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128-602: The service suffered from under-investment during the Great Depression , as the city could not afford to replace old streetcars, tracks, or other infrastructure. Starting in 1932, streetcar lines were phased out in favour of trolley and gas bus routes, and by August 1949 only one core line was left. The last day of public streetcar service was September 1, 1951. Until Edmonton's LRT service opened in 1978, all transit routes were delivered by buses or trolley buses . In 1893, an ordinance permitting Edmonton to construct and operate

256-699: A major flood in 1915 , an influx of European refugees, and the rise of jitneys (shared taxis). The ERR was forced to contend with a rising deficit, leading to the Edmonton Property Owners' Association demanding that the ERR be led by an independent board elected by residents, rather than unelected city staff. In September 1915, H. Milton Martin chaired an investigation which found that the ERR had suffered from notable financial mismanagement which created its deficit. The Martin Report made several recommendations, including

384-517: A tramway was passed. The concept remained stagnant for the next decade, and Edmonton city council approved the borrowing of $ 224,000 for the creation of a streetcar system in 1907. Construction of the initial trackway and related infrastructure commenced soon after. The Alberta Legislature passed the Edmonton Radial Tramway Act in 1908, permitting the city to provide tramway service to communities located within 80 miles (130 km) of

512-438: A broken sternum. Four factors played a large role in their survival: The streetcar fell just over half the total depth of the ravine, the trucks—which were among the streetcar's heaviest components—detached before it landed, its sides caved outward instead of inward, and the frame stopped the roof from caving in. Emergency services arrived within 15 minutes, by-which time everyone was out of the streetcar. After four passengers and

640-551: A city in Alberta , Canada. Edmonton was incorporated as a town on January 9, 1892, with Matthew McCauley acclaimed as its first mayor during the town's first election , held February 10, 1892. On October 8, 1904, Edmonton became a city during the tenure of Mayor William Short . Edmonton was part of the North-West Territories until September 1, 1905, when it became the capital of the newly created province of Alberta, during

768-502: A conductor in Boston's street railway system . From there, they took a bus to the opening ceremony for the new Strathcona bus garage, which was built at a cost of $ 500,000. Around 1,000 people watched the streetcar trip, which marked the closure of the Edmonton's streetcar system. Streetcar service actually continued into September 2, when Car No. 52, operated by Motorman George Evans, made

896-456: A controller and brake valve on one end, rather than both ends. Since these streetcars could only be driven from one end, turning loops were required on lines that used single-ended streetcars so that they could turn around. On August 31, 1917, ERR employees voted to strike after the city offered only minor concessions in response to their demands for increased wages, in the wake of one-man streetcar service commencing. The city refused to recognize

1024-405: A fleet of four streetcars operating on 21 kilometres (13 mi) of track. On its first day of operations, the ERR served approximately 3000 riders. The service quickly grew in popularity as a mode of transportation, and it became known as "the pride of Edmonton". By 1911, daily ridership increased to around 4784 passengers. Motormen, conductors, and other streetcar workers unionized in 1911, under

1152-527: A history of postwar political activism to play an important role in the expansion of state-sponsored social welfare in Canada. Arguing that their wartime sacrifices had not been properly rewarded, veterans claimed that they were entitled to state protection from poverty and unemployment on the home front. The rhetoric of patriotism, courage, sacrifice, and duty created powerful demands for jobs, relief, and adequate pensions that should, veterans argued, be administered as

1280-496: A large federal deficit, however. Bennett became wary of the budget shortfalls by 1932, and cut back severely on federal spending. This only deepened the depression as government employees were put out of work and public works projects were cancelled. One of the greatest burdens on the government was the Canadian National Railway (CNR). The federal government had taken over a number of defunct and bankrupt railways during

1408-439: A narrow range of jobs, such as clerical work and teaching. It was expected that a woman give up a good job when she married. Srigley emphasizes the wide range of background factors and family circumstances, arguing that gender itself was typically less important than race, ethnicity, or class. School budgets were cut a lot across the country, although enrollments went up and up because dropouts could not find jobs. To save money

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1536-438: A porch around 35 feet (11 m) away. McKinnon was pinned under heavy debris from both streetcars, including his controller. Onlookers and passengers tried to free him, but it took street railway employees using large jacks, and a crane contributed by members of a nearby Jesuit college, until 7:30 AM to release him from the wreckage. McKinnon was conscious for the duration of his rescue, and begged nearby people to get him out of

1664-482: A ravine at 132 Street, which only had one streetcar track, Motorman McLennan slightly applied the brakes. Snow and ice were compacted into piles by the skidding wheels, causing the streetcar to leave the track and lurch over the right-hand side of the bridge. The streetcar fell 10 metres (33 ft) down the ravine, and landed on its roof. McLennan and his five passengers all survived, but received various injuries — ranging from scratches and bruises, to fractured ribs and

1792-437: A reduction of assets, lowering its operating expenditures, and transferring the ERR to an independent commission. Several changes were made to accounting practices, but key recommendations, such as the standing of an independent commission, were not implemented. The ERR was paralyzed by a severe blizzard on January 30, 1916; the poor conditions were exacerbated by reductions in track inspections due to budget cuts, and only one of

1920-648: A right of social citizenship and not a form of charity. At the local, provincial, and national political levels, veterans fought for compensation and recognition for their war service, and made their demands for jobs and social security a central part of emerging social policy. The Liberal Party lost the 1930 election to the Conservative Party , led by R.B. Bennett . Bennett, a successful western businessman, campaigned on high tariffs and large-scale spending. Make-work programs were begun, and welfare and other assistance programs became vastly larger. This led to

