Misplaced Pages

#543456

124-475: The Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home is the presidential library and museum of Dwight David Eisenhower , the 34th president of the United States (1953–1961), located in his hometown of Abilene, Kansas . The museum includes Eisenhower's boyhood home , where he lived from 1898 until being appointed to West Point in 1911, and is also the president's final resting place. It

248-474: A "check tax" took effect, placing a two-cent tax on all bank checks. Economists William D. Lastrapes and George Selgin conclude that the check tax was "an important contributing factor to that period's severe monetary contraction". Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit. Hoover believed that amicable business-labor relations were an important component of

372-435: A NARA facility. Until 1978, presidents, scholars, and legal professionals held the view dating back to George Washington that the records created by the president or his staff while in office remained the personal property of the president and were his to take with him when he left office. The first presidential libraries were built on this concept. NARA successfully persuaded presidents to donate their historical materials to

496-469: A balance among labor, capital, and the government, and he has been variously labeled a corporatist or associationalist . Hoover made extensive use of commissions to study issues and propose solutions, and many of those commissions were sponsored by private donors rather than by the government. One of the commissions started by Hoover, the Research Committee on Social Trends, was tasked with surveying

620-403: A constitutional amendment moving the beginning and ending of the terms of the president and vice president from March 4 to January 20, and of members of Congress from March 4 to January 3. The amendment also specified procedures for cases in which the president-elect dies or otherwise fails to qualify. By January 23, 1933, the amendment had been ratified by the requisite number of states to become

744-592: A direct role for the federal government in the economy. Seeking to address an ongoing farm crisis , Hoover signed the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929 . Despite growing public resistance to Prohibition , Hoover increased federal enforcement of Prohibition. In foreign affairs, Hoover favored non-interventionism in Latin America and pursued disarmament policies with the London Naval Treaty . When

868-602: A facility in Hoffman Estates, Illinois , and except for classified materials are available through FOIA since 2023. Presidency of Herbert Hoover Hoover was the third straight Republican president, and he retained many of the previous administration's policies and personnel, including Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon . Hoover favored policies in which government, business, and labor worked together to achieve economic prosperity, but he generally opposed

992-627: A law, their duty as honest men and women is to discourage its violation; their right is openly to work for its repeal." Hoover increased federal enforcement of Prohibition by signing the Increased Penalties Act , which made even minor liquor violations felonies . Hoover also established the Wickersham Commission to make public policy recommendations regarding Prohibition. The commission found widespread corruption and violations of Prohibition, and its exposure of brutal practices such as

1116-486: A major cause of economic troubles in the United States. As the moratorium neared its expiration the following year, an attempt to find a permanent solution was made at the Lausanne Conference of 1932 . The agreement reached there was not approved by any of the affected countries because acceptance was provisional on the United States cancelling the war debts owed to it, and that did not happen. Reparations payments as

1240-498: A million museum objects. These varied holdings make each library a valuable source of information and a center for research on the Presidency. The most important textual materials in each library are those created by the president and his staff in the course of performing the official duties. Libraries also house numerous objects including family heirlooms, items collected by the president and his family, campaign memorabilia, awards, and

1364-579: A press conference on his first day in office, promising a "new phase of press relations". He asked the group of journalists to elect a committee to recommend improvements to the White House press conference. Hoover declined to use a spokesman, instead asking reporters to directly quote him and giving them handouts with his statements ahead of time. In his first 120 days in office, he held more regular and frequent press conferences than any other president, before or since. However, he changed his press policies after

SECTION 10

#1732855210544

1488-584: A priority on disarmament, which he hoped would allow the United States to shift money from the military to domestic needs. Hoover and Stimson focused on extending the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , which sought to prevent a naval arms race . A previous effort to extend the Washington Naval Treaty, the Geneva Naval Conference , had failed to produce results, but the Hoover administration convinced

1612-535: A prosperous economy. In 1931, Hoover signed the Davis–Bacon Act , which required a maximum eight-hour day on construction of public buildings, as well as the payment of at least the local "prevailing wage". The following year, he signed the Norris–La Guardia Act , which banned yellow-dog contracts , created a positive right of noninterference by employers against workers joining trade unions , and barred

1736-669: A result virtually stopped. As president, Hoover largely made good on his pledge made prior to assuming office not to interfere in Latin America's internal affairs. In 1930, he released the Clark Memorandum , a rejection of the Roosevelt Corollary and a move towards non-interventionism in Latin America. Hoover did not completely refrain from the use of the military in Latin American affairs; he thrice threatened intervention in

1860-608: A scion of the Adams political family who shared Hoover's views on disarmament. Hoover persuaded Ray Lyman Wilbur , the president of Stanford University , to serve as Secretary of the Interior. Businessman Robert P. Lamont became Secretary of Commerce, James William Good was appointed as Secretary of War, and Walter Folger Brown took the position of Postmaster General. Vice President Charles Curtis, who had previously opposed Hoover's nomination, had little influence with Hoover. Hoover held

1984-591: A second full term of office in the 1928 presidential election , Hoover emerged as the front-runner for the Republican presidential nomination. While Hoover gained the support of important party constituencies and won several primaries, some party leaders were at best, lukewarm to his candidacy. Coolidge viewed Hoover's candidacy with ill-concealed disgust, remarking that "for six years that man has given me unsolicited advice—all of it bad." Hoover's opponents were unable to unite around an alternative candidate, and Hoover won

2108-519: A voluntary association of bankers, but the organization did not manage to save banks or ease credit as Hoover had hoped it would. As the Great Depression continued, Hoover finally heeded calls for more direct federal intervention, though he vetoed a bill that would have allowed direct federal lending to individuals. When the 72nd Congress convened in December 1931, Hoover proposed the establishment of

