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51-767: In May 1968, the Naval Aviation Safety Center and the Submarine Safety Center, located in New London, Connecticut, merged to become the Naval Safety Center (NSC). Programs involving surface ships and shore activities were added to form the nucleus for all safety programs within the Navy. In 1986, system safety was added as a program, and the position of a Marine Corps deputy commander was established to administer and represent Marine Corps safety issues. Today,

102-413: A code word from some dictionary, and concatenation of such code words give us an encoded string. Variable-length codes are especially useful when clear text characters have different probabilities; see also entropy encoding . A prefix code is a code with the "prefix property": there is no valid code word in the system that is a prefix (start) of any other valid code word in the set. Huffman coding

153-402: A letter , word , sound, image, or gesture —into another form, sometimes shortened or secret , for communication through a communication channel or storage in a storage medium . An early example is an invention of language , which enabled a person, through speech , to communicate what they thought, saw, heard, or felt to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance

204-504: A sequence of symbols over T. The extension C ′ {\displaystyle C'} of C {\displaystyle C} , is a homomorphism of S ∗ {\displaystyle S^{*}} into T ∗ {\displaystyle T^{*}} , which naturally maps each sequence of source symbols to a sequence of target symbols. In this section, we consider codes that encode each source (clear text) character by

255-460: A building's ability to protect against external harm events (such as weather , home invasion , etc.), or may indicate that its internal installations (such as appliances , stairs , etc.) are safe (not dangerous or harmful) for its inhabitants. Discussions of safety often include mention of related terms. Security is such a term. With time the definitions between these two have often become interchanged, equated, and frequently appear juxtaposed in

306-432: A corresponding sequence of amino acids that form a protein molecule; a type of codon called a stop codon signals the end of the sequence. In mathematics , a Gödel code was the basis for the proof of Gödel 's incompleteness theorem . Here, the idea was to map mathematical notation to a natural number (using a Gödel numbering ). There are codes using colors, like traffic lights , the color code employed to mark

357-408: A desire to die. There is a distinction between products that meet standards, that are safe, and that merely feel safe. The highway safety community uses these terms: Normative safety is achieved when a product or design meets applicable standards and practices for design and construction or manufacture, regardless of the product's actual safety history. Substantive or objective safety occurs when

408-423: A form that the recipient understands, such as English or/and Spanish. One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary plain language , spoken or written, is difficult or impossible. For example, semaphore , where the configuration of flags held by a signaler or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters, and numbers. Another person standing

459-584: A front for the American Black Chamber run by Herbert Yardley between the First and Second World Wars. The purpose of most of these codes was to save on cable costs. The use of data coding for data compression predates the computer era; an early example is the telegraph Morse code where more-frequently used characters have shorter representations. Techniques such as Huffman coding are now used by computer-based algorithms to compress large data files into

510-419: A great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent. In information theory and computer science , a code is usually considered as an algorithm that uniquely represents symbols from some source alphabet , by encoded strings, which may be in some other target alphabet. An extension of the code for representing sequences of symbols over the source alphabet is obtained by concatenating

561-423: A home's external threats and protection from its internal structural and equipment failures (see Meanings, above) are not two types of safety but rather two aspects of a home's steady state. In the world of everyday affairs, not all goes as planned. Some entity's steady state is challenged. This is where security science , which is of more recent date, enters. Drawing from the definition of safety, then: Security

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612-412: A more compact form for storage or transmission. Character encodings are representations of textual data. A given character encoding may be associated with a specific character set (the collection of characters which it can represent), though some character sets have multiple character encodings and vice versa. Character encodings may be broadly grouped according to the number of bytes required to represent

663-702: A particular ANSI standard. Many government agencies set safety standards for matters under their jurisdiction, such as: Product safety testing, for the United States, is largely controlled by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. In addition, workplace related products come under the jurisdiction of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), which certifies independent testing companies as Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories (NRTL), see. The European Commission provides

714-655: A single character: there are single-byte encodings, multibyte (also called wide) encodings, and variable-width (also called variable-length) encodings. The earliest character encodings were single-byte, the best-known example of which is ASCII . ASCII remains in use today, for example in HTTP headers . However, single-byte encodings cannot model character sets with more than 256 characters. Scripts that require large character sets such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean must be represented with multibyte encodings. Early multibyte encodings were fixed-length, meaning that although each character