2048-578: A route between Whyte Avenue and downtown. The city ordered six trolley buses in 1939, prior to the start of the Second World War . Wilson also recommended that the streetcar tracks on the upper deck of the High Level Bridge be removed, and the deck repurposed for trolley buses. The city sent an engineer to Montreal and Toronto to discuss the idea with CPR and Canadian Bridge Company engineers, but nothing further happened immediately. Opponents to

2176-510: A sweeper car, and the library car were parked there before the paving occurred. Buses were used to transport passengers between the Calder stub line and the northern terminus of the Red-and-Green line, which previously ran uninterrupted into Calder. A streetcar was always parked at 118 Avenue to serve as a heated shelter for people waiting either for a bus, or a Calder streetcar. The library streetcar

2304-450: A terrific transportation job." Superintendent Ferrier remarked: "If it hadn’t been for their help, our services would have been handicapped greatly." Streetcar service in Calder became isolated from the rest of the streetcar system in May 1948, when the tracks on 124 Street, south of 118 Avenue, were paved over. A small temporary storage yard was constructed at 118 Avenue, and seven passenger cars,

2432-520: The Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act and Farmers' Creditors Arrangement Act , which provided alternatives to bankruptcy for distressed businesses, were held to be constitutional by the Reference Re Farmers' Creditors Arrangement Act . The judicial and political failure of Bennett's New Deal legislation shifted the struggle to reconstitute capitalism to the provincial and municipal levels of

2560-668: The Edmonton Radial Railway Society , two streetcars are being restored, and 15 more are awaiting restoration. The society operates the High Level Bridge Streetcar between Whyte Avenue and Jasper Avenue, across the High Level Bridge, and has a second line in Fort Edmonton Park that transports guests around the park. Great Depression in Canada The worldwide Great Depression of the early 1930s

2688-518: The Low Level Bridge was the only river crossing with streetcar infrastructure. A long-term expansion plan was presented to City Council by municipal staff in November 1912. The proposal called for 15 belt line routes, which would operate in circuits instead of straight (radial) lines. Council was told by city staff that the plan should provide adequate service for the next 50 years. Beginning in 1913,

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2816-705: The New Democratic Party ). With the worst of the Depression over, the government implemented some relief programs such as the National Housing Act and National Employment Commission , and it established Trans-Canada Airlines (1937, the predecessor to Air Canada ). However, it took until 1939 and the outbreak of war for the Canadian economy to return to 1929 levels. After 1936 the prime minister lost patience when westerners preferred radical alternatives such as

2944-547: The On-to-Ottawa Trek that left one Regina police constable and one protester dead in the "Regina Riot". Although the actual number of Communist Party militants remained small, their impact was far disproportionate to their numbers, in large part because of the anticommunist reaction of the government, especially the policies of Prime Minister R. B. Bennett who vowed to crush Communism in Canada with an "iron heel of ruthlessness". These conflicts diminished after 1935, when

3072-520: The Palliser's Triangle to aspen parkland in the north. During the depression, there was a rise of working class militancy organized by the Communist Party. The labour unions largely retreated in response to the ravages of the depression at the same time that significant portions of the working class, including the unemployed, clamoured for collective action. Numerous strikes and protests were led by

3200-427: The 102 Avenue stub line. The Edmonton Radial Railway seldom turned a profit, despite its large ridership. This was largely because passengers tended to remain on the streetcars for long periods of time, and many routes went through sparsely populated parts of Edmonton, such as single-track portions that served meatpacking plants in the city's fringes. These factors limited the turnover rate of passengers, and thus capped

3328-422: The 1929 level, again worse than any nation other than the U.S. Canada's economy at the time was just starting to shift from primary industry (farming, fishing, mining and logging) to manufacturing. Exports of raw materials plunged, and employment, prices and profits fell in every sector. Canada was the worst-hit because of its economic position. It was further affected as its main trading partners were Britain and

3456-482: The British market played a vital role in helping Canada and Australia stabilize their balance of payments in the immensely difficult economic conditions of the 1930s. At the Depression, the provincial and municipal governments were already in debt after an expansion of infrastructure and education during the 1920s. It thus fell to the federal government to try to improve the economy. When the Depression began Mackenzie King

3584-472: The CCF (Co-operative Commonwealth Federation) and Social Credit to his middle-of-the-road liberalism. Indeed, he came close to writing off the region with his comment that the prairie dust bowl was "part of the U.S. desert area. I doubt if it will be of any real use again." Instead he paid more attention to the industrial regions and the needs of Ontario and Quebec regarding the proposed St. Lawrence Seaway project with

3712-471: The CRBC played a vital role in keeping the morale up for Canadians everywhere. The latter was used to regulate currency and credit which had been horribly managed amongst Canadian citizens in the prior years. It was also set up to serve as a private banker’s bank and to assist and advise the Canadian government on its own debts and financial matters. The bank played an important role to help steer government spending in

3840-665: The Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission (CRBC) became the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) in that same year. Both corporations were successful aids in the cultural and financial recovery of the Canadian economy during the Great depression. It took the outbreak of World War II to pull Canada out of the depression. From 1939, an increased demand in Europe for materials, and increased spending by

3968-469: The Canadian government created a strong boost for the economy. Unemployed men enlisted in the military. By 1939, Canada was in the first prosperity period in the business cycle in a decade. This coincided with the recovery in the American economy, which created a better market for exports and a new inflow of much needed capital. List of mayors of Edmonton This is a list of mayors of Edmonton ,

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4096-399: The Canadian residents. A large number of unemployed immigrants were also deported. By 1930, 30% of the labour force was out of work, and one fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell, as did prices. Gross National Expenditure had declined 42% from the 1929 levels. In some areas, the decline was far worse. In the rural areas of the prairies, two thirds of

4224-468: The Communist Party shifted strategies and Bennett's Conservatives were defeated. Agitation and unrest nonetheless persisted throughout the depression, marked by periodic clashes, such as a sit-down strike in Vancouver that ended with " Bloody Sunday ". These developments had far-reaching consequences in shaping the postwar environment, including the domestic cold war climate, the rise of the welfare state , and