2232-566: Is being produced at Cumberland University . A similar project is underway on behalf of James Madison by the Universities of Virginia and Chicago. For many presidents, especially before the development of the NARA system, substantial collections may be found in multiple private and public collections. Until the Obama Administration's library is ready for service, its papers are being held in

2356-657: Is buried at his museum in Grand Rapids , while the library is in Ann Arbor . This is a list of the presidential libraries. Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson left their papers to Princeton University where they may be found at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library . The Theodore Roosevelt Association collected Theodore Roosevelt's papers and donated them to Harvard University in 1943, where they reside at its Widener and Houghton libraries. James Buchanan left his papers to

2480-470: Is one of the thirteen presidential libraries under the auspices of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). The Eisenhower Presidential complex is only one of two whose creation preceded the close of a presidency, and while this is obviously the case with his boyhood home, construction of the library itself began in 1958, and the museum portion before he even took office, coinciding with

2604-610: Is operated by the National Park Service and the Western Reserve Historical Society . In 1939, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt donated his personal and presidential papers to the federal government. At the same time, Roosevelt pledged part of his estate at Hyde Park, New York , to the United States, and friends of the president formed a non-profit corporation to raise funds for the construction of

SECTION 20

#1732855210544

2728-683: Is the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum , dedicated on June 30, 1941. The George W. Bush Presidential Center became the thirteenth on May 1, 2013. The National Archives and Records Administration uses a passport to promote visiting the Presidential libraries. When a person visits every library, NARA awards them a crystal paperweight. The presidential library system is made up of thirteen presidential libraries operated fully, or partially, by NARA. Libraries and museums have been established for earlier presidents, but they are not part of

2852-460: Is the most recent library, and operates under a new model. The Barack Obama Presidential Library is fully digitized, preserved, and administered by NARA with archival materials lent to the privately operated Presidential Center for display. For every president since Herbert Hoover , presidential libraries have been established in each president's home state in which documents, artifacts, gifts of state and museum exhibits are maintained that relate to

2976-636: The 1928 Democratic National Convention nominated New York Governor Alfred E. Smith , who was described by Smith ally Franklin D. Roosevelt as "the Happy Warrior of the political battlefield." Hoover campaigned for efficiency and the Republican record of prosperity. Smith ran on his record of efficiency earned over four terms as governor. Both candidates were pro-business, and each promised to improve conditions for farmers, reform immigration laws, and maintain America's isolationist foreign policy. They differed on

3100-750: The Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929 , which established the Federal Farm Board to stabilize farm prices. The act had been formulated by Coolidge's Secretary of Agriculture, William Marion Jardine , as an alternative to the McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill . The Agricultural Marketing Act authorized the Federal Farm Board to loan money to state and local cooperatives, which in turn would help farmers control crop prices by avoiding surpluses. Reflecting his desire to avoid statist solutions, Hoover successfully opposed other proposals, such as

3224-959: The Association Against the Prohibition Amendment . A constitutional amendment repealing the Eighteenth Amendment was approved by Congress on January 23, 1933, and submitted to state ratifying conventions in each state for ratification . By December 1933, it had been ratified by the requisite number of states to become the Twenty-first Amendment . Hoover seldom mentioned civil rights throughout his presidency. He believed that African Americans and other races could improve themselves with education and individual initiative. Hoover appointed more African Americans to federal positions than Harding and Coolidge had combined, but many African-American leaders condemned various aspects of

3348-584: The Dominican Republic , and he sent warships to El Salvador to support the government against a left-wing revolution. But he wound down the Banana Wars , ending the occupation of Nicaragua and nearly bringing an end to the occupation of Haiti . Franklin Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy would continue the trend towards non-interventionism in Latin America. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria , defeating

3472-600: The Federal Home Loan Bank Act , establishing 12 district banks overseen by a Federal Home Loan Bank Board in a manner similar to the Federal Reserve System. Hoover and Senator Carter Glass , another gold standard proponent, recognized that they needed to stop deflation by encouraging lending. Hoover was instrumental in passing the Glass–Steagall Act of 1932 , which allowed for prime rediscounting at

3596-668: The Historical Society of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, where they may still be found. The Papers of Andrew Jackson is a project sponsored by the University of Tennessee at Knoxville to collect Andrew Jackson 's papers on microfilm. A microfilm edition of Martin Van Buren 's papers was produced at Pennsylvania State University in 1987; a digital edition of the Papers of Martin Van Buren

3720-568: The Muscle Shoals Bill , which sought to establish government production and distribution of power in the Tennessee Valley . In late 1930, Hoover established the President's Organization for Unemployment Relief , which issued press releases urging companies to hire workers. Hoover had taken office hoping to raise agricultural tariffs in order to help farmers reeling from the farm crisis of

3844-624: The North Dakota Legislative Assembly passed a bill appropriating $ 12 million to Dickinson State University to award a grant to the Theodore Roosevelt Center for construction of a building to be named the Theodore Roosevelt Presidential Library. To access these funds, the Theodore Roosevelt Center must first raise $ 3 million from non-state sources. Dickinson State University is also home to

Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home - Misplaced Pages Continue

3968-671: The Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC). Though some progressives criticized the bill as a bailout for banking interests that was insufficient to address the economic crisis, Congress passed a bill to create the RFC in January 1932. The RFC's initial goal was to provide government-secured loans to financial institutions, railroads, and local governments. The RFC saved numerous businesses from failure, but it failed to stimulate commercial lending as Hoover had hoped, partly because it

