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69-698: The making of the Ebbo Gospels was during the Carolingian Renaissance , when Charlemagne was crowned the Holy Roman emperor by the Pope in the year 800. Charlemagne had the goal of incorporating more Christian and Roman ideology within Europe as he was inspired by Constantine , who ruled c. 306-33, and made it more acceptable to practice Christianity. After the fall of Rome , Charlemagne later became emperor to spread

138-469: A Christian message and usually accompanied by an opportunity to respond with a prayer for salvation . New opportunities for evangelism have been provided in recent decades by increased travel opportunities and by instant communications over the internet. Instant chalk board drawings (while storytelling), using bright poster chalk on large boards, along with ventriloquism and humor, have also been used in schools and churches and at beaches and river banks. In

207-447: A Roman stool, twisting his body to look upwards towards his symbol of a lion that is holding a scroll. His clothing consists of many lines, shadows, and highlights. Mark's facial expression is relaxed as he dips his stylus in ink to prepare for writing, in the inscribed codex rested on his leg. In St. Luke 's illustration he is sitting down looking at his symbol of an ox with his codex, ink horn, and stylus rested in his lap. Another codex

276-454: A few years later, at the Council of Tours , to instruct priests to read sermons aloud in the old way, in rusticam romanam linguam or 'plain roman[ce] speech' (while the liturgy retained the new pronunciation to this day). As there was now no unambiguous way to indicate whether a given text was to be read aloud as Latin or Romance, and native Germanic speakers (such as church singers) numerous in

345-580: A leadership position; they may be found preaching to large meetings or in governance roles. In addition, Christian groups who encourage evangelism are sometimes known as evangelistic or evangelist . The word evangelist comes from the Koine Greek word εὐανγέλιον (transliterated as euangelion ) via Latinised evangelium as used in the canonical titles of the Four Gospels , authored by (or attributed to) Matthew , Mark , Luke , and John (also known as

414-679: A major demand for slaves in the Muslim world , with European slaves particularly prized. As a result of Charlemagne's wars of conquest in Eastern Europe , a steady supply of captured Slavs , Avars , Saxons , and Danes reached merchants in Western Europe, who then exported the slaves via Ampurias , Girona , and the Pyrenees passes to Muslim Spain and other parts of the Arab world. The market for slaves

483-531: A more legible, classicizing script, with clearly distinct capital and minuscule letters. It was the Carolingian minuscule that Renaissance humanists took to be Roman and employed as humanist minuscule , from which has developed early modern Italic script . They also applied rational ideas to social issues for the first time in centuries, providing a common language and writing style that enabled communication throughout most of Europe. As Pierre Riché points out,

552-407: A poem to Ebbo (also spelled Ebo). The Ebbo Gospel focus is the four gospels of the new testament and depicts the four evangelists Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John in illustration. In the foreground of the illustration depicting Matthew in the Ebbo Gospels, Matthew is sitting down wearing Roman clothing with his feet outstretched on his foot stool. His face is very expressive as he leans forward using

621-630: A small group of court literati . According to John Contreni , "it had a spectacular effect on education and culture in Francia , a debatable effect on artistic endeavors, and an unmeasurable effect on what mattered most to the Carolingians, the moral regeneration of society". The secular and ecclesiastical leaders of the Carolingian Renaissance made efforts to write better Latin, to copy and preserve patristic and classical texts, and to develop

690-402: A streaky style with swift brush strokes. In the 1st Century in Europe, the idea of an enthusiastic prophet was prevalent. This energy is reflected with the quick lines and Matthews eager body language to write having for god. The artists make use of perspective by adding a foreground and background. The use of three-dimensional space is demonstrated by the depiction of shadows and highlights,

759-444: A surplus of primarily grain, wine and salt. In turn, inter-regional trade in these commodities facilitated the expansion of towns. Archaeological data shows the continuation of this upward trend in the early eighth century. The zenith of the early Carolingian economy was reached from 775 to 830, coinciding with the largest surpluses of the period, large-scale building of churches as well as overpopulation and three famines that showed

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828-418: A system based on a new .940-fine silver penny ( Latin : denarius ; French : denier ) weighing 1/240 of a pound ( librum , libra , or lira ; livre ). (The Carolingian pound seems to have been about 489.5  grams , making each penny about 2  grams .) As the debased solidus was then roughly equivalent to 11 of these pennies, the shilling ( solidus ; sol )

