun accompanied Hulagu on his campaign against Golden Horde in 1262 and named as governor of Diyar Bakr , died in 1277 at

10890-460: Was aimed at subduing Burhan al-Din's rival Hajji Shadgeldi of Amasya, but this proved to be futile and further reinforced Shadgeldi's influence over the region. Another expedition consisted of efforts to reclaim Niğde, which was largely fruitless except for Karahisar's capture. After raiding the Turkomans near Niğde in 1379, Ali took advantage of the death of Pir Husayn Beg, Emir of Erzincan , through

11000-721: Was already married to Hasan Buzurg, did not help the situation. Early in 1326, Chupan led an army to defend against an imminent invasion of Khurasan . By the request of Abu Said, the Khagan Yesün Temür awarded his custodian Chupan the nominal title of a chief-commander of all Mongol Khanates. In the autumn of that year, the Chagatai Khan Tarmashirin crossed the Oxus River , and was defeated by Chupan's son Hasan near Ghazna . The vizier Rukn al-Din Sa'in had traveled with Chupan, leaving Demasq Kaja in effective control at

11110-585: Was an astrological almanac ( taqwim ) created for the last Eretnid ruler Ala al-Din Ali in 1371–2. During the Ilkhanid era, Eretna struck coins in the name of Abu Sa'id until he died in 1335. Eretna issued coins for various pretenders to the Ilkhanid throne. Briefly in 1338–9, Eretna minted one type of coin for Taghaytimur, although he ruled in Khorasan , far from Anatolia, and was not a direct descendant of Genghis Khan . According to Philip N. Remler, this signified Anatolia's gradual transition into independence from

11220-471: Was at some point declared as the ruler but was defeated and imprisoned by the Karamanids. While he held the throne for some time, he was eventually killed by Ala al-Din of Karaman. Muhammad's son Eretna had two sons named Esenbogha and Ghazi, the first of which is reputed to have a tomb in Niğde. However, details on his life are not mentioned by any sources of that era other than Karamanname . Ali's only known son

11330-450: Was considered an honorable way to die. The Kartid leader then sent one of Chupan's fingers to Abu Sa'id as proof of the deed. Many of Chupan's sons were to also die in the next few years. His daughter soon forced to divorce Hasan Buzurg and marry Abu Sa'id. In compensation, Hasan was awarded former post of Chupan, rising to be new commander-in-chief of Ilkhanid army. He was buried in Medina , in

11440-650: Was defeated and had to request assistance from the Mamluk Sultan Al-Kamil Sha'ban . Upon a decree by the Mamluk Sultan, the governor of Aleppo sent his forces to aid Muhammad, with which he subdued and executed Khoja Ali Shah in 1365. Soon after in October 1365, other emirs who wanted to preserve their autonomy, such as Hajji Shadgeldi and Hajji Ibrahim, killed Muhammad in Kayseri before he could reinforce his authority, enthroning his son Ali . Around that time,

11550-479: Was killed by the Gilakis. Following his death, Öljeitü made Chupan his chief military commander or Amir of the Ulus (nation). This was followed by his marriage to his fiancée Dowlandi on 30 September 1307. Chupan was now a major influence behind the throne, though he had to contend with the court viziers. Dowlandi died in 1314; following the death of Öljeitü in 1316, his son Abu Sa'id confirmed Chupan's status as Amir of

11660-599: Was put to death in July of that year. In 1319, armies under the command of the khan of the Blue Horde , Öz-Beg , invaded the Ilkhanate. Abu Sa'id led a campaign to stop the invasion. Chupan was on his way to assist Amir Husain (the father of the founder of the Jalayirids , Hasan Buzurg ) against the raids of the Chagatai prince Yasa'ur , who was devastating Khurasan , but then turned around to support Abu Sa'id upon receiving word that

11770-403: Was released for a brief period of time, he was imprisoned once again by Hajji Mukbil, who was the mamluk of the recently-deceased Hajji Ibrahim. Ali was liberated by Burhan al-Din in 1378. In June of that year, Burhan al-Din was made vizier by the emirs to prevent a possible revolt of peasants disgruntled by Ali's incompetence. Kadi Burhan al-Din later dispatched Ali to lead several campaigns. One

11880-496: Was replaced by Emir Muhammad from the Oirat tribe, who was the uncle of Abu Sa'id. Eretna was later involved in a plot against the Ilkhan in 1334 but received a pardon and returned to Anatolia from the Ilkhanid court in Iran. With Abu Sa'id's death in 1335, the Ilkhanid period practically came to an end, leaving in its place continuous wars between several warlords from princely houses, namely

11990-419: Was the governor of Sivas and died in December 1347 or January 1348 due to sickness shortly after he wed an Artuqid princess. Eretna's successor and youngest son, Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad I was born to Isfahan Shah Khatun, who was a relative of the Jalayirid ruler Hasan Buzurg. Muhammad's son Ala al-Din Ali succeeded him after his murder. According to Karamanname , Muhammad also had an older son named Eretna. He

12100-610: Was young, authority came into the hands of his emirs. Turkoman tribes took control of the northern region of Canik near the Black Sea coast. Although the Dulkadirids to the south expanded their borders at the expense of the Eretnids, the Dulkadirid beg Zayn al-Din Qaraja would soon seek protection in Muhammad's court fleeing from the Mamluks, who were preparing to prosecute him for the rebellion he led. On 22 September 1353, Muhammad deported Qaraja to Mamluk-controlled Aleppo in exchange for

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