4092-618: The Reconstruction Finance Corporation and signing a major public works bill. At the same time, he signed the Revenue Act of 1932 , which sought to maintain a balanced budget by raising taxes. However, the economy did not recover, and as a result, Hoover suffered an overwhelming defeat in the 1932 election. Hoover is usually ranked in the bottom third among U.S. presidents. After President Calvin Coolidge announced in August 1927 that he would not seek

4216-581: The Republic of China 's military forces and establishing Manchukuo , a puppet state. The Hoover administration deplored the invasion, but also sought to avoid antagonizing the Japanese, fearing that taking too strong of a stand would weaken the moderate forces in the Japanese government. Hoover also viewed the Japanese as a potential ally against the Soviet Union , which he saw as a much greater threat. In response to

4340-477: The Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act . The intent of the act was to encourage the purchase of American-made products by increasing the cost of imported goods, while raising revenue for the federal government and protecting farmers. However, economic depression had spread worldwide, and Canada, France, and other nations retaliated by raising tariffs, resulting in a contraction of international trade and a worsening of

4464-730: The Supreme Court ; Parker's nomination ultimately failed in the Senate due to opposition from the NAACP and organized labor. Many black voters switched to the Democratic Party in the 1932 election, and African Americans would later become an important part of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal coalition . As part of his efforts to limit unemployment, Hoover sought to cut immigration to the United States , and in 1930 he promulgated an executive order requiring individuals to have employment before migrating to

4588-680: The Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library which has formed partnerships with the Library of Congress and Harvard University, among other institutions. They currently have over 25,000 items online. On April 12, 2016, Harding 2020, a collaboration between the Harding Home , Ohio History Connection , and Marion Technical College , detailed plans to spend $ 7.3 million to establish the Warren G. Harding Presidential Center . Plans include restoring

4712-520: The Twentieth Amendment . Roosevelt's second inauguration in 1937 was the first presidential inauguration to take place on the new date. In the midst of a worldwide depression, Hoover and Secretary of State Henry Stimson became more closely involved in world affairs than Hoover's Republican predecessors had been. According to William Leuchtenburg , Hoover was "the last American president to take office with no conspicuous need to pay attention to

4836-517: The United States , the presidential library system is a nationwide network of 16 libraries administered by the Office of Presidential Libraries, which is part of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). These are repositories for preserving and making available the papers, records, collections and other historical materials of every president of the United States since Herbert Hoover ,

4960-522: The Volstead Act which outlawed the sale of liquor and beer. Smith was a "wet" who called for its repeal, whereas Hoover gave limited support for Prohibition , calling it an "experiment noble in purpose." While Smith won extra support among Catholics in the big cities, he was the target of intense anti-Catholic rhetoric from the Ku Klux Klan , as well as numerous Protestant preachers in rural areas across

5084-583: The Wall Street Crash of 1929 struck less than eight months after he took office, Hoover tried to combat the ensuing Great Depression by reassuring public confidence and working with business leaders and local government. He also approved the Smoot–Hawley Tariff of 1930, which raised tariff rates and reduced international trade. As the depression worsened in 1931 and 1932, Hoover reluctantly gave in to calls for direct federal intervention, establishing

Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home - Misplaced Pages Continue

5208-731: The William Jefferson Clinton Presidential Center in Little Rock. George W. Bush will be buried at the George W. Bush Presidential Center in Dallas. The future burial sites of 44th president Barack Obama , 45th and 47th president Donald Trump , and 46th president Joe Biden are still unknown. Unlike all other presidents whose libraries are part of the NARA system, Ford's library and museum are geographically separate buildings, located in different parts of Michigan ; Ford

5332-583: The federal courts from issuing injunctions against nonviolent labor disputes. Though Hoover had originally tried to stop the bill, he chose to sign it into law as he feared that Congress would simply override a veto. The United States banned the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages nationwide in 1920 following the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment . In his 1929 inaugural address, Hoover, in addressing enforcement of Prohibition laws said, "If citizens do not like

5456-506: The " third degree " sparked outrage and helped lead to the reform of many police forces. As public opinion increasingly turned against Prohibition, more and more people flouted the law, and several states repealed state bans on alcoholic beverages. Though he recognized the change in public opinion, Hoover insisted that federal and state authorities continue to uphold Prohibition. A grassroots movement began working in earnest for Prohibition's repeal, supported by numerous organizations, such as

5580-643: The "5–5–3" ratio which limited Japan to a smaller fleet than the United States or the United Kingdom. At the 1932 World Disarmament Conference , Hoover urged worldwide cutbacks in armaments and the outlawing of tanks and bombers, but his proposals were not adopted. When Hoover took office, an international committee meeting in Paris promulgated the Young Plan , which created the Bank for International Settlements and stipulated

5704-454: The 1920s, but his attempt to raise agricultural tariffs became connected with attempts to raise tariffs for other goods. After months of debate, Congress produced a bill that raised the average import duties on agricultural products from 38 percent to 49 percent and average import duties on industrial products from 31 percent to 34 percent. In June 1930, over the objection of many economists, Congress approved and Hoover reluctantly signed into law

5828-511: The 1929 stock market crash, screening reporters and greatly reducing his availability. Hoover appointed three justices of the Supreme Court of the United States . He appointed Charles Evans Hughes to succeed Chief Justice William Howard Taft after the latter's death in 1930. A former associate justice, governor, Secretary of State, and presidential nominee, Hughes would lead the Hughes Court until 1941. A second vacancy arose in 1930 due to