897-431: Is a lion because of his crying resembling a lions roar. Luke's gospel discusses sacrifice, which correlates to his symbol an ox that connects to Christ's involvement with sacrifices, and John represents an eagle in his gospel, because eagles are able to get close to heaven. St. John also has a halo in his illustration that represents him being very holy. The Ebbo Gospels represent the "Anruftypus" style of iconography, meaning

966-497: Is inscribed on a stand in front of Saint Luke, but his eyes are only directed towards his symbol. St. John is illustrated as an older man with a beard, with his head surrounded by a halo. His body is twisted as he looks at his symbol of an eagle to his left, and holds a long scroll across his body. The Ebbo Gospels style was curated by scholars, artists, and writers in a workshop at Rheims school, who were hired by Charlemagne to study Roman art and replicate it. Greek artists fleeing

1035-461: Is less and less sought after and is now becoming rare again in most men's minds. A lack of Latin literacy in eighth-century western Europe caused problems for the Carolingian rulers by severely limiting the number of people capable of serving as court scribes in societies where Latin was valued. Of even greater concern to some rulers was the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read

1104-476: Is the act of preaching the gospel with the intention of sharing the message and teachings of Jesus Christ . It is sometimes associated with Christian missions . Christians who specialize in evangelism are often known as evangelists , whether they are in their home communities or living as missionaries in the field, although some Christian traditions refer to such people as missionaries in either case. Some Christian traditions consider evangelists to be in

1173-471: Is the most famous example made in the same Reims school. The Utrecht Psalters style possibly influenced Carolingian art with its rapid strokes, was an influence for classical art, and the course of medieval art. Historians have noted the similarity between the Utrecht Psalter and the Ebbo Gospels. The evangelist portrait of Matthew in the Ebbo Gospels is similar to the illustration of the psalmist in

1242-465: The Byzantine iconoclasm of the 8th century brought this style to Aachen and Reims to be able to depict iconography. The illustrations have roots in late classical painting; landscapes are represented in an illusionistic style, as a reflection of Roman culture and the landscapes are represented in an illusionistic style. The Roman influences within the art is shown within the clothing drapery, replicating

1311-588: The Early Middle Ages , thanks to which the disciplines of liberal arts were preserved. The 7th century saw the " Isidorian Renaissance " in the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania in which sciences flourished and the integration of Christian and pre-Christian thought occurred , while the spread of Irish monastic schools ( scriptoria ) over Europe laid the groundwork for the Carolingian Renaissance. There were numerous factors in this cultural expansion,

1380-555: The Four Evangelists ). The Greek word εὐαγγέλιον originally meant a reward given to the messenger for good news ( εὔ = "good", ἀνγέλλω = "I bring a message"; the word " angel " comes from the same root) and later "good news" itself. The verb form of euangelion , (translated as "evangelism"), occurs rarely in older Greek literature outside the New Testament , making its meaning more difficult to ascertain. Parallel texts of

1449-714: The Foursquare Church , was the first woman to use radio to reach a wider audience in the United States. In 1951, producer Dick Ross and Baptist evangelist Billy Graham founded the film production company World Wide Pictures , which would make videos of his preaching and Christian films. In 1960, more than half of the Protestant American missionaries were evangelical. American and European Pentecostal missionaries are also numerous, Pentecostalism can develop independently by non-foreign residents in various regions of

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1518-467: The Vulgate Bible . An additional problem was that the vulgar Latin of the later Western Roman Empire had begun to diverge into the regional dialects, the precursors to today's Romance languages , that were becoming mutually unintelligible and preventing scholars from one part of Europe being able to communicate with persons from another part of Europe. To address these problems, Charlemagne ordered

1587-543: The 8th century and continuing throughout the 9th century, taking inspiration from ancient Roman and Greek culture and the Christian Roman Empire of the fourth century. During this period, there was an increase of literature , writing , visual arts , architecture , music , jurisprudence , liturgical reforms, and scriptural studies. Carolingian schools were effective centers of education, and they served generations of scholars by producing editions and copies of

1656-665: The 90's (and now in the 2000's) Geoffrey Moran of Australia uses these "old school" methods as they are now new again for both children and adults. Ventriloquism is also returning to radio in the Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy style. In 1831, the Presbyterian Mission Agency was founded by the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America . Various evangelical mission organizations have specialized in evangelism throughout history. In 1792, BMS World Mission

