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63-732: Meadow Mari or Meadow-Eastern Mari or Eastern Mari is a standardised dialect of the Mari language used by about half a million people mostly in the European part of the Russian Federation . Meadow Mari, Hill Mari , and Russian are official languages in the Mari El Republic of the Russian Federation. This article about a Uralic language or related topic is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mari language Mari

126-450: A 'negative verb', much like Finnish does. The negative verb is more versatile than the negative verb in Finnish (see Finnish grammar ), existing in more grammatical tenses and moods. It has its own form in the present indicative, imperative and desiderative, and in the first preterite indicative. Other negations are periphrastic. The negation verb in its corresponding form is put in front of

189-446: A lasting impression on Krupskaya; it was said that she had "a special contempt for stylish clothes and comfort." She was always modest in dress, as were her furnishings in her home and office. As a devoted, lifelong student, Krupskaya began to participate in several discussion circles. These groups were formed to study and discuss particular topics for the benefit of everyone involved. It was later, in one of these circles, that Krupskaya

252-486: A library is." She also sought better professional schools for librarians. Formal training was scarce in pre-revolutionary Russia for librarians and it only truly began in the 20th century. Krupskaya, therefore, advocated creation of library "seminaries" where practicing librarians would instruct aspiring librarians in the skills of their profession, similar to those in the West. The pedagogical characteristics were however those of

315-503: A member of its control commission in 1927, a member of the Supreme Soviet in 1931 and an honorary citizen in 1931. Hilda Ageloff reportedly traveled to interview Krupskaya in 1931 for the newspaper Brooklyn Daily Eagle . Before the revolution , Krupskaya worked for five years as an instructor for a factory owner who offered evening classes for his employees. Legally, reading, writing and arithmetic were taught. Illegally, classes with

378-444: A polemic reply to Trotsky's tract Lessons of October . In it, she stated that "Marxist analysis was never Comrade Trotsky's strong point." In relation to the debate around socialism in one country versus permanent revolution , she asserted that Trotsky "under-estimates the role played by the peasantry." Furthermore, she held that Trotsky had misinterpreted the revolutionary situation in post-World War I Germany. In late 1925, when

441-441: A revolutionary influence were taught for those students who might be ready for them. Krupskaya and other instructors were relieved of duty when nearly 30,000 factory workers in the area went on strike for better wages. Even after the revolution her emphasis was on "the problems of youth organization and education." In order to become educated, they needed better access to books and materials. Pre-revolutionary Russian libraries had

504-532: A separate morpheme to signify plurality . There are three particles, which are attached to the end of words with a hyphen, used to signify plural. Every grammatical person in Mari has its own possessive suffix . Additional particles, falling into none of the categories above, can be added to the very end of a word, giving it some additional meaning. For example, the suffix -ат (-at ), means 'also' or 'too'. The arrangement of suffixes varies from case to case. Although

567-418: A tendency to exclude particular members. Some were exclusively for higher classes and some were only for employees of a particular company's "Trade Unions". In addition they also had narrow, orthodox literature. It was hard to find any books with new ideas, which is exactly why the underground libraries began. Another problem was the low level of literacy of the masses. Vyborg Library , designed by Alvar Aalto ,

630-463: Is divided into their own smaller local subdialects. Only Hill and Meadow Mari have their own literary written standard varieties, based on the dialects of Kozmodemyansk and Yoshkar-Ola respectively. Eastern and Meadow Mari are often united as a Meadow-Eastern supra-dialect . Northwestern Mari is transitional between the Hill and Meadow dialects, and its phonology and morphology are closer to Hill Mari. Mari

693-459: Is formed with the suffix -рак (-rak). The superlative is formed by adding the word эн (en) in front. Morphologically, conjugation follows three tenses and three moods in Meadow Mari. In Meadow Mari, verbs can conjugate according to two conjugation types. These differ from each other in all forms but the infinitive and the third-person plural of the imperative. Unfortunately, the infinitive