765-411: A skunk!"), or AYYLU ("Not clearly coded, repeat more clearly."). Code words were chosen for various reasons: length , pronounceability , etc. Meanings were chosen to fit perceived needs: commercial negotiations, military terms for military codes, diplomatic terms for diplomatic codes, any and all of the preceding for espionage codes. Codebooks and codebook publishers proliferated, including one run as

816-443: A standard of insurance to the quality and unharmful function of an object or organization. It is used in order to ensure that the object or organization will do only what it is meant to do. It is important to realize that safety is relative. Eliminating all risk , if even possible, would be extremely difficult and very expensive. A safe situation is one where risks of injury or property damage are low and manageable. When something

867-409: A voice can carry and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. The invention of writing , which converted spoken language into visual symbols , extended the range of communication across space and time . The process of encoding converts information from a source into symbols for communication or storage. Decoding is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into

918-405: Is called safe, this usually means that it is safe within certain reasonable limits and parameters. For example, a medication may be safe, for most people, under most circumstances, if taken in a certain amount. A choice motivated by safety may have other, unsafe consequences. For example, frail elderly people are sometimes moved out of their homes and into hospitals or skilled nursing homes with

969-533: Is during carrier landings. While other military pilots typically avoid landing aboard ships, they share other high-risk activities including offensive maneuvers, formation flying , low-level navigation, and cross-country flying . Major accidents are about half as likely for United States Air Force flight operations. Aside from avoiding shipboard landings, Air Force pilots operating with Navy squadron exchange programs found pilot proficiency declined during deployments because of reduced training opportunities during

1020-652: Is involved, and track record indicates some of the areas of theory that are relevant. (In the US, persons with a state license in Professional Engineering in Electrical Engineering are expected to be competent in this regard, the foregoing notwithstanding, but most electrical engineers have no need of the license for their work.) Safety is often seen as one of a group of related disciplines: quality, reliability, availability, maintainability and safety. (Availability

1071-583: Is sometimes not mentioned, on the principle that it is a simple function of reliability and maintainability.) These issues tend to determine the value of any work, and deficits in any of these areas are considered to result in a cost, beyond the cost of addressing the area in the first place; good management is then expected to minimize total cost. Safety measures are activities and precautions taken to improve safety, i.e. reduce risk related to human health. Common safety measures include: Today there are multiple scientific journals focusing on safety research. Among

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1122-429: Is supposed to do" is defined in terms of public codes and standards, associated architectural and engineering designs , corporate vision and mission statements, and operational plans and personnel policies. For any organization, place, or function, large or small, safety is a normative concept. It complies with situation-specific definitions of what is expected and acceptable. Using this definition, protection from

1173-425: Is that safety issues can be readily deduced. In fact, safety issues have been discovered one by one, over more than a century in the case mentioned, in the work of many thousands of practitioners, and cannot be deduced by a single individual over a few decades. A knowledge of the literature, the standards and custom in a field is a critical part of safety engineering. A combination of theory and track record of practices

1224-525: Is the most known algorithm for deriving prefix codes. Prefix codes are widely referred to as "Huffman codes" even when the code was not produced by a Huffman algorithm. Other examples of prefix codes are country calling codes , the country and publisher parts of ISBNs , and the Secondary Synchronization Codes used in the UMTS WCDMA 3G Wireless Standard. Kraft's inequality characterizes

1275-472: Is the process or means, physical or human, of delaying, preventing, and otherwise protecting against external or internal, defects, dangers, loss, criminals, and other individuals or actions that threaten, hinder or destroy an organization’s "steady state," and deprive it of its intended purpose for being. Using this generic definition of safety it is possible to specify the elements of a security program. Safety can be limited in relation to some guarantee or

1326-504: The 9/11 attacks in 2001, many people chose to drive rather than fly, despite the fact that, even counting terrorist attacks, flying is safer than driving. Perceived risk discourages people from walking and bicycling for transportation, enjoyment or exercise, even though the health benefits outweigh the risk of injury. Perceived safety can drive regulation which increases costs and inconvenience without improving actual safety. Also called social safety or public safety, security addresses

1377-611: The Unicode character set; UTF-8 is the most common encoding of text media on the Internet. Biological organisms contain genetic material that is used to control their function and development. This is DNA , which contains units named genes from which messenger RNA is derived. This in turn produces proteins through a genetic code in which a series of triplets ( codons ) of four possible nucleotides can be translated into one of twenty possible amino acids . A sequence of codons results in