1725-562: The Carolingian renaissance was Theodulf of Orléans , a refugee from the Umayyad invasion of Spain who became involved in the cultural circle at the imperial court before Charlemagne appointed him bishop of Orléans. Theodulf’s greatest contribution to learning was his scholarly edition of the Vulgate Bible, drawing on manuscripts from Spain, Italy, and Gaul, and even the original Hebrew. The effects of this cultural revival were mostly limited to

1794-609: The Deacon was brought to court in 782 and remained until 787, when Charles nominated him abbot of Montecassino . Theodulf of Orléans was a Spanish Goth who served at court from 782 to 797 when nominated as bishop of Orléans . Theodulf had been in friendly competition over the standardization of the Vulgate with the chief among the Charlemagne's scholars, Alcuin of York . Alcuin was a Northumbrian monk and deacon who served as head of

1863-514: The Gospels of Luke and Mark reveal a synonymous relationship between the verb euangelizo ( εὑαγγελίζω ) and a Greek verb kerusso ( κηρύσσω ), which means "to proclaim". Evangelism can include preaching or distributing bibles, tracts, newspapers and/or magazines, by the media, street evangelists, etc. The Bible records that Jesus sent out his disciples to evangelize by visiting peoples homes in pairs of two believers (cf. Luke 10:1–12 ). In

1932-494: The Latin West in the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Roger Wright , the Carolingian Renaissance is responsible for the modern-day pronunciation of Ecclesiastical Latin . Up until that point there had been no conceptual distinction between Latin and Romance ; the former was simply regarded as the written form of the latter. For instance in early medieval Spain the word for 'century'—which would have been pronounced */sjeglo/—

2001-637: The Municipal Library in Épernay, France. The Ebbo manuscript is a lavish codex and holds great value, being it was commissioned by the emperor Charlemagne. Each page is 10 in by 8 in, with details of gold ink. The vellum of the codex is dyed purple to correlate with the colors of royalty. For the Ebbo Gospel to be easier to read and more legible than localized script, Charlemagne created a script called Carolingian Miniscule , based on Roman letters that aided in easier education. The Gospel book contains

2070-721: The Palace School from 782 to 796, except for the years 790 to 793 when he returned to England . After 796, he continued his scholarly work as abbot of St. Martin's Monastery in Tours . Among those to follow Alcuin across the Channel to the Frankish court was Joseph Scottus , an Irishman who left some original biblical commentary and acrostic experiments. After this first generation of non-Frankish scholars, their Frankish pupils, such as Angilbert , would make their own mark. The later courts of Louis

2139-510: The Pious and Charles the Bald had similar groups of scholars many of whom were of Irish origin . The Irish monk Dicuil attended the former court, and the more famous Irishman John Scotus Eriugena attended the latter becoming head of the Palace School at Aachen . One of the primary efforts was the creation of a standardized curriculum for use at the recently created schools. Alcuin led this effort and

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2208-424: The United States, then a student at Dallas Theological Seminary. In 2007, there were over 10,000 Baptist missionaries in overseas missions around the world. Some consider evangelism to be proselytising , while others argue it is merely free speech. The fact that evangelicals speak about their faith in public is sometimes criticized by the media and it is often associated with proselytism. According to

2277-482: The classics, both Christian and pagan. The movement occurred mostly during the reigns of Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious . It was supported by the scholars of the Carolingian court , notably Alcuin of York . Charlemagne's Admonitio generalis (789) and Epistola de litteris colendis served as manifestos. Alcuin wrote on subjects ranging from grammar and biblical exegesis to arithmetic and astronomy. He also collected rare books, which formed

2346-581: The clothes of Roman philosophers in the illustration, as well as the Byzantine architecture in the background, heavily representing Rome. The emotionalism, however, was new to Carolingian art and distinguishes the Ebbo Gospels from classical art. Classical art was more naturalistic in replicating the human figure, while the art present in the Ebbo Gospels focused more on art style. Figures such as evangelists are made with swift brush strokes that demonstrate energy, represented in nervous, agitated poses using