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756-570: Is mostly written with the Cyrillic script . The schwa /ə/ and its fronted counterpart are usually transcribed in Finno-Ugric transcription as ə̑ (reduced mid unrounded vowel) and ə (reduced front unrounded vowel) respectively. The former has sometimes been transcribed in IPA as / ɤ / , but phonetically the vowel is most strongly distinguished by its short duration and reduced quality. Descriptions vary on

819-493: Is the form denoted in dictionaries and word lists. It is, thus, necessary to either mark verb infinitives by their conjugation type in word lists, or to include a form in which the conjugation class is visible—usually, the first-person singular present, which ends in -ам (or -ям) for verbs in the first category, and in -ем (or -эм) for second-type verbs. The three tenses of Mari verbs are: Additional tenses can be formed through periphrasis . The moods are: Negation in Mari uses

882-519: Is the titular and official language of its republic, alongside Russian . The Mari language today has three standard forms: Hill Mari , Northwestern Mari , and Meadow Mari . The latter is predominant and spans the continuum Meadow Mari to Eastern Mari from the Republic into the Ural dialects of Bashkortostan , Sverdlovsk Oblast and Udmurtia ), whereas the former, Hill Mari, shares a stronger affiliation with

945-584: The Krupskaya Teachers' Training Institute (Yoshkar-Ola), more than half of the subjects are taught in Mari. However, by 2024, only 9% of ethnic Mari children where being taught Mari in just 81 schools. The principal division between Mari varieties is the West and the East. According to the Soviet linguist Kovedyaeva (1976:9-15, 1993:163-164) the Mari macrolanguage is divided into four main dialects: Each main dialect

1008-528: The Minusinsk region of Siberia if she told people she was his fiancée. Krupskaya was permitted to accompany Lenin but only if they were married as soon as she arrived. Her mother travelled with her to Siberia, where she joined Lenin in May 1898. In her memoirs, Krupskaya notes "with him even such a job as translation was a labour of love". It is believed Krupskaya suffered from Graves' disease , an illness affecting

1071-539: The Russian Revolution . The term Mari comes from the Maris' autonym марий ( mari ). Most Maris live in rural areas with slightly more than a quarter living in cities. In the republic's capital, Yoshkar-Ola , the percentage of Maris is just over 23 percent. At the end of the 1980s (per the 1989 census) Maris numbered 670,868, of whom 80% (542,160) claimed Mari as their first language and 18.8% did not speak Mari. In

1134-539: The 'triumvirate' split into two factions, she openly supported Zinoviev and Kamenev against Stalin, and went into an alliance with Trotsky's Left Opposition in early 1926, to form the United Opposition . Krupskaya was quoted by Trotsky's son Leon Sedov in his book The Red Book: On the Moscow Trial as saying "Lenin was only saved from prison by his death". But in a major boost for the leadership, Stalin announced at

1197-532: The 1990s opened opportunities for a revival of efforts expand the use of Mari in education and the public sphere. In the 1990s, the Mari language, alongside Russian, was proclaimed in the republican constitution to be an official language of Mari El. By the beginning of the 21st century, Mari language and literature was taught in 226 schools. At the History and Philology Department of the Mari State University and

1260-712: The Adult Education Division. She became chair of the education committee in 1920 and was the deputy education commissar (government minister) from 1929 to 1939. Krupskaya was instrumental in foundation of the Soviet educational system itself. She was also fundamental in the development of Soviet librarianship. Krupskaya became a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1924,

1323-577: The Communist period: the 1926 census indicated more than 99% of Maris considered Mari their first language, declining to less than 81% in 1989. Some qualitative evidence of a reversal in recent years has been noted. There was no state support for Mari language in Imperial Russia , and with the exception of some enthusiasts and numerous ecclesiastical texts by the Russian Orthodox Church , there

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1386-604: The Mari Republic, 11.6% claimed Mari was not their first language. In a survey by the Mari Research Institute more than three quarters of Maris surveyed considered Mari language to be the most crucial marker of ethnic identity, followed by traditional culture (61%) and common historical past (22%), religion (16%), character and mentality (15%) and appearance (11%) (see Glukhov and Glukhov for details). A gradual downward trend towards assimilation to Russian has been noted for