4352-606: The Communists, many of which culminated in violent clashes with the police. Some notable ones include a coal miners strike that resulted in the Estevan Riot in Estevan, Saskatchewan that left three strikers dead by RCMP bullets in 1931, a waterfront strike in Vancouver that culminated with the " Battle of Ballantyne Pier " in 1935, and numerous unemployed demonstrations up to and including

4480-487: The ERR announced in April 1945 that it would phase out the conductorette program, and according to transit Superintendent Thomas Ferrier, they would be “released just as quickly as the department could do without them.” The end of the war meant a gradual return to normal transit operations, while an influx of applications from veterans further reduced the staffing pressure. All conductorettes except four were laid off by April 28, and

4608-424: The ERR opted for a lengthy three-year refit instead of scrapping it, due to the severe shortage of rolling stock. The ERR reintroduced conductors on October 4, 1943, many of whom were women called conductorettes , to sell tickets and issue transfers on streetcars that served busy routes. Conductorettes were primarily stationed in the rear vestibules of streetcars on major routes, and riders were expected to board at

4736-534: The Empire. In an angry response to Smoot–Hawley, Canada welcomed the British introduction of trade protectionism and a system of Commonwealth preference during the winter of 1931-32. It helped Canada avoid external default on their public debt during the Great Depression. Canada had a high degree of exposure to the international economy, which left Canada susceptible to any international economic downturn. The onset of

4864-507: The First World War and the 1920s. The debt the government assumed was over $ 2 billion, a massive sum at the time, but during the boom years it seemed payable. The Depression turned this debt into a crushing burden. Due to the decrease in trade, the CNR also began to lose substantial amounts of money during the Depression, and had to be further bailed out by the government. With falling support and

4992-596: The Kelsey-Hayes factory. The Stock Market crash in New York led people to hoard their money; as consumption fell, the American economy steadily contracted, 1929-32. Given the close economic links between the two countries, the collapse quickly affected Canada. Added to the woes of the prairies were those of Ontario and Quebec , whose manufacturing industries were now victims of overproduction. Massive lay-offs occurred and other companies collapsed into bankruptcy. This collapse

5120-511: The Motorman were admitted into the General Hospital, it was realized that a sixth person who was in the streetcar was now missing. Passenger A.J. Adams was located later that same day; he sustained only a few minor injuries in the crash, helped other victims leave the wreck, then departed the scene after glancing at his watch and remarking "Goodbye, I have to get to work." The investigation into

5248-800: The Second World War, Edmonton became a key air hub for the Allied cause. Blatchford Field was chosen by the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan to host an observer school and an elementary flight training school, and Edmonton served as a key stopping point for Lend-Lease aircraft travelling from the United States to the Soviet Union; thousands of Edmontonians became employed in the aircraft repair sector. An influx of Americans called Edmonton home starting in 1942, when Edmonton became

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5376-459: The Social Credit government abandoned its notions about the $ 25 payouts, but its inability to break with UFA policies led to disillusionment and heavy defections from the party. Aberhart's government was re-elected in the 1940 election , carrying 43% of the vote. The prosperity of the Second World War relieved the economic fears and hatreds that had fuelled farmer unrest. Aberhart died in 1943, and

5504-418: The U.S., both of which were badly affected by the worldwide depression. One of the areas not affected was bush flying , which, thanks to a mining and exploration boom, continued to thrive throughout this period. Even so, most bush flying companies lost money, impacted by the government's cancellation of airmail contracts in 1931-2. Urban unemployment nationwide was 19%; Toronto's rate was 17%, according to

5632-473: The United States. In the U.S. productivity recovered quickly while the labour force remained depressed throughout the decade. In Canada employment quickly recovered but productivity remained well below trend. Amaral and MacGee suggest that this decline is due to the sustained reduction in international trade during the 1930s. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Crown-in-Council attempted to uplift

5760-462: The United States. As for the unemployed, he was hostile to federal relief and reluctantly accepted a Keynesian solution that involved federal deficit spending, tax cuts and subsidies to the housing market. Mackenzie King returned as prime minister, serving until his retirement in 1948. During all but the last two years he was also secretary of state for external affairs, taking personal charge of foreign policy. Social Credit (often called SoCred )

5888-402: The abandonment of streetcars argued that the trolley buses were less comfortable for riders, not more comfortable as Council had been told by experts, and that trolley buses only provided faster service than streetcars because the distance between stops was increased. Commissioner Gibbs and ERR Superintendent Thomas Ferrier opted for a gradual shift away from streetcars; both to make sure ridership

6016-479: The air brakes were still applied. Two men attempted to rob a streetcar with a rifle on December 6, 1938. Motorman Peter Packham was reversing his empty streetcar on a wye in order to start a new run on the Red and White route when one of the suspects, estimated to be between 18 and 20 years old, pulled the trolley pole off of the overhead wire. When Packham, who had approximately $ 60 in cash and tickets, disembarked to put

6144-438: The amount of fares that routes could generate. Edmonton could not afford to properly maintain the streetcar system during the Great Depression. Although maintenance crews did their best to keep the streetcars in good condition, old tracks and streetcars could not be replaced, and the system could not be expanded to keep up with Edmonton's growth. City Council received a report from City Commissioner R.J. Gibbs in 1937 that detailed

6272-531: The appropriate restructuring strategies. The large corporations responded by investing in more expensive machinery and automation, hiring less skilled workers to tend the automated equipment, and tweaking their product lines to changing consumer tastes. However the smaller hosiery and knitting firms lacked the capital to invest or the research needed to monitor consumer tastes. They used time-tested "Taylorized" scientific management or made piecemeal changes. Power shifted upward to management, as strikes were too risky in