5952-405: The 31st president from 1929–1933 . In addition to the library services, museum exhibitions concerning the presidency are displayed. Although recognized as having historical significance, before the mid-20th century presidential papers and effects were generally understood to be the private property of the president. Franklin D. Roosevelt (32nd president, 1933–1945) proposed to leave his papers to

6076-426: The British to re-open negotiations. In 1930, the United States and other major naval powers signed the London Naval Treaty . The treaty represented the first time that the naval powers had agreed to cap their tonnage of auxiliary vessels (previous agreements had focused on capital ships ), but the treaty did not include France or Italy. The treaty provoked a nationalist backlash in Japan due to its reconfirmation of

6200-427: The Cabinet came to believe that war with Japan might be inevitable, though Hoover continued to push for disarmament among the world powers. The United States had taken control of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War of 1898, and the islands remained a possession of the United States despite a vigorous independence movement. Stimson convinced Hoover to oppose independence on the grounds that it would hurt

6324-427: The Depression, Hoover signed the Revenue Act of 1932 . The act increased taxes across the board, so that top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income, up from 25 percent when Hoover took office. The 1932 Act also increased the tax on the net income of corporations from 12 percent to 13.75 percent. Additionally, under Hoover, the estate tax was doubled, corporate taxes were raised by almost 15 percent, and

SECTION 50

#1732855210544

6448-446: The Depression. Progressive Republicans such as Senator William Borah were outraged when Hoover signed the tariff act, and Hoover's relations with that wing of the party never recovered. By the end of 1930, the national unemployment rate had reached 11.9 percent, but it was not yet clear to most Americans that the economic downturn would be worse than the Depression of 1920–21. The 1930 midterm elections saw Republicans lose control of

6572-445: The Eisenhower brothers. They ultimately donated the house to the Foundation, and the entire site, in south Abilene, later became the Eisenhower Presidential Center. Mrs. Eisenhower's home opened to the public as a museum on June 22, 1947. and the cornerstone of an Eisenhower/World War II museum was laid in June 1952 by the General himself, just before he accepted the draft and formally announced his candidacy for President. The museum

6696-523: The Federal Farm Board also reflected Hoover's general approach to governance. As the economy worsened in the 1930s, the Hoover administration and the Federal Farm Board struggled to stabilize farm prices, and Hoover continued to reject a stronger federal role. Federal Farm Board Chairman Alexander Legge and Secretary of Agriculture Hyde tried to convince farmers to voluntarily restrict their own production, but farmers were unwilling to do so. Prices for agricultural goods like wheat and cotton sank to new lows in

6820-613: The Federal Reserve announced that it would cut interest rates. These actions were collectively designed to prevent a cycle of deflation and provide a fiscal stimulus. In early 1930, Hoover acquired from Congress an additional $ 100 million to continue the Federal Farm Board lending and purchasing policies. At the end of 1929, the FFB established the National Wool Marketing Corporation (NWMC), a national wool cooperative made up of 30 state associations. Hoover also supported new public works projects, although his fear of budget deficits led him to oppose expansive projects such as that contemplated by

6944-478: The Federal Reserve, in turn allowing further inflation of credit and bank reserves. Though some economists, like William Trufant Foster , favored deficit spending to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a balanced budget. Hoover shared this belief, and he sought to avoid a budget deficit through greatly increased tax rates on the wealthy. To pay for government programs and to make up for revenue lost due to

7068-425: The Harding Home, Warren G. Harding 's historic home in Marion, Ohio , and its grounds to its 1920 appearance. A 15,000-square-foot presidential center and museum will also be built adjacent to the house. Harding's presidential papers will then be moved from its current location at the Ohio History Connection's headquarters in Columbus, Ohio , to the new center. The culmination of the work, scheduled to be completed by

7192-566: The Hoover administration, including Hoover's unwillingness to push for a federal anti- lynching law. Hoover also continued to pursue the lily-white strategy, removing African Americans from positions of leadership in the Republican Party in an attempt to end the Democratic Party's dominance in the South . Though Robert Moton and some other black leaders accepted the lily-white strategy as a temporary measure, most African-American leaders were outraged. Hoover further alienated black leaders by nominating conservative Southern judge John J. Parker to

7316-452: The House and narrowly retain control of the Senate. John Nance Garner , the incoming Democratic leader in the House of Representatives, emerged as perhaps the most influential individual in Congress. The election was also a victory for progressives of both parties, as Republicans closely aligned with Hoover lost several congressional elections. Additionally, New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt 's landslide re-election established him as

7440-454: The Japanese invasion, Hoover and Secretary of State Stimson outlined the Stimson Doctrine , which held that the United States would not recognize territories gained by force. The Hoover administration based this declaration on the 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact , in which several nations (including Japan and the United States) renounced war and promised to peacefully solve disputes. In the aftermath of invasion of Manchuria, Stimson and other members of

7564-492: The Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress , others are split among other libraries, historical societies, and private collections. However, many materials have been lost or deliberately destroyed. Lucretia Rudolph Garfield , the wife of James A. Garfield (president from March 4, 1881, until his death on September 19, 1881) added a Memorial Library wing to their family home in Mentor, Ohio , four years after his assassination. The James A. Garfield National Historic Site

SECTION 60

#1732855210544

7688-522: The McNary–Haugen bill, that would have directly subsidized farmers. During the special session of Congress in 1929, Hoover also sought to raise tariffs on agricultural products, but opposition from eastern senators delayed action on the tariff until 1930. Hoover hoped that the Federal Farm Board would become the agricultural equivalent of the Federal Reserve Board, in that it would help control supply and production, especially during emergencies. With its emphasis on cooperation between business and government,

