The Radiation Laboratory , commonly called the Rad Lab , was a microwave and radar research laboratory located at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts . It was first created in October 1940 and operated until 31 December 1945 when its functions were dispersed to industry, other departments within MIT, and in 1951, the newly formed MIT Lincoln Laboratory .
156-551: The Electronics Training Program ( ETP ) was the name commonly used for an unusual, difficult, and selective training activity of the United States Navy during World War II . The ETP combined college-level classroom instruction with laboratories involving highly complex electronic systems that were classified secret, resulting in a level of training reported to have been the most intense and difficult ever given to enlisted servicemen . A highly regarded Naval officer noted that
312-401: A superheterodyne receiver , and fault-finding was taught using systematic signal-tracing. Eight hours per weekday were devoted to lectures and laboratories, and there were at least four hours of homework or supervised study in the evenings; athletics and some drill were fitted in wherever possible. Saturday mornings were devoted to examinations on the topics of the previous week. The repeat of
468-501: A 10-cm gun-aiming system (called gun-laying or GL) for anti-aircraft batteries, and (3) a long-range airborne radio navigation system . To initiate the first two of these projects, the magnetron from Great Britain was used to build a 10-cm " breadboard " set; this was tested successfully from the rooftop of Building 4 in early January 1941. All members of the initial staff were involved in this endeavor. Under Project 1 led by Edwin M. McMillan , an "engineered" set with an antenna using
624-516: A 14-month circumnavigation of the world. Ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt , it was a mission designed to demonstrate the Navy's capability to extend to the global theater. By 1911, the U.S. had begun building the super-dreadnoughts at a pace to eventually become competitive with Britain. The 1911 also saw the first naval aircraft with the navy which would lead to the informal establishment of United States Naval Flying Corps to protect shore bases. It
780-632: A 30-inch (76 cm) parabolic reflector followed. This, the first microwave radar built in America, was tested successfully in an aircraft on March 27, 1941. It was then taken to Great Britain by Taffy Bowen and tested in comparison with a 10-cm set being developed there. For the final system, the Rad Lab staff combined features from their own and the British set. It eventually became the SCR-720, used extensively by both
936-677: A Pre-Radio and primary school at the Training Complex. This had not been fully activated before the end of the war, and, after graduating only a few classes, was closed in May 1946. The secondary school in the ETP was an outgrowth of the Secondary segment of the RMS-Bellevue. The ETP secondary school initially retained the same five-month length and with the same basic curriculum, but the topics were presented at
1092-455: A book to assist students in this effort. Each entering student was issued a Cooke Slide Rule, and these were used from the first day. Much attention was given to electrical components, their standards, and graphic symbols. There was also hands-on work with electrical instruments and in shop practices. Lack of speed and accuracy in using the slide rule, instruments, and shop tools was often the downfall of otherwise capable students. Instructors in
1248-633: A change in their rating from their previous rating (i.e., MMCM) to CMDCM. The stars for Command Master Chief are silver, while stars for Fleet, and gold stars for Force. Additionally, CMCs wear a badge, worn on their left breast pocket, denoting their title (Command/Fleet/Force). Insignia and badges of the United States Navy are military "badges" issued by the Department of the Navy to naval service members who achieve certain qualifications and accomplishments while serving on both active and reserve duty in
1404-529: A college program in aviation and radio technology was recruited as a lieutenant commander to organize the ARMS. Before it had graduated any students, planning began for transferring the ARMS to a more secure location, Ward Island , near Corpus Christi, Texas . The annual output of operations at RMS-Bellevue, RMS-Treasure Island, and ARMS would be a few thousand, but the BuNav estimated that the wartime requirement would be in
1560-474: A degree, or at least had two years of study in electrical engineering, and could bypass the Primary altogether. A compromise was reached by Eddy's proposing a primary school taught in electrical engineering schools and compressing the major topics of the first two years of a normal curriculum into three months. Eddy would lead a prototype primary school (previously described as a part or Radio Chicago) that would ensure
1716-553: A few hundred were radio technicians, most having obtained their qualification through self-study and on-the job training. Further, only a few had any knowledge of radar , which would be extremely important in the war. The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) was established in 1923 at Bellevue in the District of Columbia . At the urging of Albert H. Taylor , head of the NRL Radio Division, an affiliated electronics training operation
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#17328514958191872-459: A formidable force in the years prior to World War II , with battleship production being restarted in 1937, commencing with USS North Carolina (BB-55) . Though ultimately unsuccessful, Japan tried to neutralize this strategic threat with the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. Following American entry into the war , the U.S. Navy grew tremendously as the United States
2028-495: A high degree of concentration and ability, the Navy could ill afford to spend several months training men who, because of lack of ability, were unable to complete the training. The Eddy Test was given to men in high schools, colleges, and recruiting centers. It was also given to men entering the Navy or already in the fleet when they scored high on the Otis Higher Examination. There was a firm pass-fail criteria for grading
2184-496: A higher level, taking into account the better preparation of the entering students. The schools were located as follows: The three Advanced Radio Materiel (ARM) secondary schools were devoted to shipboard and shore-based electronic equipment, while the NATTC School was devoted to electronic equipment carried on airplanes and anti-submarine blimps . Much of the equipment studied was classified as Secret; therefore, physical security
2340-621: A major effect on naval planning is the Pivot to East Asia . In response, the Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus stated in 2015 that 60 percent of the total U.S. fleet will be deployed to the Pacific by 2020. The Navy's most recent 30-year shipbuilding plan, published in 2016, calls for a future fleet of 350 ships to meet the challenges of an increasingly competitive international environment. A provision of
2496-629: A major role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy and seizing control of its rivers. It played the central role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan . The United States Navy emerged from World War II as the most powerful navy in the world. The modern United States Navy maintains a sizable global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific ,
2652-518: A medically retired (deafness) lieutenant, joined the committee and quickly became its leader. An authority in the emerging field of television, Eddy had earlier started an electronics school for submariners. A major topic of discussion was the type of technicians needed. As the hardware became more and more complex, the maintenance technicians needed broad as well as in-depth knowledge. Navy technicians would also be required to make rapid repairs on combat-critical equipment in locations where assistance from
2808-608: A number of the Rad Lab physicists into Los Alamos and Lawrence's facility at Berkeley. This was made simpler by Lawrence and Loomis being involved in all of these projects. The Radiation Laboratory officially opened in November 1940, using 4,000 square feet (370 m ) of space in MIT's Building 4, and under $ 500,000 initial funding from the NDRC. In addition to the Director, Lee DuBridge, I. I. Rabi
2964-637: A number of unique capabilities, including Military Sealift Command , Naval Expeditionary Combat Command , and Naval Information Forces . The United States Navy has seven active numbered fleets – Second , Third , Fifth , Sixth , Seventh and Tenth Fleets are each led by a vice admiral , and the Fourth Fleet is led by a rear admiral . These seven fleets are further grouped under Fleet Forces Command (the former Atlantic Fleet), Pacific Fleet, Naval Forces Europe-Africa, and Naval Forces Central Command, whose commander also doubles as Commander Fifth Fleet;