6400-762: The back to keep the front door clear for those exiting the car, 'V for Victory' placards were placed in the front and rear vestibule windows. Conductorettes became the first women allowed to join ATU Local Division No. 569, which had previously barred women from joining since its founding in 1911. The number of conductorettes rose to fifty-nine by January 1944, as ridership numbers continued to increase sharply. Aside from selling tickets, they also did tasks such as operating track switches at busy termini to speed up service. They were also promised by City Commissioner R.J. Gibb that they would be able to train as streetcar operators as long as they passed operations tests and met

6528-642: The banner of the Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Railway Employees of America (ATU) Local Division No. 569. The ERR served more than 10 million passengers in 1912, and Edmonton purchased 47 new streetcars. The original streetcar barn was replaced with a new barn in 1913, which would be in use until the system ceased operations in 1951. That same year, the High Level Bridge was completed, and provided an additional connection for streetcars between Edmonton and Strathcona; prior to its opening,

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6656-502: The bridge on the left-hand track. Single-ended streetcars only had doors on their right side, and in the event that people had to evacuate a streetcar while it was on the bridge, driving on the left-hand track allowed for the doors to open onto the middle of the bridge deck, instead of its edge. Some streetcars remained double-ended, but were only operated by one person. The radial railway reached its greatest extent in 1920, with six full lines and two stub lines serving almost all sections of

6784-499: The capital costs to increase, and the proposal went back to voters with a larger budget in a 1950 plebiscite. A majority of voters approved it once again, but the approval threshold fell below the two-thirds minimum needed for the plebiscite to pass, and the project was cancelled. The Calder stub line closed permanently in August 1949, and all nine streetcars on this stub line were scrapped. In that same month, streetcar service on Whyte Avenue

6912-414: The capitalist economy was rotten because of its immorality; specifically it produced goods and services but did not provide people with sufficient purchasing power to enjoy them. This could be remedied by the giving out money in the form of "social credit", or $ 25 a month for every man and woman. This pump priming was guaranteed to restore prosperity, he prophesied to the 1600 Social Credit clubs he formed in

7040-404: The census of 1931. Farmers who stayed on their farms were not considered unemployed. By 1933, 30% of the labour force was out of work, and one-fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell as did prices. In some areas, such as mining and lumbering areas, the decline was far worse. The Prairie Provinces and Western Canada were the hardest-hit. In the rural areas of

7168-450: The cheapest cuts of meat—sometimes even horse meat—and recycled the Sunday roast into sandwiches and soups. They sewed and patched clothing, traded with their neighbors for outgrown items, and made do with colder homes. New furniture and appliances were postponed until better days. These strategies show that women's domestic labor—cooking, cleaning, budgeting, shopping, childcare—was essential to

7296-467: The city delayed planned extensions to Elm Park, Calder , and West Edmonton. The ERR began to implement single-ended streetcar operations in that same year, which entailed removing the doors on one side of the streetcars, taking the driving vestibule out of one end, and—in most cases—replacing the conductor with a farebox mounted near the entry door. The ERR believed that single-ended streetcars would be cheaper to purchase and maintain since they only required

7424-444: The city, and totaling 90.4 kilometres (56.2 mi) in length. The railway's busiest confirmed year of service was in 1929, during-which it served approximately 14.1 million passengers; Edmonton had approximately 74,000 residents at the time. In subsequent years, transit officials did not distinguish between streetcar and bus passengers when tallying ridership figures. Three years later, in 1932, trolleybus service replaced streetcars on

7552-575: The city. The ERR's name stemmed from its radial, or "out-and-back", model; all streetcar lines converged at Jasper Avenue and 101 Street, and radiated outward to various areas of the city. Shortly prior to the start of service, Edmonton purchased the Strathcona Radial Tramway Company Ltd. for $ 135,000, thus gaining the ability to provide streetcar service to the City of Strathcona as well. Regular service commenced on November 9, 1908, with

7680-414: The coming year, and by mid-1918 the ERR began to generate a profit. The end of World War I brought another influx of complains about the ERR, as residents criticized overcrowding, dirty streetcars, routes perceived as inefficient, and the prevalence of one-man streetcars. The ERR's Superintendent argued that these issues were caused by a number of factors out of his control; it was hard to obtain parts during

7808-494: The controls when the collision was imminent, applying the air brakes, and attempting an emergency stop by putting the streetcar into reverse with full power applied. Some witnesses reported seeing a blue flame shoot from the rear of streetcar No. 12 just prior to the collision, and a witness observed Ostrander reaching for the motor breaker switch to reset it. Officials speculated that Ostrander could have tripped his streetcar's electric circuit by performing an emergency stop while

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7936-431: The country by triggering the birth of social welfare , a variety of populist political movements, and a more activist role for government in the economy. In 1930-1931 the Canadian government responded to the Great Depression by applying severe restrictions to entry into Canada. New rules limited immigration to British and American subjects or agriculturalists with money, certain classes of workers, and immediate family of

8064-403: The demand for radical action peaked around 1934, after the worst period was over and the economy was recovering. Mortgage debt was significant because farmers could not meet their interest payments. The insecurity of farmers, whose debts were increasing and who had no legal protection against foreclosure, was a potent factor in creating a mood of political desperation. The radical farmers party, UFA

8192-409: The depression created critical balance of payment deficits, and it was largely the extension of imperial protection by Britain that gave Canada the opportunity to increase their exports to the British market. By 1938 Britain was importing more than twice the 1929 volume of products from Australia, while the value of products shipped from Canada more than doubled, despite the dramatic drop in prices. Thus,

8320-524: The depression only getting worse, Bennett attempted to introduce policies based on the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in the United States. Bennett thus called for a minimum wage , unemployment insurance , and other such programs. This effort was largely unsuccessful; the provinces challenged the rights of the federal government to manage these programs. Some of the federal efforts were successful:

8448-458: The deteriorating state of the streetcar system due to neglect during the 1930s, as a result of the city's poor financial state during the Great Depression. According to Gibbs, the city would need to invest a significant amount of money into replacing old streetcars, repairing and replacing streetcar infrastructure across the city, and expanding the service to newer parts of Edmonton. The report recommended that Council instead raise fares by 20%, invest

8576-465: The districts consolidated nearby schools, dropped staff lines, postponed new construction, and increased class size. Middle-class well-educated teachers were squeezed by the financial crisis facing their employers. In Ontario, new teachers were not hired so the average age and experience increased. However, their salaries fell and men who otherwise would have taken higher status business jobs increasingly competed against women. Married women were not hired on

8704-512: The early 1930s and the opportunity to find a better job had drastically narrowed. By 1935, however, the influence of militant American unions spilled over the border and Canadian unions became more forceful and harmonious. The activity was most notable in Ontario's automobile factories, beginning in Windsor in late 1936, where the new Automobile Workers of America (UAW) chartered its first Canadian local at

8832-626: The economic maintenance of the family and offered room for economies. Many women also worked outside the home, or took boarders, did laundry for trade or cash, and did sewing for neighbors in exchange for something they could offer. Extended families used mutual aid—extra food, spare rooms, repair-work, cash loans—to help cousins and in-laws. Women held 25-30% of the jobs in the cities. Few women were employed in heavy industry, railways or construction. Many were household workers or were employed in restaurants and family-owned shops. Women factory workers typically handled clothing and food. Educated women had

8960-695: The economy led to the federal Conservatives' defeat in the 1935 election when the Liberals, still led by Mackenzie King, returned to power. The public at large lost faith in both the Liberal Party of Canada and the Conservative Party of Canada . This caused the rise of a third party : the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (a socialist party that achieved some success before joining the Canadian Labour Congress in 1961, becoming

9088-470: The fare from five rides for 25 cents down to four rides for 25 cents could not only cover the ERR's operational costs, but also provide a surplus to fund future service expansions. However, Wilson warned that "streetcars everywhere are a declining industry," predicting that the rising number of privately owned automobiles would slow the growth of transit usage. The report recommended that Edmonton begin its switch to trolleybuses by purchasing six of them to serve

9216-453: The few women in the labor force, layoffs were less common in the white-collar jobs and they were typically found in light manufacturing work. However, there was a widespread demand to limit families to one paid job, so that wives might lose employment if their husband was employed. Housewives updated strategies their mothers used when they were growing up in poor families. Cheap foods were used, such as soups, beans and noodles. They purchased

9344-516: The final batch arriving in 1930. The ERR also owned a number of specialty cars, such as line maintenance cars, sweeper cars, a track grinding car, and a library car which served residents in remote neighbourhoods. Some of these cars were manufactured in the Cromdale car barn by the ERR's own staff. Although Edmonton does not operate streetcars as part of its public transit network, eight historic streetcars have been restored and put back into operation by

9472-430: The final trip across the High Level Bridge at approximately 1 am. Transit Superintendent Thomas Ferrier and his wife, who kept themselves awake after the official ceremony ended, were among the five passengers on board – marking the final revenue streetcar trip operated by Edmonton Transit. The agency continues to operate bus and light rail lines as Edmonton Transit Service . A baby named Peter Budnyk,

9600-414: The first two streetcars ordered by Edmonton – performed a ceremonial 'last run' across the High Level Bridge at around 8 pm. It carried Mayor Sidney Parsons and other invited guests from Jasper Avenue and 97 Street, to the loop at 84 Avenue and 109 Street. A number of the dignitaries on board took turns driving No. 1, including Lieutenant Governor John J. Bowlen , who had once been

9728-410: The grounds it was unfair for one family to have two scarce jobs that breadwinners needed. Women teachers, who had made major gains in the 1910-20 era, saw themselves discriminated against. The teacher's unions were practically helpless in the crisis, even in Ontario where they were strongest. After prosperity returned in the 1940s, however, money was available again, there was a shortage of teachers, and

9856-583: The implementation of an institutional framework for industrial relations. Women's primary role were as housewives; without a steady flow of family income, their work became much harder in dealing with food and clothing and medical care. The birthrates fell everywhere, as children were postponed until families could financially support them. The average birthrate for 14 major countries fell 12% from 19.3 births per thousand population in 1930, to 17.0 in 1935. In Canada, half of Roman Catholic women defied Church teachings and used contraception to postpone births. Among

9984-557: The importance of international trade. In the 1920s about 25% of the Canadian Gross National Product was derived from exports. The first reaction of the U.S. was to raise tariffs via the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act , passed into law June 17, 1930. This hurt the Canadian economy more than most other countries in the world, and Canada retaliated by raising its own rates on American exports and by switching business to

10112-478: The incident was marred by controversy, after the Mayor barred city-employed witnesses from testifying at an inquiry; he claimed that this was to protect the city in case it was sued by the injured victims. The 142nd Street Community League passed a motion praising Motorman McLennan, but the league also criticized the city for failing to respond to earlier complaints about the track's conditions. City staff countered that this

10240-438: The incident. When Pakham, a veteran of the First World War, was later asked by a reporter what we would have done if he successfully shot one of the men, he responded: "Gee! I don't know. Never thought of it. But if I had, I guess I'd be worried a lot more about the whole thing than I am right now." This was the fourth recorded violent incident in the ERR's history. At the same location on April 7, 1934, Motorman George Ferguson