7812-426: The NARA presidential library system, and are operated by private foundations, historical societies, or state governments, including the James K. Polk , William McKinley , Rutherford B. Hayes , Calvin Coolidge , Abraham Lincoln and Woodrow Wilson libraries. For example, the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is owned and operated by the state of Illinois . The Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace

7936-466: The Nixon Foundation would continue to own the campus and operate the Nixon Library complex with NARA. On October 16, 2006, Dr. Timothy Naftali began his tenure as the first federal director of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace, and in the winter of 2006 NARA began to transfer the 30,000 presidential gifts from the Nixon Presidential Materials Staff in College Park, Maryland, to the Yorba Linda facility. On July 11, 2007, NARA began its operations at

8060-488: The Nixon Library site and the facility's name was changed to Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. In May 2012, on the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Ulysses S. Grant Foundation, it selected Mississippi State University as the permanent location for Ulysses S. Grant's presidential library. Historian John Simon edited Grant's letters into a 32-volume scholarly edition published by Southern Illinois University Press. On April 30, 2013, both chambers of

8184-419: The Nixon White House (1969–1973), under the Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act of 1974. The Presidential Records Act of 1978 established that the presidential records that document the constitutional, statutory, and ceremonial duties of the president are the property of the United States Government. When the president leaves office, the Archivist of the United States assumes custody of

8308-462: The South and West. In the November election, Republicans won an overwhelming victory . Though Smith carried every large urban area in the country, Hoover received 58 percent of the popular vote and a massive 444 to 87 Electoral College majority. Hoover won 40 states, including Smith's home state; he also succeeded in cracking the " Solid South ", winning in five traditionally Democratic states. Historians agree that Hoover's national reputation and

8432-415: The United States William D. Mitchell to the head the Justice Department. Hoover's first choice for Secretary of Agriculture was Charles McNary , author of the controversial McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Bill , which Hoover had strenuously opposed. The position instead went to Arthur Hyde , who was inexperienced regarding agricultural issues. For Secretary of the Navy, Hoover chose Charles Francis Adams III ,

8556-413: The United States would act as a "good neighbor." While crossing the Andes from Chile, a plot to bomb Hoover's train as it crossed the vast Argentinian central plain was foiled. Hoover was inaugurated as the nation's 31st president on March 4, 1929, on the East Portico of the United States Capitol . Chief Justice (and former president) William Howard Taft administered the oath of office . This

8680-458: The United States. With the goal of opening up more jobs for U.S. citizens, Secretary of Labor William N. Doak began a campaign to prosecute illegal immigrants in the United States. Though Doak did not seek to deport one specific group of immigrants, his campaign most strongly affected Mexican Americans , especially Mexican Americans living in Southern California . Many of the deportations were overseen by state and local authorities who acted on

8804-406: The bench, and they often held the balance between their more conservative and more liberal colleagues during the 1930s. In 1932, 91-year-old Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. announced his retirement from the Court. George W. Norris , the Chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee , insisted that Hoover nominate a progressive judge to succeed Holmes. Hoover nominated Benjamin Cardozo ,

8928-519: The booming economy, combined with deep splits in the Democratic Party over religion and prohibition, were the decisive factors in the 1928 election. Before President-elect Hoover would take office, there was a nearly four-month transition period . In November 1928, President-elect Hoover embarked on a ten-nation goodwill tour of Latin America . He delivered twenty-five speeches, stressing his plans to reduce American political and military interference in Latin American affairs. In sum, he pledged that

9052-495: The day when poverty will be banished from this nation." Hoover hoped that coordination among business, labor, and consumers could bring an end to the business cycle and allow for sustained and predictable economic growth. Having seen the fruits of prosperity brought by technological progress, many shared Hoover's optimism, and the already bullish stock market climbed even higher on Hoover's accession. This optimism concealed several threats to sustained U.S. economic growth, including

9176-474: The death of Edward Terry Sanford . Hoover's first nominee, federal appellate judge John J. Parker , was rejected by the Senate due to the opposition of the NAACP and labor groups. Hoover next nominated Owen Roberts , an attorney who had risen to prominence due to his role in investigating the Teapot Dome scandal . Roberts was confirmed by acclamation. Hughes and Roberts both established centrist reputations on

9300-511: The early 1930s, and Westerners also faced a period of severe drought and dust storms known as the Dust Bowl . Many of the Farm Board's proposals to address the ongoing economic crisis would later be adopted by the Roosevelt administration. On taking office, Hoover said that "[g]iven the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God, be in sight of

9424-563: The election, leaving the 72nd Congress in recess from March 1931 to December 1931. A series of bank failures in late 1930 heralded a larger collapse of the economy in 1931. Bank failures continued in 1931 as foreign investors withdrew money from the United States, and the Federal Reserve raised interest rates in order to prevent outflow of gold. While other countries left the gold standard , Hoover refused to abandon it; he derided any other monetary system as "collectivism." By mid-1931,

9548-628: The encouragement of Doak and the Department of Labor. During the 1930s, between 355,000 and one million were repatriated or deported to Mexico; approximately forty to sixty percent of those repatriated were birthright citizens – overwhelmingly children. Voluntary repatriation was much more common during the repatriations than formal deportation. Some scholars contend that the unprecedented number of deportations between 1929 and 1933 were part of an “explicit Hoover administration policy". At least 82,000 of those repatriated were formally deported by