3120-595: A prototype primary school, grading and maintaining records of Eddy Tests, and handling four Pre-Radio Schools in the Chicago area. It began with offices on the top floor of the State-Lake Theater Building at 190 North State Street, Chicago, then expanded to also occupy all four floors of a nearby building at 64 North State Street. Other functions included operating a teacher training school, building visual aids for classrooms, providing first-level medical services for
3276-842: A quarter of whom are in ready reserve. Of those on active duty, more than eighty percent are enlisted sailors and around fifteen percent are commissioned officers ; the rest are midshipmen of the United States Naval Academy and midshipmen of the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps at over 180 universities around the country and officer candidates at the Navy's Officer Candidate School . Enlisted sailors complete basic military training at boot camp and then are sent to complete training for their individual careers . Sailors prove they have mastered skills and deserve responsibilities by completing Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS) tasks and examinations. Among
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#17328514958193432-402: A resonant cavity magnetron to fill this need; it was quickly placed within the highest level of secrecy. Shortly after this breakthrough, Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Roosevelt agreed that the two nations would pool their technical secrets and jointly develop many urgently needed warfare technologies. At the initiation of this exchange in the late summer of 1940,
3588-465: A senior non-commissioned officer in the other services, and must have a minimum 14 years in service. Sailors in pay grades E-1 through E-3 are considered to be in apprenticeships. They are divided into five definable groups, with colored group rate marks designating the group to which they belong: Seaman, Fireman, Airman, Constructionman, and Hospitalman. E-4 to E-6 are non-commissioned officers (NCOs), and are specifically called Petty officers in
3744-529: A series of attacks by the Barbary pirates . The sole armed maritime presence between 1790 and the launching of the U.S. Navy's first warships in 1797 was the U.S. Revenue-Marine , the primary predecessor of the U.S. Coast Guard . Although the United States Revenue Cutter Service conducted operations against the pirates, the pirates' depredations far outstripped its abilities and Congress passed
3900-489: A service member may choose to further their career by becoming a Command Master Chief Petty Officer (CMC). A CMC is considered to be the senior-most enlisted service member within a command, and is the special assistant to the Commanding Officer in all matters pertaining to the health, welfare, job satisfaction, morale, use, advancement and training of the command's enlisted personnel. CMCs can be Command level (within
4056-404: A single unit, such as a ship or shore station), Fleet level (squadrons consisting of multiple operational units, headed by a flag officer or commodore), or Force level (consisting of a separate community within the Navy, such as Subsurface, Air, Reserves). CMC insignia are similar to the insignia for Master Chief, except that the rating symbol is replaced by an inverted five-point star, reflecting
4212-415: A staff of 800 persons in these efforts. A radically different type of antenna for X-band systems was invented by Luis W. Alvarez and used in three new systems: an airborne mapping radar called Eagle, a blind-landing Ground Control Approach (GCA) system, and a ground-based Microwave Early-Warning (MEW) system. The latter two were highly successful and carried over into post-war applications. Eagle eventually
4368-619: A time were in the ETP at Great Lakes for the next year. The River Rouge Complex of Ford Motor Company was the world's most famous industrial plant. As WWII approached, Ford offered its training capabilities to the Navy, and in January 1941, the Naval Service Training School at the Rouge Complex was opened. From then until it closed in May 1946, 22,000 men had been trained in a number of different areas. In early 1945, BuPers added
4524-399: A week was not allowed except under extenuating circumstances. Before the addition of Pre-Radio School, the graduation rate was unacceptably low; later, it averaged about 80 percent. In 1943, the incoming class size was increased to 110, and a new class started every two weeks. Collectively, the primary schools were then graduating about 1,000 men per month. As the war continued, men trained in
4680-641: Is "often called the father of the American Navy". In 1798–99 the Navy was involved in an undeclared Quasi-War with France. From 1801 to 1805, in the First Barbary War , the U.S. Navy defended U.S. ships from the Barbary pirates, blockaded the Barbary ports and executed attacks against the Barbary' fleets. The U.S. Navy saw substantial action in the War of 1812 , where it was victorious in eleven single-ship duels with
4836-709: Is a distinct, separate service branch with its own uniformed service chief – the Commandant of the Marine Corps, a four-star general. The Marine Corps depends on the Navy for medical support (dentists, doctors , nurses, medical technicians known as corpsmen ) and religious support (chaplains). Thus, Navy officers and enlisted sailors fulfill these roles. When attached to Marine Corps units deployed to an operational environment they generally wear Marine camouflage uniforms, but otherwise, they wear Navy dress uniforms unless they opt to conform to Marine Corps grooming standards. In
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4992-473: Is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States . The Navy's three primary areas of responsibility: U.S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U.S. Armed Forces is "to be prepared to conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest." The Navy's five enduring functions are: sea control , power projection , deterrence , maritime security , and sealift . It follows then as certain as that night succeeds
5148-694: Is immediately under and reports to the Secretary of the Navy. At the same time, the Chief of Naval Operations is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , which is the second-highest deliberative body of the armed forces after the United States National Security Council , although it plays only an advisory role to the President and does not nominally form part of the chain of command . The Secretary of
5304-605: Is its coequal sister service. The Department of the Navy is headed by the civilian secretary of the Navy . The Department of the Navy is itself a military department of the Department of Defense , which is headed by the secretary of defense . The chief of naval operations (CNO) is the most senior Navy officer serving in the Department of the Navy. To recruit, train, equip, and organize to deliver combat ready Naval forces to win conflicts and wars while maintaining security and deterrence through sustained forward presence. The U.S. Navy
5460-505: Is no longer in print, but the series was re-released as a two- CD-ROM set in 1999 ( ISBN 1-58053-078-8 ) by publisher Artech House. More recently, it has become available online. Postwar declassification of the work at the MIT Rad Lab made available, via the Series, a quite large body of knowledge about advanced electronics. A reference (identity long forgotten) credited the Series with
5616-579: The 1966 Palomares B-52 crash incident and the subsequent search for missing hydrogen bombs, and Task Force 71 of the Seventh Fleet's operation in search for Korean Air Lines Flight 007 , shot down by the Soviets on 1 September 1983. The U.S. Navy continues to be a major support to U.S. interests in the 21st century. Since the end of the Cold War, it has shifted its focus from preparations for large-scale war with
5772-527: The American Civil War , in which the Union had a distinct advantage over the Confederacy on the seas. A Union blockade on all major ports shut down exports and the coastal trade, but blockade runners provided a thin lifeline. The Brown-water navy components of the U.S. navy control of the river systems made internal travel difficult for Confederates and easy for the Union. The war saw ironclad warships in combat for
5928-641: The Battle of Okinawa . By 1943, the navy's size was larger than the combined fleets of all the other combatant nations in World War II. By war's end in 1945, the U.S. Navy had added hundreds of new ships, including 18 aircraft carriers and 8 battleships, and had over 70% of the world's total numbers and total tonnage of naval vessels of 1,000 tons or greater. At its peak, the U.S. Navy was operating 6,768 ships on V-J Day in August 1945. Doctrine had significantly shifted by