10368-479: The increased transit revenue to transition from streetcars to trolleybuses , and all future investments into the streetcar network. Gibbs also recommended that Council hire transportation exports to review his report before making a final decision. Engineering consultant Norman F. Wilson was hired later in 1937, and he confirmed Gibb's findings in a 1938 report to Council. The ERR had failed to break even during most of its existence, and Wilson found that an increase in

10496-408: The mother and her baby into the nearby ERR waiting room, and an ambulance later took them to a hospital. Peter was healthy, and remained in the Edmonton area; he later rode Streetcar No. 1 during its ceremonial last run on September 1, 1951. The morning of October 22, 1919, saw residents unexpectedly contending with snow and freezing temperatures. As streetcar No. 21 approached the bridge spanning

10624-407: The other streetcar, escaped without injuries. Streetcar No. 12's front end was completely missing after the crash, with wood and electrical equipment scattered on the road around the site. An investigation concluded that Ostrander most likely misjudged his speed, and the distance between the two streetcars, on account of the morning darkness. He was also recognized for his bravery by remaining at

10752-671: The people, and created two national corporations: the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission (CRBC), and the Bank of Canada . The former, established in 1932, was seen as a means to keep the country unified and uplifted in these harsh economic times. Many poor citizens found radio as an escape and used it to restore their own faiths in a brighter future. Broadcasting coast to coast mainly in English, with some French, primarily in Quebec,

10880-573: The physical requirements. Despite the difficulties encountered by Edmonton during the war, it still managed to replace some streetcar lines with bus service. Streetcar operations along 95 Street, Scona Hill, and the Low Level Bridge were replaced by buses in 1939; this was followed by Bonnie Doon in 1940, Whyte Avenue (between 104 and 94 Street) in 1944, and Highlands, along with the Rossdale stub line, in 1945. The ERR tried to find ways to help improve

11008-481: The plan was incorporated into expansion work that the ERR undertook. The plan never came fully to fruition; the ERR later reverted to a radial network model, and it never reached 15 routes. The ERR was hard-pressed for employees during the First World War , because a number of its staff joined the military after war broke out; at least four of-whom died while overseas. Service was further hampered during this time by

11136-404: The pole back, he saw a man standing on the track; the suspect pointed a sawed-off .22 caliber rifle at him and told him to "stick them up." Instead of raising his hands, Packham swore and knocked the rifle out of the man's hand, kicked the gunman in his abdomen, then slipped while trying to grab the gunman. It was only then when he noticed a second man standing just out of sight around the side of

11264-427: The population were on relief. Further damage was the reduction of investment: both large companies and individuals were unwilling and unable to invest in new ventures. In 1932, industrial production was only at 58% of the 1929 level, the second lowest level in the world after the United States, and well behind nations such as Britain, which only saw it fall to 83% of the 1929 level. Total national income fell to 55% of

11392-683: The possibility of the ISA. The importance of the ISA lies in what it reveals about the nature of welfare, wage labour, the union movement, competitive capitalism, business attitudes toward industrial regulation, and the role of the state in managing the collective affairs of capitalism. The history of the ISA also suggests that "regulatory unionism", as described by Colin Gordon in his work on the American New Deal, may have animated key developments in Canadian social, economic, and labour history. The failure to help

11520-412: The prairies, two thirds of the population were on relief. The region fully recovered after 1939. The fall of wheat prices drove many farmers to the towns and cities, such as Calgary, Alberta ; Regina, Saskatchewan ; and Brandon, Manitoba . Population in the prairie provinces fell below natural replacement level. There was also migration from the southern prairies affected by Dust Bowl conditions such as

11648-487: The press were also disallowed. The party was authoritarian and tried to exert detailed control over its officeholders; those who rebelled were purged or removed from office by the new device of recall elections. Although Aberhart was hostile to banks and newspapers, he was basically in favour of capitalism and did not support socialist policies as did the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan. By 1938

11776-438: The province's financial system was changed, and 1936 Alberta defaulted on its bonds. He did pass a Debt Adjustment Act that cancelled all the interest on mortgages since 1932 and limited all interest rates on mortgages to 5%, in line with similar laws passed by other provinces. In 1937 backbenchers passed a radical banking law that was disallowed by the national government (banking was a federal responsibility). Efforts to control

11904-493: The province. Alberta's businessmen, professionals, newspaper editors and the traditional middle-class leaders vehemently protested Aberhart's crack-pot ideas, but they had not solved any problems and spoke not of the promised land ahead. Aberhart's new party in 1935 elected 56 members to the Alberta Assembly, compared to 7 for all the other parties. Alberta's Social Credit Party remained in power for 36 years until 1971. It

12032-496: The provinces, much to the anger of provincial premiers, but it eventually gave in and started a Canadian "New Deal" type of relief by 1935. By 1937, the worst of the Depression had passed, but it left its mark on the country's economic landscape. Atlantic Canada was especially hard hit. Newfoundland (an independent dominion at the time) was bankrupt economically and politically and gave up responsible government by reverting to direct British control. First World War veterans built on

12160-473: The rear of these cars to keep the front door clear for disembarking passengers. The first day of the program was declared an "unqualified success" by transit Superintendent Thomas Ferrier, and the Edmonton Journal noted that "observers were impressed by the alertness with which the women operated the rear doors and sold tickets." To indicate that a conductorette was on a streetcar, and riders could board at

12288-403: The remaining four were let go in August. Despite being let go, the conductorettes were recognized by riders and transit staff for playing an important role in keeping the ERR functioning during the war. Transit union members unanimously passed a formal motion of thanks on May 28, in-part stating that the conductorettes were: "soldiers of real merit on the home front by helping to master successfully

12416-414: The right direction. The bank's effort took place through the tough years of the depression and on to the prosperity that followed into and after the Second World War. Both of these corporations were seen as positive moves by the Canadian government to help get the economy back on track. 1937 was an important year in the recovery from the Great Depression. The Bank of Canada was nationalized in that year, and