9672-413: The entirety of American society. After taking office, Hoover called Congress into session in an attempt to address the farm crisis that had affected the country throughout much of the 1920s. Since the end of World War I , a glut of agricultural products on the world market had reduced the demand for American exports, resulting in domestic overproduction and a drop in prices. In June 1929, Hoover signed

9796-627: The establishment of a federally operated Richard Nixon Presidential Library in Yorba Linda, California . In March 2005, the Archivist of the United States and John Taylor, the director of the Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace Foundation, exchanged letters on the requirements to allow the Nixon Library to become the twelfth federally funded presidential library operated by NARA by 2007, while

9920-471: The exception of John F. Kennedy , Lyndon B. Johnson , and (upon his own death) Jimmy Carter , every American president since Hoover is or has chosen to be buried at their presidential library. Kennedy is buried at Arlington National Cemetery ; Johnson is buried at his ranch in the hill country of Texas, west of Austin; Carter plans to be buried near his home in Plains, Georgia . Bill Clinton will be buried at

10044-507: The federal government for housing in a presidential library managed by NARA. Apart from the presidency of Richard Nixon, the handling of presidential records by NARA for the presidencies of Hoover through Carter (1929–1969, and 1973–1980) are governed by their deeds of gift , whereby the public took ownership of the records of each president. In the wake of the Watergate scandal , Congress asserted public ownership and control of materials from

10168-435: The federal government, including 34,000 deported to Mexico between 1930 and 1933. According to legal professor Kevin R. Johnson, the repatriation campaign meets the modern legal standards of ethnic cleansing , arguing that it involved the forced removal of an ethnic minority by government actors. Charles Curtis, the nation's first Native American Vice President, and the first person with acknowledged non-European ancestry,

10292-685: The federal role in Indian affairs. His goal was to have Indians acting as individuals (not as tribes) and to assume the responsibilities of citizenship granted with the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 . Thousands of World War I veterans and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, DC, during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of bonuses that had been promised by the World War Adjusted Compensation Act in 1924;

10416-474: The first Monday in December, though Congress could by law set another date and the president could summon special sessions. The original text of the Constitution set a duration for the terms of federal elected officials, but not the specific dates on which those terms would begin or end. From 1789 until the early 1930s, presidential and congressional terms began on March 4. The result of these scheduling decisions

10540-663: The former president must raise, if they do decide to build a NARA owned facility. According to NARA, not only are the digital nature of modern records changing the needs, plans, and lessening space requirements of physical storage, but the significantly increased endowment requirement may lessen the likelihood that present and future presidents will continue to build NARA facilities. The thirteen presidential libraries maintain over 400 million pages of textual materials; nearly ten million photographs; over 15 million feet (5,000 km) of motion picture film; nearly 100,000 hours of disc, audiotape, and videotape recordings; and approximately half

10664-479: The former president's life and career both political and professional. Each library also provides an active series of public programs. When a president leaves office, the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) establishes a presidential materials project to house and index the documents until a new presidential library is built and transferred to the federal government. The first presidential library

10788-561: The front-runner for the 1932 Democratic nomination . Despite the election defeat, Hoover refused to change his policies, rejecting the Chairman of the Committee on Employment's advice to appropriate additional money for public works. Instead, Hoover's first State of the Union address after the election called for a balancing of the budget. Hoover also refused to call a special session of Congress after

10912-411: The fundamental economic problem facing the nation. He sought to avoid direct federal intervention, believing that the best way to bolster the economy was through the strengthening of businesses such as banks and railroads. He also feared that allowing individuals on the " dole " would permanently weaken the country. Instead, Hoover strongly believed that local governments and private giving should address

11036-617: The government and ensured the preservation of presidential papers and their availability to the people of the United States. Under this and subsequent acts, nine more libraries have been established. In each case, private and non-federal public sources provided the funds to build the library. Generally, once completed the private organization turned over the libraries to the National Archives and Records Administration to operate and maintain. The library and museum founded for Richard Nixon remained privately owned and managed for many years, but his heirs ultimately reached an agreement for it to become

11160-649: The highly regarded chief judge of the New York Court of Appeals , and Cardozo was approved by the Senate in a unanimous vote. Cardozo joined with Louis Brandeis and Harlan F. Stone in forming a progressive block of Supreme Court justices known as the " Three Musketeers ". Hoover saw the presidency as a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging public-private cooperation—what he termed "volunteerism". He tended to oppose governmental coercion or intervention, as he thought they infringed on American ideals of individualism and self-reliance. He sought

11284-539: The honors of Eisenhower in particular. At the time, the General's mother Ida was still alive and refused to sell the property. When she died in 1946, another purchase attempt was made. However, the fund-raising tactics of the foundation offended Eisenhower, and this almost scuttled the project. New fundraising rules were established for the Foundation after its discussion with Ike's youngest brother Milton , and agreement by all

11408-430: The institutions of progress more advanced. In no nation are the fruits of accomplishment more secure. In no nation is the government more worthy of respect. No country is more loved by its people. I have an abiding faith in their capacity, integrity and high purpose. I have no fears for the future of our country. It is bright with hope. These words would stand in stark contrast to the sense of desperation that would pervade

11532-408: The libraries for presidents Hoover to George W. Bush eventually conformed to a model whereby the former president funded or fundraised and built a facility for NARA to house the library, presidents are not required to do so under the law (Nixon's was not under NARA for many years). Nonetheless, according to NARA as of 2023, recent changes in these laws have increased significantly the amount of endowment

11656-451: The library and museum building. Roosevelt's decision stemmed from his belief that presidential papers were an important part of the national heritage and should be accessible to the public. He asked the National Archives to take custody of his papers and other historical materials and to administer his library. On June 30, 2013, new interactive and multimedia exhibits developed by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) opened to