2415-427: The coining of new words while retaining the grammatical rules of Classical Latin . This Medieval Latin became a common language of scholarship and allowed administrators and travellers to make themselves understood in various regions of Europe. The earliest concept of Europe as a distinct cultural region (instead of simply a geographic area) appeared during the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century, and included

2484-442: The coloring of the sky, furniture, and the architecture in the back. The skewed proportions such as St. Matthews unbalanced look represent the evangelists are from another world and hold great power.   Each of the evangelist created one gospel, and their symbols correlate to the gospel contents. Matthew is a winged-man, which connects to his gospel containing information about Gods possible relation to king David. Mark's symbol

2553-544: The construction of 27 new cathedrals, 417 monasteries, and 100 royal residences". Around AD 755, Charlemagne's father Pepin the Short reformed the currency of the Frankish Kingdom . A variety of local systems was standardized. Minor mints were closed and royal control over the remaining bigger mints strengthened, increasing purity. In place of the gold Roman and Byzantine solidus then common, he established

2622-630: The creation of schools in a capitulary known as the Charter of Modern Thought , issued in 787. A major part of his program of reform was to attract many of the leading scholars of the Christendom of his day to his court. Among the first called to court were Italians : Peter of Pisa , who from 776 to about 790 instructed Charlemagne in Latin, and from 776 to 787 Paulinus of Aquileia , whom Charlemagne nominated as patriarch of Aquileia in 787. The Lombard Paul

2691-408: The earliest manuscripts from Hautillers to not be destroyed or lost. The Ebbo Gospels was produced by the school of Rheims and given to Ebbo, an archbishop of Rheims from c. 816–835 to 840-841, by Abbot Peter of Hautvillers before Ebbo was deposed. The Gospel book may have been made for his return as archbishop in 840-841 during Charlemagne's son Louis I, reign as emperor. The book is now currently in

2760-422: The elite. By the late 7th century, developed urban settlements had emerged, populated mostly by craftsmen, merchants and boaters and boasting street grids, artisanal production as well as regional and long-distance trade. A prime example of this type of emporium was Dorestad . The development of the Carolingian economy was fueled by the efficient organization and exploitation of labor on large estates, producing

2829-633: The empire might have struggled to read words in Latin orthography according to Romance orthoepy, various attempts were made in France to devise a new orthography for the latter; among the earliest examples are parts of the Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia . As the Carolingian Reforms spread the 'proper' Latin pronunciation from France to other Romance-speaking areas, local scholars eventually felt

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2898-542: The evangelicals, freedom of religion and freedom of expression allow them to discuss their faith like they would discuss other topics. Christian films made by American evangelical production companies are also regularly associated with proselytism. According to Sarah-Jane Murray, screenwriting teacher at the US Film and Christian Television Commission United, Christian films are works of art, not proselytism. For Hubert de Kerangat, communications manager at SAJE Distribution,

2967-413: The evangelists are able to look up at their symbols. The eye contact of the saints towards the symbols allude to a connection. In the illustrations of all evangelists their symbols are holding handscrolls which creates more of a connection between the evangelists and their symbol. The Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram is a manuscript made in 870 following the Ebbo Gospels style. Although, the Utrecht Psalter

3036-549: The expression "Carolingian Renaissance" does not imply that Western Europe was barbaric or obscurantist before the Carolingian era. The centuries following the dissolution of the Roman Empire in the West did not see an abrupt disappearance of the ancient schools. Indeed, from them emerged Martianus Capella , Cassiodorus , and Boethius , essential icons of the Roman cultural heritage in

3105-450: The features of the Ebbo Gospels. Items such the ink, the way animals are depicted, architecture is illustrates, body language and gestures that people in these books are given, has some connection between both the Ebbo Gospels and the Psalter. "In short, we find not one thing, whether it is a stool with a lion's head and claws, or an inkwell, whether it is the lance or the arrow of the warrior,

3174-535: The first psalm of the Utrecht Psalter. The Carolingian art could be the interpretation of the Utrecht Psalter Classical style that has quick and rapid brush-strokes. Other images in the Ebbo Gospels appear to be based on distortions of drawings which may have been from the Utrecht Psalter. Goldschmidt, a medieval historian, claims that many of the small details of the Utrecht Psalter can be compared to