12544-756: The southern hub of the Alaska Highway and the Canol pipeline . Local workers and American soldiers alike primarily relied on the Edmonton Radial Railway to get around the city, and the ERR's ridership spiked by 40% between 1940 and 1942. The transition away from streetcars was slowed by the war, as Edmonton struggled to procure buses in the face of wartime supply restrictions. Edmonton was forced to build new tracks to provide high-in-demand streetcar service to Aircraft Repair Ltd, which employed approximately 3,000 residents. When streetcar No. 28 caught fire in 1943,

12672-505: The spirits of local residents during the war. Librarian H.C. Gourlay proposed the introduction of a library car, and streetcar No. 14 was converted into a mobile library to serve residents in outlying neighbourhoods. The royal blue streetcar, which had a capacity for 2,000 books and was fitted with wooden bookcases that were secured to its walls, entered service in October 1941. The ERR constructed short sidings in certain neighbourhoods so that

12800-404: The start of the route, Ostrander hit the rear of streetcar No. 8, which was parked at the north-east corner of Jasper Ave and 109 Street, facing west, while servicing the red (3A) route. A witness said that the streetcar, which was traveling at between 32 and 40 km/h (20–25 mph), did not slow down before the crash – the ERR's third serious collision in 1930. Ostrander

12928-418: The state. Attempts to deal with the dislocations of the Great Depression in Ontario focused on the "sweatshop crisis" that came to dominate political and social discourse after 1934. Ontario's 1935 Industrial Standards Act (ISA) was designed to bring workers and employers together under the auspices of the state to establish minimum wages and work standards. The establishment of New Deal style industrial codes

13056-653: The streetcar could park without blocking transit services. On its first day of service, 700 residents visited it in Calder; more than half of them were first-time borrowers, and three quarters were children. By early December, 1941, the streetcar library lent more than 9,500 books, and signed up over 4,000 adults and 1,000 children with new library memberships. After the war ended, Edmonton's transition from streetcars to buses continued to be hampered by further increases in ridership, and difficulties in procuring buses. The city constructed more streetcar tracks as late as 1946, as streetcars continued to serve as an important backbone for

13184-522: The streetcar. Both suspects began to flee, and Packham grabbed the rifle and shot at the first suspect, but missed. One man ran east on 114 Ave, and the other went south on 82 St. Packham drove his streetcar for around five more minutes before phoning police about the incident at the first open store he encountered, which was located at 92 St. and 114 Ave. He continued to pick up passengers while looking for an open store. Transit Superintendent Thomas Ferrier lauded Packham for his "courage and coolness" during

13312-498: The transit service. The Edmonton trolley bus system gradually replaced streetcar service on most Edmonton Radial Railway routes, and gas and diesel buses filled the remaining gaps. The Edmonton Radial Railway 's name was changed to Edmonton Transportation Service in July 1946 to reflect the shift away from streetcars, and just one year later it was renamed to Edmonton Transit System. Despite earlier promises to let them become operators,

13440-484: The transit union, and it ordered all employees to turn in their uniforms, while simultaneously hiring new staff. Streetcar service was gradually re-introduced during the strike, but strikers were reportedly halting operations by grounding wires. The strike ended on September 11, when most employees agreed to the city's terms and returned to work; Edmonton still refused to recognize the union, or to negotiate an agreement with it. The labour disputes were gradually addressed over

13568-406: The two snow sweeper cars working. All streetcar service was cancelled at noon that same day. The next day, a Monday, much of the streetcar system was still out of action, in what was called "the greatest winter crisis of the ERR to that point." Calls to privatize the ERR peaked in late 1916, but Mayor William Henry countered that newer extensions had already recouped their costs. As a concession,

13696-512: The unions proved more effective. For example, in Quebec, the Corporation Général des Instituteurs et des Institutrices Catholics (CIC) was founded in 1946 (it became the Centrale de l'Enseignement du Québec (CEQ) in 1967). It sought higher pensions and salaries and better working conditions, while insisting the teachers were full-fledged professionals. In remote rural areas professionalization

13824-430: The war, service was slowed by the number of railway crossings streetcars had to stop at, and two-man streetcar service was too expensive. This was on top of an increase in the number of passengers, as veterans began returning from the war. Most streetcars were converted to allow for single-man operations by 1920. In 1917 or 1918, crossovers were installed at both ends of the High Level Bridge, so that streetcars could cross

13952-402: The wreckage. However, he died in hospital just over five hours after the collision. ERR lines were numbered, and also colour-coded in order to help passengers navigate a system that was constantly adding and changing lines. The following list shows the routes in service during the ERR's peak in the early 1930s: The ERR purchased passenger streetcars from three manufacturers over the years, with

14080-432: Was Prime Minister . He believed that the crisis would pass, refused to provide federal aid to the provinces, and only introduced moderate relief efforts. The government's reaction to The Great Depression is the focus of the 2013 documentary Catch The Westbound Train from Prairie Coast Films . The Bennett Government, which defeated Mackenzie King in the 1930 election, initially refused to offer large-scale aid or relief to

14208-473: Was a populist political movement strongest in Alberta and neighbouring British Columbia , 1930s-1970s. Social Credit was based on the economic theories of an Englishman, C. H. Douglas . His theories became very popular across the nation in the early 1930s. A central proposal was the free distribution of dividends (or social credit), called "funny money" by the opposition. During the Great Depression in Canada

14336-456: Was a social and economic shock that left millions of Canadians unemployed, hungry and often homeless. Few countries were affected as severely as Canada during what became known as the "Dirty Thirties", due to Canada's heavy dependence on raw material and farm exports, combined with a crippling Prairies drought known as the Dust Bowl . Widespread losses of jobs and savings ultimately transformed