6084-842: The Bureau of Naval Personnel , the Office of Naval Research , the Office of Naval Intelligence , the United States Naval Academy , the Naval Safety Command , the Naval Aviation Warfighting Development Center , and the United States Naval Observatory . Official Navy websites list the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and the Chief of Naval Operations as part of the shore establishment, but these two entities effectively sit superior to
6240-529: The Continental Navy and is considered the first establishment of the U.S. Navy. The Continental Navy achieved mixed results; it was successful in a number of engagements and raided many British merchant vessels, but it lost twenty-four of its vessels and at one point was reduced to two in active service. In August 1785, after the Revolutionary War had drawn to a close, Congress had sold Alliance ,
6396-614: The Continental Navy , which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. After suffering significant loss of goods and personnel at the hands of the Barbary pirates from Algiers , the United States Congress passed the Naval Act of 1794 for the construction of six heavy frigates , the first ships of the Navy. The United States Navy played
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6552-469: The Eddy Test . Eddy had returned to Chicago and obtained concurrence from the station owner, Balaban and Katz ; they not only approved but also made the space and staff available at no cost to the Navy. The RMS-Bellevue and RMS-Treasure Island would continue in their existing locations and serve as secondary schools for shipboard and land-based electronics. Their existing Primary segment would be phased out as
6708-708: The Harvard University campus (just a mile from MIT) and became the Radio Research Laboratory (RRL). Organizationally separate from the Rad Lab, but also under the OSRD, the two operations had much in common throughout their existences. When the Radiation Laboratory closed, the OSRD agreed to continue funding for the Basic Research Division, which officially became part of MIT on July 1, 1946, as
6864-646: The Mediterranean , and the Indian Ocean. It is a blue-water navy with the ability to project force onto the littoral regions of the world, engage in forward deployments during peacetime and rapidly respond to regional crises, making it a frequent actor in American foreign and military policy. The United States Navy is part of the Department of the Navy , alongside the United States Marine Corps , which
7020-398: The Naval Act of 1794 that established a permanent standing navy on 27 March 1794. The Naval Act ordered the construction and manning of six frigates and, by October 1797, the first three were brought into service: USS United States , USS Constellation , and USS Constitution . Due to his strong posture on having a strong standing Navy during this period, John Adams
7176-540: The Tizard Mission brought to America one of the first of the new magnetrons. On October 6, Edward George Bowen , a key developer of RDF at the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) and a member of the mission, demonstrated the magnetron, producing some 15,000 watts (15 kW ) of power at 3 GHz, i.e. a wavelength of 10 cm. American researchers and officials were amazed at
7332-556: The U.S. Army Air Corps and the British Royal Air Force . For Project 2, a 4-foot- and later 6-foot-wide (1.2 then 1.8 m) parabolic reflector on a pivoting mount was selected. Also, this set would use an electro-mechanical computer (called a predictor-correlator) to keep the antenna aimed at an acquired target. Ivan A. Getting served as the project leader. Being much more complicated than aircraft interception and required to be very rugged for field use, an engineered GL
7488-541: The USSR , and Japan . These usually operated at Very High Frequency (VHF) wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum and carried several cover names, such as Ranging and Direction Finding (RDF) in Great Britain. In 1941, the U.S. Navy coined the acronym 'RADAR' (RAdio Detection And Ranging) for such systems; this soon led to the name ' radar ' and spread to other countries. The potential advantages of operating such systems in
7644-495: The Ultra High Frequency (UHF or microwave ) region were well known and vigorously pursued. One of these advantages was smaller antennas , a critical need for detection systems on aircraft. The primary technical barrier to developing UHF systems was the lack of a usable source for generating high-power microwaves . In February 1940, researchers John Randall and Harry Boot at Birmingham University in Great Britain built
7800-439: The limited duty officer (LDO) in the Navy. Warrant officers perform duties that are directly related to their previous enlisted service and specialized training. This allows the Navy to capitalize on the experience of warrant officers without having to frequently transition them to other duty assignments for advancement. Most Navy warrant officers are accessed from the chief petty officer pay grades, E-7 through E-9, analogous to
7956-418: The 2018 National Defense Authorization Act called for expanding the naval fleet to 355 ships "as soon as practicable", but did not establish additional funding nor a timeline. The U.S. Navy falls under the administration of the Department of the Navy , under civilian leadership of the Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV). The most senior naval officer is the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), a four-star admiral who
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#17328514958198112-580: The British H2S bombing radar that operated at shorter wavelengths in the X band . The Rad Lab also developed Loran-A , the first worldwide radio navigation system, which originally was known as "LRN" for Loomis Radio Navigation. During the mid- and late-1930s, radio systems for the detection and location of distant targets had been developed under great secrecy in the United States and Great Britain , as well as in several other nations, notably Germany ,
8268-452: The BuPers ordered the opening of a fourth secondary school, the largest of them all, at Navy Pier in Chicago. The college-operated primary schools could no longer meet the secondary school needs; therefore, additional primary schools under Navy operation were begun in late 1943. These were set up as full Navy bases. A reservoir of military personnel trained in the ETP was now available, so all of
8424-557: The Coast Guard may be called upon to operate as a service within the Navy. At other times, Coast Guard Port Security Units are sent overseas to guard the security of ports and other assets. The Coast Guard also jointly staffs the Navy's naval coastal warfare groups and squadrons (the latter of which were known as harbor defense commands until late-2004), which oversee defense efforts in foreign littoral combat and inshore areas. The United States Navy has over 400,000 personnel, approximately
8580-399: The ETP graduates were in the top three to five percent of the Navy's wartime personnel, officers as well as enlisted men. As America entered WW II, there was a crisis concerning the availability of men qualified to maintain the huge amount of complex electronic equipment being procured for the Navy's ships, aircraft, submarines, and shore stations. The Navy had over 200,000 personnel, but only
8736-462: The ETP secondary schools were being rotated out of the fleet and overseas bases. Some of these, particularly those with prior teaching experience, were assigned at colleges to augment the regular faculties. These men brought a new perspective to the instructional program, giving the students a picture of things to come. They officially reported to the Officer-in-Charge, but, as teachers, were under
8892-495: The Eddy Test, and a second chance was not allowed; therefore, it was necessary to have a central point for both grading and recording the test results. This was done by a team of WAVES at Radio Chicago. The content of the Eddy Test was tightly controlled – no public available copies are known to exist. An estimated 500,000 or more persons took the test during WWII. As soon as the prototype primary school began, and later carrying into
9048-635: The Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor and the entry of the U.S. into World War II, work at the Rad Lab greatly expanded. At the height of its activities, the Rad Lab employed nearly 4,000 people working in several countries. The Rad Lab had constructed, and was the initial occupant of, MIT's famous Building 20 . Costing just over $ 1 million, this was one of the longest-surviving World War II temporary structures. Activities eventually encompassed physical electronics, electromagnetic properties of matter, microwave physics, and microwave communication principles, and