1428-622: The Naval Safety Command is organized into four directorates: aviation, afloat, shore, and operational risk management/expeditionary warfare. Six departments and five special staff divisions provide support to the core operations of the command. The Naval School of Aviation Safety in Pensacola, Florida, is also a NAVSAFECEN detachment consisting of civilian and military staff, which includes Marine Corps personnel. As an Echelon II command, NAVSAFECEN provides oversight of its two Echelon III commands,

1479-819: The Naval Safety and Environmental Training Center in Norfolk, Virginia and the Naval Safety Center School of Aviation Safety in Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. One of the NSC's subsections is Navy Occupational Safety & Health ( NAVOSH ). NAVOSH is responsible for safety practices within the Navy. NAVOSH provides safety assistance and advice to the CNO , CMC, and the Deputy Assistant Secretary of

1530-461: The Navy for Safety with the aim of enhancing the war -fighting capability of the Navy and Marine Corps , preserve resources, and improve combat readiness by preventing mishaps. Naval aviation safety improved through the Cold War . The number of accidents causing aircraft destruction, human fatality, or total disability dropped from 38.18 per 100,000 flight hours in 1955 to 3.44 in 1985. Pilot error

1581-511: The claim that this will improve the person's safety. The safety provided is that daily medications will be supervised, the person will not need to engage in some potentially risky activities such as climbing stairs or cooking, and if the person falls down, someone there will be able to help the person get back up. However, the end result might be decidedly unsafe, including the dangers of transfer trauma , hospital delirium , elder abuse , hospital-acquired infections , depression, anxiety, and even

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1632-404: The confidentiality of communications, although ciphers are now used instead. Secret codes intended to obscure the real messages, ranging from serious (mainly espionage in military, diplomacy, business, etc.) to trivial (romance, games) can be any kind of imaginative encoding: flowers , game cards, clothes, fans, hats, melodies, birds, etc., in which the sole requirement is the pre-agreement on

1683-489: The defined safety regulations. A major American standards organization is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Usually, members of a particular industry will voluntarily form a committee to study safety issues and propose standards. Those standards are then recommended to ANSI, which reviews and adopts them. Many government regulations require that products sold or used must comply with

1734-491: The encoded strings. Before giving a mathematically precise definition, this is a brief example. The mapping is a code, whose source alphabet is the set { a , b , c } {\displaystyle \{a,b,c\}} and whose target alphabet is the set { 0 , 1 } {\displaystyle \{0,1\}} . Using the extension of the code, the encoded string 0011001 can be grouped into codewords as 0 011 0 01, and these in turn can be decoded to

1785-425: The infantry on the battlefield, etc. Communication systems for sensory impairments, such as sign language for deaf people and braille for blind people, are based on movement or tactile codes. Musical scores are the most common way to encode music . Specific games have their own code systems to record the matches, e.g. chess notation . In the history of cryptography , codes were once common for ensuring

1836-438: The legal framework, but the different Member States may authorize test laboratories to carry out safety testing. Many countries have national organizations that have accreditation to test and/or submit test reports for safety certification. These are typically referred to as a Notified or Competent Body. Code In communications and information processing , code is a system of rules to convert information —such as

1887-472: The meaning by both the sender and the receiver. Other examples of encoding include: Other examples of decoding include: Acronyms and abbreviations can be considered codes, and in a sense, all languages and writing systems are codes for human thought. International Air Transport Association airport codes are three-letter codes used to designate airports and used for bag tags . Station codes are similarly used on railways but are usually national, so

1938-519: The most common. Probably the most common individual response to perceived safety issues is insurance, which compensates for or provides restitution in the case of damage or loss. System safety and reliability engineering is an engineering discipline. Continuous changes in technology, environmental regulation and public safety concerns make the analysis of complex safety-critical systems more and more demanding. A common fallacy, for example among electrical engineers regarding structure power systems,

1989-865: The most popular ones are Safety Science and Journal of Safety Research. The goal of this research is to identify, understand, and mitigate risks to human health and well-being in various environments. This involves systematically studying hazards, analyzing potential and actual accidents, and developing effective strategies to prevent injuries and fatalities. Safety research aims to create safer products, systems, and practices by incorporating scientific, engineering, and behavioral insights. Ultimately, it seeks to enhance public safety, reduce economic losses, and improve overall quality of life by ensuring that both individuals and communities are better protected from harm. A number of standards organizations exist that promulgate safety standards. These may be voluntary organizations or government agencies. These agencies first define