14464-400: Was baffled by the depression and Albertans demanded new leadership. Prairie farmers had always believed that they were being exploited by Toronto and Montreal. What they lacked was a prophet who would lead them to the promised land. The Social Credit movement began in Alberta in 1932; it became a political movement in 1935 and suddenly burned like a prairie fire. The prophet and new premier

14592-474: Was born on Streetcar No. 42 on June 19, 1914. His mother was on her way home from work, and went into labour during the commute. She whispered something into the ear of the Conductor, and, blushing, he promised to try and hurry the streetcar to the doctor as quickly as he could. Despite the crew's best efforts, the woman gave birth while she was still on the streetcar. At Kirkness and Alberta Avenue, two women carried

14720-401: Was held up at 118 Ave. and 124 St. Three youth suspects were later arrested and convicted, having been caught with $ 21 in stolen cash and tickets. Another Motorman was killed on Friday, August 4, 1944, just before 7:00 AM. Motorman William McKinnon was driving Streetcar 34 north on 124 Street, while serving the Calder route, and when his tram was near 114 Avenue it rear-ended Streetcar 17, which

14848-421: Was hit on the head and knocked unconscious while he was raising his trolley pole; the assailant was not found, nor was any money stolen. In 1930, Motorman Davidson, who was elderly, was stopped by a man brandishing a gun at 127 St. in Calder. After the man demanded to be let on board, Davidson opened the door, started to get underway, and shoved the man off the streetcar. On November 5, 1930, Motorman John McAllister

14976-438: Was not as sharp as that in the United States, but was the second sharpest collapse in the world. Canada did have some advantages over other countries, especially its extremely stable banking system that had no failures during the entire depression, compared to over 9,000 small banks that collapsed in the United States. Canada was hurt badly because of its reliance on base commodities, whose prices fell by over 50%, and because of

15104-469: Was on the World War Two-era "Aircraft Loop" that served local aviation facilities. It was speculated by officials that McKinnon, a new Motorman who was involved in another collision earlier that summer, did not notice the streetcar ahead of him. Both streetcars had a large number of passengers, but nobody else was seriously injured. The force of the collision sent a button from one of the streetcars onto

15232-481: Was one of 12 derailments that the ERR suffered on October 22, because of the unseasonably early winter conditions. On December 6, 1930, Motorman Clarence Ostrander, age 43, died after his streetcar collided with a parked streetcar. Ostrander, an 18-year veteran of the ERR, was told that morning to cover for another motorman on the 102 Avenue stub line, which he did not normally operate on. While driving streetcar No. 12 west on Jasper Avenue at around 6:30 AM, to reach

15360-411: Was parked at a small spur on 127 Street, south of 125 Avenue, to serve the neighbourhood of Sherbrooke . Streetcar ridership across the city steadily rose during this time, but noticeably fell after City Council approved a fare increase to address the operating deficit. In 1949, voters approved a plebiscite for the streetcar tracks to be replaced by four lanes of road for vehicles. Project delays caused

15488-431: Was positively impacted by the change, and also to see how riders reacted to the trolley buses. The trolley buses proved highly successful when they began service, with the peak passenger load increasing by 100% instead of 50% as planners had anticipated. This unanticipated demand forced the ERR to order three additional trolley buses, and make the route shorter than planned to reduce the number of people using use it. During

15616-455: Was premised on the mobilization of organized capital and organized labour to combat unfair competition, stop the spread of relief-subsidized labour, and halt the predations of sweatshop capitalism. Although the ISA did not bring about extensive economic regulation, it excited considerable interest in the possibility of government intervention. Workers in a diverse range of occupations, from asbestos workers to waitresses, attempted to organize around

15744-480: Was radio evangelist William Aberhart (1878–1943). The message was biblical prophecy. Aberhart was a fundamentalist, preaching the revealed word of God and quoting the Bible to find a solution for the evils of the modern, materialistic world: the evils of sophisticated academics and their biblical criticism, the cold formality of middle-class congregations, the vices of dancing and movies and drink. "Bible Bill" preached that

15872-406: Was re-elected by popular vote no less than 9 times, achieving success by moving from left to the right. Once in office in Alberta, Aberhart gave a high priority to balancing the provincial budget. He reduced expenditures and increased the sales tax and the income tax. The poor and unemployed got nothing. The $ 25 monthly social dividend never arrived, as Aberhart decided nothing could be done until

16000-579: Was replaced by bus service, and the new south terminus for streetcars was at 84 Avenue and 109 Street. After these closures, only the Blue Route and the Blue and White Route remained in service, totalling 17 miles (27 km) in length. In its final configuration, the service went between a loop at 109 Street and 84 Avenue, and another loop at 66 Street and 124 Avenue, via the High Level Bridge. On September 1, 1951, Edmonton streetcar No. 1 – one of

16128-469: Was succeeded as Premier by his student at the Prophetic Bible Institute and lifelong close disciple, Ernest C. Manning (1908–1996). The Social Credit party, now firmly on the right, governed Alberta until 1968 under Manning. The Canadian recovery from the Great Depression proceeded slowly. Economists Pedro Amaral and James MacGee find that the Canadian recovery has important differences with

16256-462: Was thrown into the passenger area of his streetcar by the force of the impact, and crushed against a wall by debris. He suffered two fractured legs, multiple broken ribs, punctured organs, and lost consciousness. Ostrander never regained consciousness, and died in hospital one hour after the collision, leaving behind a wife and two children The passenger in Ostrander's streetcar, as well as the motorman in

16384-438: Was uncommon; local school boards tightly controlled the one-room schools, typically hiring local women with a high school education or a year at university as teachers, so their meagre salaries would remain in the community. Case studies of four Canadian textile firms—two cotton and two hosiery and knitting—demonstrate the range business response to the economic crisis. Each faced a different array of conditions, and each devised

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