9204-476: The MIT campus, was intentionally deceptive, albeit obliquely correct in that radar uses radiation in a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum . It was chosen to imply the laboratory's mission was similar to that of the Ernest O. Lawrence 's Radiation Laboratory at UC Berkeley ; i.e., that it employed scientists to work on nuclear physics research. At the time, nuclear physics was regarded as relatively theoretical and inapplicable to military equipment, as this
9360-644: The Navy and Chief of Naval Operations are responsible for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping the Navy so that it is ready for operation under the commanders of the unified combatant commands . There are nine components in the operating forces of the U.S. Navy: the United States Fleet Forces Command (formerly United States Atlantic Fleet), United States Pacific Fleet , United States Naval Forces Central Command , United States Naval Forces Europe , Naval Network Warfare Command , Navy Reserve , United States Naval Special Warfare Command , and Operational Test and Evaluation Force . Fleet Forces Command controls
9516-400: The Navy reactivated the Fourth Fleet to control operations in the area controlled by Southern Command, which consists of US assets in and around Central and South America. Other number fleets were activated during World War II and later deactivated, renumbered, or merged. Shore establishments exist to support the mission of the fleet through the use of facilities on land. Among the commands of
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#17328514958199672-553: The Navy successfully used the Pacific Squadron under Commodore Robert F. Stockton and its marines and blue-jackets to facilitate the capture of California with large-scale land operations coordinated with the local militia organized in the California Battalion . The Navy conducted the U.S. military's first large-scale amphibious joint operation by successfully landing 12,000 army troops with their equipment in one day at Veracruz , Mexico. When larger guns were needed to bombard Veracruz, Navy volunteers landed large guns and manned them in
9828-424: The Navy. Petty Officers perform not only the duties of their specific career field but also serve as leaders to junior enlisted personnel. E-7 to E-9 are still considered Petty Officers, but are considered a separate community within the Navy. They have separate berthing and dining facilities (where feasible), wear separate uniforms, and perform separate duties. After attaining the rate of Master Chief Petty Officer,
9984-441: The Pre-Radio Schools were Navy Petty Officers or Marine Sergeants, many who were former high-school teachers. Classroom lectures, laboratory work, and organized problem sessions were conducted 13 hours or more every weekday. A comprehensive examination was given on Saturday mornings, and a failing grade on a topic could result in dismissal; repeating a week was normally not allowed. The intensity led to many voluntary dropouts. Overall,
10140-453: The RMS and had been examined by Stock in planning the ARMS. A major difference was that the primary portion of the RAF school was given by a number of technical colleges throughout Canada. As the committee discussed possibilities of using a similar approach in an upgraded RMS, Eddy suggested that since the first two years of an EE curriculum covered essentially all of the basic topics, a shortened version of this curriculum might be used to produce
10296-407: The RMS gave two six-month classes per year with about 50 men in each; the graduation rate averaged around 70 percent. Admission involved passing a difficult examination. The instructors were senior petty officers or warrant officers. Lectures on up-to-date topics were often given by scientists and engineers from the NRL. As more electronic equipment was added to the Navy, the RMS increased in size and
10452-406: The Rad Lab director. The lab rapidly expanded, and within months was larger than the UK's efforts which had been running for several years by this point. By 1943 the lab began to deliver a stream of ever-improved devices, which could be produced in huge numbers by the U.S.'s industrial base. At its peak, the Rad Lab employed 4,000 at MIT and several other labs around the world, and designed half of all
10608-507: The Rad Lab made fundamental advances in all of these fields. Half of the radars deployed by the U.S. military during World War II were designed at the Rad Lab, including over 100 different microwave systems costing $ 1.5 billion . All of these sets improved considerably on pre-microwave, VHF systems from the Naval Research Laboratory and the Army's Signal Corps Laboratories , as well as British radars such as Robert Watson-Watt 's Chain Home and Taffy Bowen's early airborne RDF sets. Although
10764-458: The Rad Lab staff. A prototype was flown in August 1944, and the system became operational early the next year. Although too late to affect the final war effort, the project laid the foundation for significant developments in the following years. As the Rad Lab started, a laboratory was set up to develop electronic countermeasures (ECM), technologies to block enemy radars and communications. With Frederick E. Terman as director, this soon moved to
10920-450: The Rad Lab was initiated as a joint Anglo-American operation and many of its products were adopted by the British military, researchers in Great Britain* continued with the development of microwave radar and, particularly with cooperation from Canada, produced many types of new systems. For the exchange of information, the Rad Lab established a branch operation in England, and a number of British scientists and engineers worked on assignments at
11076-466: The Rad Lab. *At the T. R. E., Telecommunications Research Establishment The resonant cavity magnetron continued to evolve at the Rad Lab. A team led by I.I. Rabi first extended the operation of the magnetron from 10-cm (called S-band), to 6-cm (C-band), then to 3-cm (X-band), and eventually to 1-cm (K-band). To keep pace, all of the other radar sub-systems also were evolving continuously. The Transmitter Division, under Albert G. Hill , eventually involved
11232-657: The Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT (RLE). Other wartime research was taken up by the MIT Laboratory for Nuclear Science, which was founded at the same time. Both laboratories principally occupied Building 20 until 1957. Most of the important research results of the Rad Lab were documented in a 28-volume compilation entitled the MIT Radiation Laboratory Series , edited by Louis N. Ridenour and published by McGraw-Hill between 1947 and 1953. This
11388-660: The Royal Navy. It proved victorious in the Battle of Lake Erie and prevented the region from becoming a threat to American operations in the area. The result was a major victory for the U.S. Army at the Niagara Frontier of the war, and the defeat of the Native American allies of the British at the Battle of the Thames . Despite this, the U.S. Navy could not prevent the British from blockading its ports and landing troops. But after
11544-697: The Soviet Union to special operations and strike missions in regional conflicts. The navy participated in Operation Enduring Freedom , Operation Iraqi Freedom , and is a major participant in the ongoing War on Terror , largely in this capacity. Development continues on new ships and weapons, including the Gerald R. Ford -class aircraft carrier and the Littoral combat ship . Because of its size, weapons technology, and ability to project force far from U.S. shores,
11700-461: The U.S. Navy and its decisive victory over the outdated Spanish Navy in 1898 brought a new respect for American technical quality. Rapid building of at first pre-dreadnoughts, then dreadnoughts brought the U.S. in line with the navies of countries such as Britain and Germany. In 1907, most of the Navy's battleships, with several support vessels, dubbed the Great White Fleet , were showcased in
11856-401: The U.S. economy and quality of life. This new strategy charts a course for the Navy, Coast Guard, and Marine Corps to work collectively with each other and international partners to prevent these crises from occurring or reacting quickly should one occur to prevent negative impacts on the U.S. In 2010, Admiral Gary Roughead, Chief of Naval Operations, noted that demands on the Navy have grown as
12012-524: The UK had been developing. Among these was the cavity magnetron , a leap forward in the creation of microwaves that made them practical for use in aircraft for the first time. GEC made 12 prototype cavity magnetrons at Wembley in August 1940, and No 12 was sent to America with Bowen via the Tizard Mission , where it was shown on 19 September 1940 in Alfred Loomis’ apartment. The American NDRC Microwave Committee