11780-408: The many gifts given to the president by American citizens and foreign dignitaries. These gifts range in type from homemade items to valuable works of art. Curators in presidential libraries and in other museums throughout the country draw upon these collections for historical exhibits. Other significant holdings include the personal papers and historical materials donated by individuals associated with

11904-691: The nation during much of his presidency. The morning of the inauguration, the Coolidges had briefly met with the Hoovers in the Blue Room of the White House before departing for the United States Capitol for Hoover's inauguration. Hoover's cabinet consisted largely of wealthy, business-oriented conservatives. As the third consecutive Republican president to take office in the 1920s, Hoover retained many of

12028-554: The needs of individuals. Though he attempted to put a positive spin on Black Tuesday, Hoover moved quickly to address the stock market collapse. In the days following Black Tuesday, Hoover gathered business and labor leaders, asking them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages while the country faced what he believed would be a short recession similar to the Depression of 1920–21 . Hoover also convinced railroads and public utilities to increase spending on construction and maintenance, while

12152-570: The nonprofit Obama Foundation will partner with the NARA on digitization and making documents available. The Chicago Park District began related construction in August and suspended it in September 2018. It was announced that the city of Chicago would own the center. Historically, all presidential papers were considered the personal property of the president. Some took them at the end of their terms, others destroyed them, and many papers were scattered. Though many pre-Hoover collections now reside in

12276-533: The partial forgiveness of German World War I reparations . Hoover was wary of agreeing to the plan, as he feared that it would be linked to reduced payments on loans the U.S. extended to France and Britain in World War I. He ultimately agreed to support the proposal at the urging of Owen D. Young , the American industrialist who chaired the committee. Due to the severe effects of the Great Depression on its economy, Germany

12400-485: The persistent farm crisis, a saturation of consumer goods like automobiles , growing income inequality , an uneasy international situation, and the consolidation of various industries due to weak enforcement of antitrust law . Most dangerous of all to the economy, excessive speculation had raised stock prices far beyond their value. Banks played a major role in enabling this speculation, as by 1929 commercial banks were loaning more money for investments in real estate or

12524-547: The president. These individuals may include Cabinet officials , envoys to foreign governments, political party associates, and the president's family and personal friends. Several libraries have undertaken oral history programs that have produced tape-recorded memoirs. A third body of materials comprises the papers accumulated by the president prior to, and following, his presidency. Such collections include documents relating to Theodore Roosevelt's tenure as Governor of New York and Dwight D. Eisenhower 's long military career. With

12648-399: The presidential nomination on the first ballot of the 1928 Republican National Convention . The delegates considered re-nominating Vice President Charles Dawes to be Hoover's running mate, but Coolidge, who hated Dawes, remarked that this would be "a personal affront" to him. The convention instead selected Senator Charles Curtis of Kansas, who had Native American ancestry. Delegates to

12772-733: The previous administration's personnel, including Secretary of Labor James J. Davis and Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon . Hoover disliked Mellon, who maintained intense support among the party's Old Guard, and instead relied on Undersecretary of the Treasury Ogden L. Mills . Henry Stimson , the Governor-General of the Philippines and a former Secretary of War, became Hoover's Secretary of State. After Hoover's old friend, Supreme Court Justice Harlan F. Stone declined to serve as Attorney General, Hoover promoted Solicitor General of

12896-529: The protests. MacArthur, believing he was fighting a Communist revolution, chose to clear out the camp with military force. Though Hoover had not ordered MacArthur's clearing out of the protesters, he endorsed it after the fact. The incident proved embarrassing for the Hoover administration, and destroyed any remaining chance he had of winning re-election. Article I, Section 4, Clause 2 of the Constitution states that Congress must meet at least once per year, on

13020-522: The public as part of the first renovation of this library since its opening. In 1950, Harry S. Truman decided that he, too, would build a library to house his presidential papers and helped to galvanize congressional action. In 1955, Congress passed the Presidential Libraries Act of 1955, establishing a system of privately erected and federally maintained libraries. The Act encouraged other presidents to donate their historical materials to

13144-579: The public in a building donated by him on his Hyde Park, New York, estate. Since then, a series of laws established the public keeping of documents and the presidential library system. While not sanctioned and maintained by NARA, libraries have also been organized for several presidents who preceded Hoover and the official start of the Presidential Library Office. The library sites are sometimes referred to as presidential centers . The Barack Obama Presidential Center (44th president, 2009–2017 )

13268-556: The records. The Act allowed for the continuation of presidential libraries as the repository for presidential records. The Presidential Libraries Act of 1986 made additional changes to presidential libraries, requiring private endowments linked to the size of the facility. NARA uses these endowments to offset a portion of the maintenance costs for the library. The Presidential Historical Records Preservation Act of 2008 amended 44 U.S.C.   § 2504 to authorize grants for Presidential Centers of Historical Excellence. While

13392-617: The rest of the world." But during Hoover's term, the world order established with the 1919 Treaty of Versailles began to crumble. Though the United States remained outside of the League of Nations , Hoover showed a willingness to work within multilateral structures. Hoover pursued United States membership in the Permanent Court of International Justice , but the Senate never voted on his proposal. The Senate also defeated Hoover's proposed Saint Lawrence Seaway Treaty with Canada. Hoover placed

13516-467: The same, the museum would be closed for about a year while the remainder of the site would remain open as usual. With the fundraising constraints on the foundation still in place in 1954, the Kansas Legislature took up the slack, authorizing a separate "Eisenhower Presidential Library Commission," and over the next five years enough money was raised to begin construction. Again, President Eisenhower