1449-648: The Northwestern dialect (spoken in the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast and parts of the Kirov Oblast ). Both language forms use modified versions of Cyrillic script . For the non-native, Hill Mari, or Western Mari, can be recognized by its use of the special letters "ӓ" and "ӹ" in addition to the shared letters "ӱ" and "ӧ", while Eastern and Meadow Mari utilize a special letter "ҥ". The use of two "variants", as opposed to two "languages", has been debated: Maris recognize

1512-582: The Soviet educational system, including development of Soviet librarianship. Krupskaya died in Moscow in 1939, a day after her seventieth birthday. The circumstances of her death and personal tensions with Joseph Stalin have prompted several claims, some of which derived from Stalin's inner circle , that she was poisoned. Nadezhda Krupskaya was born to an upper class but impoverished family. Her father, Konstantin Ignatyevich Krupski (1838–1883),

1575-448: The Soviet revolutionary period. Librarians were trained to determine what materials were suitable to patrons and whether or not they had the ability to appreciate what the resource had to offer. Krupskaya also desired that librarians possess greater verbal and writing skills so that they could more clearly explain why certain reading materials were better than others to their patrons. She believed that explaining resource choices to patrons

1638-553: The Stalin-led "Centre", and the Bukharin -led Right Opposition . From 1922 to 1925, Zinoviev and Kamenev were in a triumvirate alliance with Stalin's Centre, against Trotsky's Left Opposition. Krupskaya supported them against Trotsky, though in more conciliatory language than they used, declaring in 1924 that "I don't know whether Trotsky is guilty of all the deadly sins of which he is accused." In 1925, Krupskaya attacked Leon Trotsky in

1701-406: The case suffixes are after the possessive suffixes in the genitive and the accusative, the opposite is the case for the locative cases. In the dative, both arrangements are possible. There are many other arrangements in the plural—the position of the plural particle is flexible. The arrangement here is one commonly used possibility. Comparison happens with adjectives and adverbs. The comparative

1764-475: The day-to-day work of the RSDLP and its newspaper, Iskra . "The secretary of the editorial board [of Iskra] was [Lenin's] wife [...] She was at the very center of all the organization work; she received comrades when they arrived, instructed them when they left, established connections, supplied secret addresses, wrote letters, and coded and decoded correspondence. In her room there was always a smell of burned paper from

1827-450: The degree of backness and labialization. The mid vowels /e/ , /ø/ , /o/ have more reduced allophones [e̽] , [ø̽] , [o̽] at the end of a word. Stress is not phonemic in Mari, but a dynamic stress system is exhibited phonetically, the stressed syllable being higher in pitch and amplitude and greater in length than an unstressed syllable. Generally, there is one prominent syllable per word and prominence may be found in any syllable of

1890-562: The education field from a young age. She was particularly drawn to Leo Tolstoy 's theories on education, which were fluid instead of structured. They focused on personal development of each individual student and centred on importance of the teacher–student relationship. This led Krupskaya to study many of Tolstoy's works, including his theories of reformation. These were peaceful, law-abiding ideas, which focused on people abstaining from unneeded luxuries and being self-dependent instead of hiring someone else to tend their house, etc. Tolstoy made

1953-624: The end of his speech to the Fifteenth party congress in December 1927 that she had abandoned the opposition. In 1930, Krupskaya opposed Stalin again. This time, she gave a speech to the Bauman district party, in Moscow, defending the leaders of the right wing opposition, Nikolai Bukharin and Alexei Rykov , after which, according to Nikita Khrushchev , who was a party official at the time, "without any publicity,

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2016-536: The engineer, Robert Klasson. The following year, she took a job in a Sunday school for adult workers. Krupskaya first met Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (later known as Vladimir Lenin) in February 1894 at a similar discussion group. She was impressed by his speeches but not his personality, at least not at first. It is hard to know very much of the courtship between Lenin and Krupskaya as neither party spoke often of personal matters. In October 1896, several months after Lenin