12168-514: The United States Navy grew under an ambitious ship building program associated with the Naval Act of 1916 . Naval construction, especially of battleships, was limited by the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–22, the first arms control conference in history. The aircraft carriers USS Saratoga (CV-3) and USS Lexington (CV-2) were built on the hulls of partially built battle cruisers that had been canceled by
12324-588: The United States Navy. Most naval aviation insignia are also permitted for wear on uniforms of the United States Marine Corps . As described in Chapter 5 of U.S. Navy Uniform Regulations, "badges" are categorized as breast insignia (usually worn immediately above and below ribbons) and identification badges (usually worn at breast pocket level). Breast insignia are further divided between command and warfare and other qualification . Radiation Laboratory The use of microwaves for various radio and radar uses
12480-508: The University of California, Harvard, and MIT, led in developing the initial curriculum and served as the lead instructor. The first class was mainly composed of experienced electrician mates from the fleet and ham radio operators who had recently enlisted as petty-officer radiomen. A main purpose of the prototype school was to ensure that the curriculum in college-operated schools was appropriate preparation for Navy-operated secondary schools. It
12636-605: The WWII Navy make reference to having passed or failed the Eddy Test. This was the commonly used name for the Radio Technician Selection Test (RTST, NavPers 16578), the first version of which was prepared under Eddy's leadership in January 1942. In an article, published after the war in the journal American Psychologist , the following justification was noted for the difficulty of the test: In such an extensive training program as that for radio technicians which demands
12792-824: The War of 1812 ended in 1815, the U.S. Navy primarily focused its attention on protecting American shipping assets, sending squadrons to the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, where it participated in the Second Barbary War that ended piracy in the region, South America, Africa, and the Pacific. From 1819 to the outbreak of the Civil War, the Africa Squadron operated to suppress the slave trade , seizing 36 slave ships, although its contribution
12948-471: The average person completing Pre-Radio had 1.5 years of prior college and scored in the top two percent of intelligence quotient in the Nation. In a four-week curriculum, Pre-Radio included a lightning-speed review of high school mathematics (through second-level algebra), physics (mainly electricity and magnetism), and elementary chemistry. Eddy, Brolly, and other instructors at the prototype primary school wrote
13104-600: The base was converted to the U.S. Naval Training Center, Gulfport; training courses for several ratings were provided, including an ETP primary school. This primary school continued until March 1946, handling an estimated 2,500 men. Naval Station Great Lakes opened in 1911, and continuously since then has been the largest training base in the Navy. An ETP primary school was opened in early 1945. Most trainees then took Boot Camp at Great Lakes, went to Chicago for Pre-Radio, returned to Great Lakes for Primary, then went back to Chicago's Navy Pier for Secondary. An estimated 1,200 men at
13260-565: The belt was a standard part of students' uniform of the day .) The contracts required the schools to provide all of this under a flat-rate per student-month. A complement of about 10 Navy and Marine officers and enlisted men, under an officer-in-charge (usually a lieutenant or lieutenant commander), handled the administration and military activities. Two members of the original ad hoc committee received such assignments: William Grogan, raised in rank to lieutenant commander, went to Grove City, and Sidney Stock returned to Utah State. At other schools,
13416-663: The burden of retaliating against the Japanese on the small number of aircraft carriers. During World War II some 4,000,000 Americans served in the United States Navy. The potential for armed conflict with the Soviet Union during the Cold War pushed the U.S. Navy to continue its technological advancement by developing new weapons systems, ships, and aircraft. U.S. naval strategy changed to that of forward deployment in support of U.S. allies with an emphasis on carrier battle groups. The navy
13572-455: The campuses, contracts, over Captain Denfeld's signature, were awarded to six schools: Primary school was started at all six schools during March 1942. An article in the November 1942 issue of QST gives a description, including pictures, of the primary school at each of these institutions. Bliss Electrical School was the only privately owned, for-profit institute in this group. Founded in 1893, it
13728-579: The civilian Director of Instruction. Both RMS-Bellevue and RMS-Treasure Island temporarily operated primary schools, but these were phased out for enlargements of the secondary school – at Treasure Island in June 1942, and at Bellevue in December 1943. The Airborne secondary school at Ward Island opened in July 1942, and then went into a series of expansions. By the end of 1943, these secondary schools were essentially full and
13884-534: The close of the study day. United States Navy 13 October 1775 (249 years, 1 month) (as the Continental Navy ) The United States Navy ( USN ) is the maritime service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States . It is the world's most powerful navy and the largest by tonnage, at 4.5 million tons in 2021 and in 2009 an estimated battle fleet tonnage that exceeded
14040-411: The current U.S. Navy remains an asset for the United States. Moreover, it is the principal means through which the U.S. maintains international global order, namely by safeguarding global trade and protecting allied nations. In 2007, the U.S. Navy joined with the U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Coast Guard to adopt a new maritime strategy called A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower that raises
14196-615: The curriculum in college-operated schools to be appropriate preparation for Navy-operated secondary school. The top-performing Navy graduates of primary school usually received a promotion to petty-officer 3rd class radio technician. Colleges and universities with electrical engineering programs were invited by BuNav to a meeting on contracting for the primary schools. The mid-January meeting was held in New Orleans; specifications were given, and those interested were given one week to submit full proposals. After very speedy evaluations and visits to
14352-400: The curriculum was divided into two parts. A primary element of three months covered the mathematics and basic theory, and a five-month Secondary element included some further theory but centered on laboratory work in hardware. Radar was added to the curriculum in 1940, upgrading the instruction to secret-level classified information . Chief Radio Electrician Nelson M. Cooke was responsible for
14508-426: The day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, and with it, everything honorable and glorious. Would to Heaven we had a navy able to reform those enemies to mankind or crush them into non-existence. Naval power . . . is the natural defense of the United States. The Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In
14664-434: The desired aforementioned EEs. In a few days, a plan for training the desired technicians evolved. The central elements of this plan were the following: Eddy, then director of experimental television station W9XBK in Chicago, volunteered to provide both the space and instructional staff for a prototype primary school. He also volunteered to lead the development of the classification examination – thereafter popularly called
14820-555: The development of the post-World War II electronics industry. With the cryptology and cryptographic efforts centered at Bletchley Park and Arlington Hall and the Manhattan Project , the development of microwave radar at the Radiation Laboratory represents one of the most significant, secret, and outstandingly successful technological efforts spawned by the Anglo-American relations in World War II. The Radiation Laboratory
14976-606: The drawings. No 12 with 8 holes was chosen for the Tizard Mission. So Bell Labs chose to copy the sample; and while early British magnetrons had six cavities American ones had eight cavities. Loomis arranged for funding under the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) and reorganized the Microwave Committee at MIT to study the magnetron and radar technology in general. Lee A. DuBridge served as