2040-415: The nominal value of the electrical resistors or that of the trashcans devoted to specific types of garbage (paper, glass, organic, etc.). In marketing , coupon codes can be used for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product from a (usual internet) retailer. In military environments, specific sounds with the cornet are used for different uses: to mark some moments of the day, to command

2091-417: The presence of the associated hazards that are known, expected, or reasonably assumed to exist during a planned activity and any likely contingencies associated with it. Safety is generally interpreted as implying a real and significant impact on risk of death, injury or damage to property. In response to perceived risks many interventions may be proposed with engineering responses and regulation being two of

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2142-520: The real-world safety history is favorable, whether or not standards are met. Perceived or subjective safety refers to the users' level of comfort and perception of risk, without consideration of standards or safety history. For example, traffic signals are perceived as safe, yet under some circumstances, they can increase traffic crashes at an intersection. Traffic roundabouts have a generally favorable safety record yet often make drivers nervous. Low perceived safety can have costs. For example, after

2193-424: The risk of harm due to intentional criminal acts such as assault, burglary or vandalism. Because of the moral issues involved, security is of higher importance to many people than substantive safety. For example, a death due to murder is considered worse than a death in a car crash, even though in many countries, traffic deaths are more common than homicides. Operational safety is the absence of unacceptable risk in

2244-564: The safety standards, which they publish in the form of codes. They are also Accreditation Bodies and entitle independent third parties such as testing and certification agencies to inspect and ensure compliance to the standards they defined. For instance, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) formulated a certain number of safety standards in its Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) and accredited TÜV Rheinland to provide certification services to guarantee product compliance to

2295-530: The same information to be sent with fewer characters , more quickly, and less expensively. Codes can be used for brevity. When telegraph messages were the state of the art in rapid long-distance communication, elaborate systems of commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single mouths (commonly five-minute groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO ("Are you trying to weasel out of our deal?"), LIOUY ("Why do you not answer my question?"), BMULD ("You're

2346-405: The same sentence. Readers are left to conclude whether they comprise a redundancy. This confuses the uniqueness that should be reserved for each by itself. When seen as unique, as we intend here, each term will assume its rightful place in influencing and being influenced by the other. Safety is the condition of a "steady state" of an organization or place doing what it is supposed to do. "What it

2397-409: The sequence of source symbols acab . Using terms from formal language theory , the precise mathematical definition of this concept is as follows: let S and T be two finite sets, called the source and target alphabets , respectively. A code C : S → T ∗ {\displaystyle C:\,S\to T^{*}} is a total function mapping each symbol from S to

2448-798: The sets of codeword lengths that are possible in a prefix code. Virtually any uniquely decodable one-to-many code, not necessarily a prefix one, must satisfy Kraft's inequality. Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant to errors in transmission or storage. This so-called error-correcting code works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored (or transmitted) data. Examples include Hamming codes , Reed–Solomon , Reed–Muller , Walsh–Hadamard , Bose–Chaudhuri–Hochquenghem , Turbo , Golay , algebraic geometry codes , low-density parity-check codes , and space–time codes . Error detecting codes can be optimised to detect burst errors , or random errors . A cable code replaces words (e.g. ship or invoice ) with shorter words, allowing

2499-611: The structured flight operation readiness schedules of deployed warships. Safety Safety is the state of being "safe", the condition of being protected from harm or other danger. Safety can also refer to the control of recognized hazards in order to achieve an acceptable level of risk . The word 'safety' entered the English language in the 14th century. It is derived from Latin salvus , meaning uninjured, in good health , safe. There are two slightly different meanings of "safety". For example, " home safety " may indicate

2550-708: Was a contributing factor to half of such accidents, while material failure was involved in 30 percent. Errors in maintenance and supervision accounted for the remainder, with some accidents involving multiple causes. The highest accident risk occurred among pilots with less than 300 hours flying the model of aircraft involved, and that risk dropped significantly among pilots with more than 750 hours of experience flying that model. Younger pilots were more likely to lose control through improper use of controls or failure to maintain flying speed, while older pilots were more likely to violate regulations regarding pre-flight procedures and use of flight instruments . The highest accident risk

2601-500: Was represented by more than one byte, all characters used the same number of bytes ("word length"), making them suitable for decoding with a lookup table. The final group, variable-width encodings, is a subset of multibyte encodings. These use more complex encoding and decoding logic to efficiently represent large character sets while keeping the representations of more commonly used characters shorter or maintaining backward compatibility properties. This group includes UTF-8 , an encoding of

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