3243-416: The first time to native speakers as well. No longer would, for instance, the word ⟨viridiarium⟩ 'orchard' be read aloud as the equivalent Old French word */verdʒjǽr/. It now had to be pronounced precisely as spelled, with all six syllables: /viridiarium/. Such a radical change had the effect of rendering Latin sermons completely unintelligible to the general Romance-speaking public, which prompted officials

3312-427: The first time, setting the stage for the rise of Romanesque art and eventually Gothic art in the West. Illuminated manuscripts , metalwork , small-scale sculpture , mosaics , and frescos survive from the period. Carolingian architecture is the style of North European architecture promoted by Charlemagne. The period of architecture spans the late eighth and ninth centuries until the reign of Otto I in 936, and

3381-509: The limits of the system. After a period of disruption from 830 to 850, caused by civil wars and Viking raids, economic development resumed in the 850s, with the emporiums disappearing completely and being replaced by fortified commercial towns. One of the major causes of the sudden economic growth was the Arab slave trade . Following the rise of the Arab Muslim caliphates , the Arab elites created

3450-475: The lions, the birds, the buildings, the figures, and the gestures that cannot be paralleled to the smallest detail in style as well as in content, in the Utrecht Psalter." Carolingian Renaissance The Carolingian Renaissance was the first of three medieval renaissances , a period of cultural activity in the Carolingian Empire . Charlemagne 's reign led to an intellectual revival beginning in

3519-513: The most obvious of which was that Charlemagne's uniting of most of Western Europe brought about peace and stability, which set the stage for prosperity. This period marked an economic revival in Western Europe, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Local economies in the West had degenerated into largely subsistence agriculture by the early 7th century, with towns functioning merely as places of gift-exchange for

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3588-610: The need to create distinct spelling systems for their own vernaculars as well, thereby initiating the literary phase of Medieval Romance. Writing in Romance does not appear to have become widespread until the Renaissance of the Twelfth Century , however. Carolingian art spans the roughly hundred-year period from about 800–900. Although brief, it was an influential period. Northern Europe embraced classical Mediterranean Roman art forms for

3657-479: The new pennies, however, they were repeatedly rejected by traders throughout the Carolingian period in favor of the gold coins used elsewhere, a situation that led to repeated legislation against such refusal to accept the king's currency. The Carolingian system was imported to England by Offa of Mercia and other kings, where it formed the basis of English currency until the late 20th century. Evangelism In Christianity, evangelism or witnessing

3726-502: The nucleus of the library at York Cathedral. His enthusiasm for learning made him an effective teacher. Alcuin writes: In the morning, at the height of my powers, I sowed the seed in Britain, now in the evening when my blood is growing cold I am still sowing in France, hoping both will grow, by the grace of God, giving some the honey of the holy scriptures, making others drunk on the old wine of ancient learning Another prominent figure in

3795-542: The same text, Jesus mentioned that few people were willing to evangelize, despite there being many people who would be receptive to his Gospel message . The child evangelism movement is a Christian evangelism movement that originated in the 20th century. It focuses on the 4/14 Window which centers on evangelizing children between the ages of 4 and 14 years old. Beginning in the 1970s, a group of Christian athletes known as The Power Team spawned an entire genre of Christian entertainment based on strong-man exploits mixed with

3864-497: The second-largest source of missionaries in the world, after the United States and ahead of England. In July 1999, TopChrétien, an evangelical Christian web portal and social network , was launched by Éric Célérier, pastor of the Assemblies of God of France and Estelle Martin. In January 2007, GodTube , a site for sharing videos related to Christianity, especially evangelical, was founded by Christopher Wyatt of Plano, Texas in

3933-408: The skin of its teeth. However, the use of the term renaissance to describe this period is contested, notably by Lynn Thorndike , due to the majority of changes brought about by this period being confined almost entirely to the clergy , and due to the period lacking the wide-ranging social movements of the later Italian Renaissance . Instead of being a rebirth of new cultural movements, the period

4002-428: The territories which practiced Western Christianity at the time. Carolingian workshops produced over 100,000 manuscripts in the 9th century, of which some 6000 to 7000 survive. The Carolingians produced the earliest surviving copies of the works of Cicero , Horace , Martial , Statius , Lucretius , Terence , Julius Caesar , Boethius and Martianus Capella . No copies of the texts of these authors were made in