15132-541: The early stages of the American Revolutionary War , Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia . The rationale for establishing a national navy was debated in the Second Continental Congress . Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, and make it easier to seek support from foreign countries. Detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy , then
15288-590: The end of October 1941. This new RMS would accommodate up to 800 personnel in training. In mid-1941, the Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer), in cooperation with the BuNav, began development of the Aviation RMS (ARMS) to train technicians for airborne equipment maintenance. Located on the campus of the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland , this would accommodate up to 500 students. Sidney R. Stock, previously head of
15444-464: The end of the war. The U.S. Navy had followed in the footsteps of the navies of Great Britain and Germany which favored concentrated groups of battleships as their main offensive naval weapons. The development of the aircraft carrier and its devastating use by the Japanese against the U.S. at Pearl Harbor, however, shifted U.S. thinking. The Pearl Harbor attack destroyed or took out of action a significant number of U.S. Navy battleships. This placed much of
15600-446: The existing five-month advanced segment of the RMS to learn Navy hardware. This approach, however, was not practical; persons with this background were not only very limited in number but also in high demand by industry and the military. The Navy had sent a few men to a recently opened Royal Air Force (RAF) electronics school in a base at Clinton, Canada . This school was somewhat similar to
15756-514: The face of the expiration of budget relief offered by the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013 and CNO Jonathan Greenert said that a ten ship carrier fleet would not be able to sustainably support military requirements. The British First Sea Lord George Zambellas said that the USN had switched from "outcome-led to resource-led" planning. One significant change in U.S. policymaking that is having
15912-632: The first three commands being led by four-star admirals. The United States First Fleet existed after World War II from 1947, but it was redesignated the Third Fleet in early 1973. The Second Fleet was deactivated in September 2011 but reestablished in August 2018 amid heightened tensions with Russia. It is headquartered in Norfolk, Virginia, with responsibility over the East Coast and North Atlantic. In early 2008,
16068-424: The first time at the Battle of Hampton Roads in 1862, which pitted USS Monitor against CSS Virginia . For two decades after the war, however, the U.S. Navy's fleet was neglected and became technologically obsolete . A modernization program beginning in the 1880s when the first steel-hulled warships stimulated the American steel industry, and "the new steel navy" was born. This rapid expansion of
16224-484: The first uniform regulations for officers were issued in 1802 on the formation of the Navy Department. The predominant colors of U.S. Navy uniforms are navy blue and white. U.S. Navy uniforms were based on Royal Navy uniforms of the time and have tended to follow that template. Navy officers serve either as a line officer or as a staff corps officer . Line officers wear an embroidered gold star above their rank of
16380-452: The fleet has shrunk and that in the face of declining budgets in the future, the U.S. Navy must rely even more on international partnerships. In its 2013 budget request, the navy focused on retaining all eleven big deck carriers, at the expense of cutting numbers of smaller ships and delaying the SSBN replacement. By the next year the USN found itself unable to maintain eleven aircraft carriers in
16536-533: The graduation rate from Pre-Radio Schools was around 40 percent. As the ETP was being planned by the ad hoc committee, a primary school patterned after the Primary Segment at NRL-Bellevue was considered; Cooke, who had been a key figure in the NRL activity, was the major proponent of this option. Other committee members felt that students for the secondary school should be recruited from persons who had already completed
16692-628: The instruction was by Petty Officers or Marine Sergeants. In addition to the primary school at RMS-Bellevue, and the one briefly operated at RMS-Treasure Island, Navy-operated primary schools were established at five locations: The Navy leased the facilities of the College of the Ozarks (now University of the Ozarks ) in January 1944, moving to there the primary school previously at RMS-Bellevue. The Ozarks school operated to May 1945, giving training to an estimated total of 3,000 students. The Del Monte Hotel (now
16848-483: The last ship remaining in the Continental Navy due to a lack of funds to maintain the ship or support a navy. In 1972, the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Elmo Zumwalt , authorized the Navy to celebrate its birthday on 13 October to honor the establishment of the Continental Navy in 1775. The United States was without a navy for nearly a decade, a state of affairs that exposed U.S. maritime merchant ships to
17004-640: The location of the Naval Postgraduate School ) was leased in February 1943 for conducting a large Pre-Flight Training School. A year later, this was changed to an ETP primary school, which continued in operation until June 1947, serving about 6,000 students, the most of any of the primary schools. In 1942, the Navy opened a large base at Gulfport, Mississippi, primarily for servicing the Naval Construction Battalion ( Seabees ). In March 1944,
17160-485: The magnetron, and the NDRC immediately started plans for manufacturing and incorporating the devices. Alfred Lee Loomis , who headed the NDRC Microwave Committee, led in establishing the Radiation Laboratory at MIT as a joint Anglo - American effort for microwave research and system development using the new magnetron. The name 'Radiation Laboratory', selected by Loomis when he selected the building for it on
17316-529: The most common ground since aircrews are guided in their use of aircraft by standard procedures outlined in a series of publications known as NATOPS manuals. The United States Coast Guard , in its peacetime role with the Department of Homeland Security , fulfills its law enforcement and rescue role in the maritime environment. It provides Law Enforcement Detachments (LEDETs) to Navy vessels, where they perform arrests and other law enforcement duties during naval boarding and interdiction missions. In times of war,
17472-469: The most important is the "warfare qualification", which denotes a journeyman level of capability in Surface Warfare, Aviation Warfare, Information Dominance Warfare, Naval Aircrew, Special Warfare, Seabee Warfare, Submarine Warfare or Expeditionary Warfare. Many qualifications are denoted on a sailor's uniform with U.S. Navy badges and insignia . The uniforms of the U.S. Navy have evolved gradually since
17628-495: The naval service dress uniform while staff corps officers and commissioned warrant officers wear unique designator insignias that denotes their occupational specialty. Warrant and chief warrant officer ranks are held by technical specialists who direct specific activities essential to the proper operation of the ship, which also require commissioned officer authority. Navy warrant officers serve in 30 specialties covering five categories. Warrant officers should not be confused with
17784-471: The new primary schools became fully operational. The Aviation RMS, which was just opening and preparing to move to Ward Island, Texas, would serve as the secondary school for airborne electronics. The plan was submitted to BuNav, and was approved by Captain Louis E. Denfeld on 7 January 1942; Denfeld had been appointed only five days earlier to head up all Navy training. The program was initiated on 12 January with
17940-587: The next 13 navies combined. It has the world's largest aircraft carrier fleet, with 11 in service , one undergoing trials, two new carriers under construction, and six other carriers planned as of 2024. With 336,978 personnel on active duty and 101,583 in the Ready Reserve , the U.S. Navy is the third largest of the United States military service branches in terms of personnel. It has 299 deployable combat vessels and about 4,012 operational aircraft as of July 18, 2023. The United States Navy traces its origins to
18096-691: The notion of prevention of war to the same philosophical level as the conduct of war. The strategy was presented by the Chief of Naval Operations , the Commandant of the Marine Corps , and Commandant of the Coast Guard at the International Sea Power Symposium in Newport, Rhode Island on 17 October 2007. The strategy recognized the economic links of the global system and how any disruption due to regional crises (man-made or natural) can adversely impact