13640-490: The soles of shoes), and "Hoover blanket" (old newspaper used to cover oneself from the cold). Hoover also faced criticism from progressive Republicans like Governor Gifford Pinchot of Pennsylvania, who urged Hoover to call Congress into a special session to approve relief measures before the winter of 1931–1932. Rather than calling Congress into a special session, Hoover created the National Credit Corporation ,

13764-483: The spring of 2020, is to coincide with the 100th anniversary of Harding's election to the presidency. In May 2017, it was announced that the Barack Obama Presidential Center , the planned location of the presidential library of Barack Obama , would not be part of the NARA system, making Obama the first president since Calvin Coolidge not to have a federally funded facility. Instead, in a "new model"

13888-425: The stock market than for commercial enterprises. Some regulators and bankers, like George L. Harrison and George Fisher Baker , recognized the danger that speculation posed to the economy, and in 1927 Baker had warned Coolidge and Hoover that a failure to curb speculation would lead to "one of the greatest financial catastrophes that this country has ever seen." President Hoover was reluctant to become involved with

14012-462: The terms of the act called for payment of the bonuses in 1945. Although offered money by Congress to return home, some members of the "Bonus Army" remained. Washington police attempted to disperse the demonstrators, but they were outnumbered and unsuccessful. Shots were fired by the police in a futile attempt to attain order, and two protesters were killed while many officers were injured. Hoover sent U.S. Army forces led by General Douglas MacArthur to

14136-584: The then-General's announcement of his presidential candidacy in June 1952. As World War II came to an end, local admirers of the Supreme Commander of Allied forces in Europe , such as Charles L. Brainard , decided to honor Eisenhower with a museum. In 1945, a non-profit foundation in his name was created to purchase his boyhood home and build the museum on the same property. It was to house artifacts from veterans, and

14260-673: The unemployment rate had reached 15 percent, giving rise to growing fears that the country was experiencing a depression far worse than recent economic downturns. Millions of Americans became homeless as the economy crumbled, and hundreds of shanty towns and homeless encampments sprang up across the country. A reserved man with a fear of public speaking, Hoover allowed his opponents in the Democratic Party to define him as cold, incompetent, reactionary, and out-of-touch. Hoover's opponents developed defamatory epithets to discredit him such as: " Hooverville " (the shanty towns and homeless encampments), "Hoover leather" (cardboard used to cover holes in

14384-531: The workings of the Federal Reserve System , and bankers like Charles E. Mitchell continued to encourage speculative practices. In late October 1929, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 occurred, and the worldwide economy began to spiral downward into the Great Depression . The causes of the Great Depression remain a matter of debate, but Hoover viewed a lack of confidence in the financial system as

14508-469: Was completed in 1954, and the President was in attendance when it was formally opened on November 11 of that year. He was impressed by the results, and told the leadership of the foundation that if they could raise the money to build a facility, he would donate his papers and other materials to it. A fundraising campaign launched in 2015 seeks to refresh and expand the museum's exhibits in 2018. If plans remain

14632-532: Was from the Kaw tribe in Kansas. Hoover's humanitarian and Quaker reputation, along with Curtis as a vice-president, gave special meaning to his Indian policies. His Quaker upbringing influenced his views that Native Americans needed to achieve economic self-sufficiency. As president, he appointed Charles J. Rhoads as commissioner of Indian affairs. Hoover supported Rhoads' commitment to Indian assimilation and sought to minimize

14756-619: Was not originally part of the presidential library system. While the Nixon Presidential Materials Staff, which administers the Nixon presidential materials under the terms of the Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act , is part of NARA, the private nonprofit Richard Nixon Foundation owned and operated the Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace. In January 2004, Congress passed legislation that provided for

14880-466: Was present when ground was broken on October 13, 1959. The project took three years to complete, and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson joined the retired President Eisenhower at the dedication on May 1, 1962. Operation of the site was turned over to the NARA in 1966, when it became the fourth library in the system. The campus has five buildings: Also on the site: Presidential library system In

15004-534: Was run by conservative bankers unwilling to make riskier loans. The RFC would be adopted by Roosevelt and greatly expanded as part of his New Deal. The economy continued to worsen, with unemployment rates nearing 23 percent in early 1932. With the RFC unable to stem the economic crisis, Hoover signed the Emergency Relief and Construction Act , a $ 2 billion public works bill, in July 1932. That same month, Hoover signed

15128-437: Was that there was a long, four-month lame duck period between the election and inauguration of the president. As regular congressional sessions did not begin until December of each year, there was often a long lame duck session following the election, followed by a long period of congressional inactivity. Efforts to change these dates through a constitutional amendment began in the late 1920s. In March 1932, Congress approved

15252-487: Was the first inaugural ceremony recorded by newsreel cameras. Hoover's inaugural address projected an optimistic tone throughout, even as he spoke about the "disregard and disobedience of law," which he considered "the most malign" problem confronting the nation. Near the end of the speech he confidently observed: Ours is a land rich in resources; stimulating in its glorious beauty; filled with millions of happy homes; blessed with comfort and opportunity. In no nation are

15376-575: Was unable to pay reparations under the Young Plan's schedule. In response, Hoover issued the Hoover Moratorium , a one-year halt on Allied war loans conditional on a suspension of German reparations payments. Hoover also made American bankers agree to refrain from demanding payment on private loans from Germans. Hoover hoped that the moratorium would help stabilize the European economy, which he viewed as

#543456