4071-400: The tools such as an ink horn (left hand), which contained ink, and a stylus (right hand) to create his gospel book with his blank codex. In the background, in the upper right corner, Matthew's symbol, an angel or a man with wings, is holding a scroll. The Roman architecture of classic Byzantine and nature landscape is present in the background. St. Mark 's illustration represents him seated in

4140-480: The word of Christianity and revive ancient Roman arts. He commissioned many Gospels and manuscripts including the Ebbo Gospels to help educate people and preserve ancient Roman art. These Christian manuscripts aided the way Charlemagne believed Christianity should be practiced. The Ebbo Gospels was produced in the ninth century at the Benedictine Abbaye Saint-Pierre d’Hautvillers , which was one of

4209-771: The world, notably in Africa, South America, and Asia. Youth with a Mission was founded in 1960 in United States by Loren Cunningham and his wife Darlene. The Christian Broadcasting Network was founded in 1961 in Virginia Beach , United States, by Baptist minister Pat Robertson . In 1974, Billy Graham and the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization organized the First International Congress on World Evangelization in Lausanne . In 2004, South Korea became

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4278-578: Was a conscious attempt to create a Roman Renaissance, emulating Roman , Early Christian and Byzantine architecture , with its own innovation, resulting in having a unique character. This syncretic architectural style can be exemplified by the first church of St Mark's in Venice, fusing proto-Romanesque and Byzantine influences. There was a profusion of new clerical and secular buildings constructed during this period, John Contreni calculated that "The little more than eight decades between 768 to 855 alone saw

4347-414: Was able to offer the cultureless and, I might say, almost completely unenlightened territory of the realm which God had entrusted to him, a new enthusiasm for all human knowledge. In its earlier state of barbarousness, his kingdom had been hardly touched at all by any such zeal, but now it opened its eyes to God's illumination. In our own time the thirst for knowledge is disappearing again: the light of wisdom

4416-422: Was established at that value, making it 1/22 of the silver pound. This was later adjusted to 12 and 1/20, respectively. During the Carolingian period, however, neither shillings or pounds were minted, being instead used as notional units of account . (For instance, a "shilling" or "solidus" of grain was a measure equivalent to the amount of grain that 12 pennies could purchase.) Despite the purity and quality of

4485-1176: Was founded in Kettering , England by William Carey . In 1814, the American Baptist International Ministries was founded by the American Baptist Churches USA in United States. In 1865, OMF International was founded by Hudson Taylor in England. In 1893, in Lagos in Nigeria, SIM was founded by Walter Gowans , Rowland Bingham , and Thomas Kent . Samuel E. Hill, John H. Nicholson, and William J. Knights founded Gideons International , an organization which distributes free Bibles to hotels, motels, hospitals, military bases, prisons, schools, and universities, in Janesville in Wisconsin, United States, in 1899. In 1922, Canadian evangelical evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson , founder of

4554-468: Was more an attempt to recreate the previous culture of the Roman Empire . The Carolingian Renaissance in retrospect also has some of the character of a false dawn, in that its cultural gains were largely dissipated within a couple of generations, a perception voiced by Walahfrid Strabo (died 849), in his introduction to Einhard 's Life of Charlemagne , summing up the generation of renewal: Charlemagne

4623-539: Was properly spelled ⟨saeculum⟩, as it had been for the better part of a millennium. The scribe would not have read aloud ⟨saeculum⟩ as /sɛkulum/ any more than an English speaker today would pronounce ⟨knight⟩ as */knɪxt/ rather than /naɪt/. Non-native speakers of Latin, however—such as clergy of Anglo-Saxon or Irish origin—appear to have used a rather different pronunciation, presumably attempting to sound out each word according to its spelling. The Carolingian Renaissance in France introduced this artificial pronunciation for

4692-415: Was responsible for the writing of textbooks, creation of word lists, and establishing the trivium and quadrivium as the basis for education. Another contribution from this period was the development of Carolingian minuscule , a "book-hand" first used at the monasteries of Corbie and Tours that introduced the use of lower-case letters. A standardized version of Latin was also developed that allowed for

4761-580: Was so lucrative that it almost immediately transformed the long-distance trade of the European economies. The slave trade enabled the West to re-engage with the Arab Muslim caliphates and the Eastern Roman Empire , so that other industries, such as textiles, were able to grow in Europe as well. Kenneth Clark was of the view that by means of the Carolingian Renaissance, Western civilization survived by

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