18252-410: The number two official in the Navy Department during World War I, appreciated the Navy and gave it strong support. In return, senior leaders were eager for innovation and experimented with new technologies, such as magnetic torpedoes, and developed a strategy called War Plan Orange for victory in the Pacific in a hypothetical war with Japan that would eventually become reality. The U.S. Navy grew into
18408-852: The officer-in-charge was often a faculty member with a reserve commission who had returned to active duty. A senior faculty member from each school was assigned to have overall instructional responsibility. A basic list of topics to be covered was prescribed, but it was up to the schools to develop this into a three-month instructional program. Mandatory topics included the following: advanced d-c and a-c circuit theory, electrical motors and generators, vacuum-tube characteristics, power supplies, amplifiers, oscillators, modulation techniques, filters and wave-shaping, receiver circuits, transmitter circuits, transmission lines and antennas, and basic electromagnetic propagation theory. Mathematical topics (mainly trigonometry and elementary calculus) were taken up when necessary for developing theoretical equations. Each student built
18564-610: The opening of the prototype primary school at the top floor of the State-Lake Theater building in downtown Chicago. Other than the designation "Radio (or Electronics) Technician Training", no official name appears on records for the overall program; however, Electronics Training Program (ETP) was the commonly used name. Official records sometimes show different names for the two levels of schools: Elementary Electricity & Radio Materiel (EE&RM) rather than Primary, and Advanced Radio Materiel (ARM) rather than Secondary. Since there
18720-427: The operational environment, as an expeditionary force specializing in amphibious operations, Marines often embark on Navy ships to conduct operations from beyond territorial waters. Marine units deploying as part of a Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) operate under the command of the existing Marine chain of command. Although Marine units routinely operate from amphibious assault ships, the relationship has evolved over
18876-447: The other organizations, playing a coordinating role. In 1834, the United States Marine Corps came under the Department of the Navy. Historically, the Navy has had a unique relationship with the USMC, partly because they both specialize in seaborne operations. Together the Navy and Marine Corps form the Department of the Navy and report to the Secretary of the Navy. However, the Marine Corps
19032-418: The outside – such as technical representatives of industries – would not be available. Modular design, where a failure might be corrected by changing out a module, was not yet in use; thus, maintenance required detailed circuit tracing and knowledge of the circuit theory. It was agreed that the ideal situation would be to recruit persons with an electrical engineering (EE) or similar education and put them through
19188-492: The primary element, and Lieutenant Commander Wallace J. Miller was the officer-in-charge of the overall RMS. In preparing for war, the BuNav directed that the RMS-Bellevue operation be replicated at a site in the vicinity of San Francisco , California . Miller was responsible for planning the implementation and recommended this to be on Treasure Island in the San Francisco Bay ; development of RMS-Treasure Island began at
19344-421: The primary schools at engineering colleges, it was realized that many of the students being admitted did not have the necessary capabilities or willingness for training of this nature. In late 1942, BuPers* directed that a one-month Pre-Radio School be added to the ETP. Through this, weeding in addition to the Eddy Test would result, and special preparation could also be received. (*) The Bureau of Navigation (BuNav)
19500-532: The project and headed by Donald G. Fink . Operating in the Low Frequency ( LF ) portion of the radio spectrum, LORAN was the only non-microwave project of the Rad Lab. Incorporating major elements of GEE, LORAN was highly successful and beneficial to the war effort. By the end of hostilities, about 30 percent of the Earth's surface was covered by LORAN stations and used by 75,000 aircraft and surface vessels. Following
19656-550: The radar systems used during the war. By the end of the war, the U.S. held a leadership position in a number of microwave-related fields. Among their notable products were the SCR-584 , the finest gun-laying radar of the war, and the SCR-720 , an aircraft interception radar that became the standard late-war system for both U.S. and UK night fighters . They also developed the H2X , a version of
19812-635: The senior command meant that naval forces were not contributed until late 1917. Battleship Division Nine was dispatched to Britain and served as the Sixth Battle Squadron of the British Grand Fleet. Its presence allowed the British to decommission some older ships and reuse the crews on smaller vessels. Destroyers and U.S. Naval Air Force units like the Northern Bombing Group contributed to the anti-submarine operations. The strength of
19968-962: The shore establishment, as of April 2011 , are the Naval Education and Training Command , the Navy Installations Command , the Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command , the Naval Information Warfare Systems Command , the Naval Facilities Engineering Command , the Naval Supply Systems Command , the Naval Air Systems Command , the Naval Sea Systems Command , the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery ,
20124-516: The successful bombardment and capture of the city. This successful landing and capture of Veracruz opened the way for the capture of Mexico City and the end of the war. The U.S. Navy established itself as a player in United States foreign policy through the actions of Commodore Matthew C. Perry in Japan, which resulted in the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. Naval power played a significant role during
20280-469: The tens of thousands. Further, the depth of capability of graduates from the existing instruction was also inadequate. Electronics would have a major role in the next war – which was now inevitable – but equipment, if not maintained, would be worthless. The NRL and the newly formed Radiation Laboratory , as well as a number of industries, were developing electronic systems that were far above the average maintenance capabilities of existing Navy technicians. This
20436-483: The thousands of Chicago students and staff, and handling a reception and entertainment center where well-known musician Alvino Rey conducted the Radio Chicago Orchestra. In the approved plan, Eddy would offer a developmental-prototype primary school with classrooms and laboratories in the experimental television facilities at 190 North State Street. Archibald H. Brolly, chief engineer of W9XBK and graduate of
20592-477: The treaty. The New Deal used Public Works Administration funds to build warships, such as USS Yorktown (CV-5) and USS Enterprise (CV-6) . By 1936, with the completion of USS Wasp (CV-7) , the U.S. Navy possessed a carrier fleet of 165,000 tonnes displacement , although this figure was nominally recorded as 135,000 tonnes to comply with treaty limitations. Franklin Roosevelt ,
20748-602: The world's preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchantmen and reported the captures to the Congress. On 13 October 1775, the Continental Congress authorized the purchase of two vessels to be armed for a cruise against British merchantmen; this resolution created
20904-586: The years much as the Commander of the Carrier Air Group/Wing (CAG) does not work for the carrier commanding officer, but coordinates with the ship's CO and staff. Some Marine aviation squadrons, usually fixed-wing assigned to carrier air wings train and operate alongside Navy squadrons; they fly similar missions and often fly sorties together under the cognizance of the CAG. Aviation is where the Navy and Marines share
21060-439: Was a major factor in selecting school locations, and the instructional compounds were all under 24-hour guard by armed Marines. All U.S. students were required to be cleared for classified information; similarly, foreign students were cleared through respective State Departments under bilateral security agreements. In classroom and laboratory sessions, students were required to take notes, but these were placed in security cabinets at
21216-404: Was a major participant in the Korean and Vietnam Wars , blockaded Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis , and, through the use of ballistic missile submarines , became an important aspect of the United States' nuclear strategic deterrence policy. The U.S. Navy conducted various combat operations in the Persian Gulf against Iran in 1987 and 1988, most notably Operation Praying Mantis . The Navy
21372-458: Was absorbed by Montgomery College in 1950. The contracts called for starting every month a new class of 100 students for three months of instruction. The schools would provide the instructors, classrooms, laboratories, dormitories, food services, and health and recreational facilities. Textbooks, classroom supplies, and an engineering slide rule (usually a K&E Log-Log Duplex Decitrig) were also supplied. (The slide rule in its holder strapped on
21528-400: Was added on the campus in 1924. Organizationally under the Training Division of the Bureau of Navigation (BuNav), the Radio Materiel School (RMS) was the Navy's first school in this rapidly developing technology. The Navy's use of radio started in the early 1900s, but equipment using vacuum tubes – and thus the electronics era – came into being around World War I . During its first decade,
21684-411: Was an airborne early warning and control system, providing the U.S. Navy with a surveillance capability to detect low-flying enemy aircraft at a range in excess of 100 miles (161 km). The project was initiated at a low level in mid-1942, but with the later advent of Japanese Kamikaze threats in the Pacific Theater of Operations , the work was greatly accelerated, eventually involving 20 percent of
21840-469: Was before atomic bomb development had begun. Ernest Lawrence was an active participant in forming the Rad Lab and personally recruited many key members of the initial staff. Most of the senior staff were Ph.D. physicists who came from university positions. They usually had no more than an academic knowledge of microwaves, and almost no background involving electronic hardware development. Their capability, however, to tackle complex problems of almost any type
21996-437: Was converted to a very effective mapping radar called H2X or Mickey and used by the U.S. Army Air Force and U.S. Navy as well as the British Royal Air Force. The most ambitious Rad Lab effort with long-term significance was Project Cadillac. Led by Jerome B. Wiesner , the project involved a high-power radar carried in a pod under a TBM Avenger aircraft and a Combat Information Center aboard an aircraft carrier. The objective
22152-411: Was especially true after late 1940, when Great Britain shared its electronic secrets (including the cavity magnetron ) during the Tizard Mission . These shortcomings were a crisis that required an immediate solution. In November 1941, the BuNav set up an ad hoc committee to examine the changing requirements for electronic maintenance personnel and to propose a plan for meeting these requirements. Time
22308-421: Was extensively involved in Operation Urgent Fury , Operation Desert Shield , Operation Desert Storm , Operation Deliberate Force , Operation Allied Force , Operation Desert Fox and Operation Southern Watch . The U.S. Navy has also been involved in search and rescue/search and salvage operations, sometimes in conjunction with vessels of other countries as well as with U.S. Coast Guard ships. Two examples are
22464-400: Was faced with a two-front war on the seas. It achieved notable acclaim in the Pacific Theater , where it was instrumental to the Allies' successful " island hopping " campaign. The U.S. Navy participated in many significant battles, including the Battle of the Coral Sea , the Battle of Midway , the Solomon Islands Campaign , the Battle of the Philippine Sea , the Battle of Leyte Gulf , and
22620-435: Was highly desired before the war, but existing microwave devices like the klystron were far too low powered to be useful. Alfred Lee Loomis , a millionaire and physicist who headed his own private laboratory, organized the Microwave Committee to consider these devices and look for improvements. In early 1940, Winston Churchill organized what became the Tizard Mission to introduce U.S. researchers to several new technologies
22776-414: Was inadequate, in both range and accuracy, to support aircraft during bombing runs on distant targets in Europe. When briefed by the Tizard Mission about GEE, Alfred Loomis personally conceptualized a new type of system that would overcome the deficiencies of GEE, and the development of his LORAN (an acronym for Long Range Navigation) was adopted as an initial project. The LORAN Division was established for
22932-429: Was intended that the prototype school would be unnecessary after graduating a few classes, but the importance of this activity became such that it continued for the life of the ETP. Initially, all of the instructors were from the W9XBK engineering staff; later, Navy and Marine instructors were added. The Eddy Test was certainly the most widely recognized element of the ETP. Many resumes and biographies of men who were in
23088-482: Was little "elementary" content in the EE&RM curriculum, these initials were usually taken to mean Electrical Engineering & Radio Materiel. As the local aspects of the ETM unfolded, the effort was designated Naval Training Schools-Radio Chicago, an official Navy unit commanded by Eddy. In a little more than two years after returning to active duty, Eddy was promoted to the rank of captain . When fully operational, Radio Chicago had three major functions: conducting
23244-411: Was not completed until December 1941. This eventually was fielded as the ubiquitous SCR-584 , first gaining attention by directing the anti-aircraft fire that downed about 85 percent of German V-1 flying bombs ("buzz bombs") attacking London. Project 3, a long-range navigation system, was of particular interest to Great Britain. They had an existing hyperbolic navigation system, called GEE , but it
23400-409: Was not until 1921 US naval aviation truly commenced. During World War I , the U.S. Navy spent much of its resources protecting and shipping hundreds of thousands of soldiers and marines of the American Expeditionary Force and war supplies across the Atlantic in U-boat infested waters with the Cruiser and Transport Force . It also concentrated on laying the North Sea Mine Barrage . Hesitation by
23556-439: Was of the essence – war was imminent. The committee participants were primarily persons who were already fully knowledgeable of the situation. These included N. M. Cooke from RMS-Bellevue, W. J. Miller from RMS-Treasure Island and Bellevue, and S. R. Stock from the Aviation RMS. There were other practitioners as well as training specialists from the BuNav. On 8 December – the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor – William C. Eddy ,
23712-404: Was outstanding. In June 1941, the NDRC became part of the new Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), also administered by Vannevar Bush , who reported directly to President Roosevelt. The OSRD was given almost unlimited access to funding and resources, with the Rad Lab receiving a large share for radar research and development. Starting in 1942, the Manhattan Project absorbed
23868-536: Was renamed Bureau of Naval Personnel (BuPers – later BUPERS) in May 1942. An initial Pre-Radio School was temporarily set up at the Chicago Naval Reserve Armory. During early 1943, as the need for this activity increased, the initial school was moved to nearby Michigan City, Indiana , and three facilities were leased from the Chicago Board of Education. For two years, the following Pre-Radio Schools were operated by Radio Chicago: Each of these Pre-Radio Schools had up to 1000 students at any given time. One study found that
24024-464: Was smaller than that of the much larger British Royal Navy. After 1840 several secretaries of the navy were southerners who advocated for strengthening southern naval defenses, expanding the fleet, and making naval technological improvements. During the Mexican–American War the U.S. Navy blockaded Mexican ports, capturing or burning the Mexican fleet in the Gulf of California and capturing all major cities in Baja California peninsula. In 1846–1848
24180-414: Was stunned at the power level produced. However Bell Labs director Mervin Kelly was upset when it was X-rayed and had eight holes rather than the six holes shown on the GEC plans. After contacting (via the transatlantic cable) Dr Eric Megaw, GEC’s vacuum tube expert, Megaw recalled that when he had asked for 12 prototypes he said make 10 with 6 holes, one with 7 and one with 8; and there was no time to amend
24336-444: Was the deputy director for scientific matters, and F. Wheeler Loomis (no relation to Alfred Loomis) was deputy director for administration. E. G. ("Taffy") Bowen was assigned as a representative of Great Britain. Even before opening, the founders identified the first three projects for the Rad Lab. In the order of priority, these were (1) a 10-cm detection system (called aircraft interception radar , or AI) for fighter aircraft , (2)
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