2079-518: The fate of Nikolai Bukharin and Alexei Rykov , and voted in favour of expelling both from the Communist Party. But on other occasions, she tried to intervene on behalf of intended victims. At the Central Committee in June 1937, she protested, in vain, against the arrest of Osip Piatnitsky . She successfully secured the release of an Old Bolshevik named I.D. Chugurin, though he was barred from rejoining

2142-573: The formation of many of Krupskaya's ideological beliefs . "From her very childhood Krupskaya was inspired with the spirit of protest against the ugly life around her." One of Krupskaya's friends from gymnasium, Ariadne Tyrkova, described her as "a tall, quiet girl, who did not flirt with the boys, moved and thought with deliberation, and had already formed strong convictions . . . She was one of those who are forever committed, once they have been possessed by their thoughts and feelings . . ." She briefly attended two different secondary schools before finding

2205-558: The most detailed account of Lenin's life before his coming to power and ends in 1919. Krupskaya's political life was active: she was anything but a mere functionary of the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party from 1903. Leon Trotsky , who was working closely with Lenin and Krupskaya from 1902 to 1903, writes in his autobiography ( My Life , 1930) of the central importance of Krupskaya in

2268-407: The negated verb in its second-person singular (the stem-only form), much as it is in Finnish and Estonian . The verb улаш (ulaš) – to be – has its own negated forms. In order to illustrate the conjugation in the respective moods and times, one verb of the first declination (лекташ – to go) and one verb of the second declination (мондаш – to forget) will be used. Verbs have two infinitive forms:

2331-428: The new 'widow' was to have been Yelena Stasova . Another rumour was that it would have been Rosalia Zemlyachka . In 1936, she defended restrictions on abortion passed by the Soviet government in that year, arguing that they were part of a consistent policy pursued since 1920 to do away with the reasons to have an abortion. Krupskaya was present at the plenum of the Central Committee in February 1937 which decided

2394-567: The party, and worked as a roofer for the rest of his life. Krupskaya died in Moscow on 27 February 1939, the day after her seventieth birthday, and her ashes were buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis . Stalin's secretary Alexander Poskrebyshev later claimed that Stalin ordered Krupskaya's poisoning during her birthday celebration. Lazar Kaganovich , a former Politburo member and Stalin's associate, also suggested Lavrentiy Beria may have been involved with Krupskaya's poisoning and

2457-460: The perfect fit with Prince A. A. Obolensky 's Female Gymnasium, "a distinguished private girls' secondary school in Petersburg." This education was probably more liberal than most other gymnasiums since it was noted that some of the staff were former revolutionaries. After her father's death, Krupskaya and her mother gave lessons as a source of income. Krupskaya had expressed an interest in entering

2520-734: The position of the verb is not affected. The focus position is directly before the verb. Subjects, objects, adverbial, and secondary predicate can appear in this position. The examples below quoted in Saarinen (2022) show the different elements that can appear in the focus position. 1PST:first preterite 2PST:second preterite Чачи t͡ɕɑt͡ɕi Chachi корно korno road мучко mut͡ɕko Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya (Russian: Надежда Константиновна Крупская , IPA: [nɐˈdʲeʐdə kənstɐnʲˈtʲinəvnə ˈkrupskəjə] ; 26 February [ O.S. 14 February] 1869 – 27 February 1939)

2583-547: The secret letters she heated over the fire to read..." Krupskaya became secretary of the Central Committee in 1905; she returned to Russia the same year, but left again after the failed revolution of 1905 and worked as a teacher in France for a couple of years. After the Russian Revolution in 1917, she was appointed deputy to Anatoliy Lunacharskiy , the People's Commissar for Education , where she took charge of Vneshkol'nyi Otdel of

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2646-561: The standard infinitive and the necessive infinitive, used when a person must do something. The person needing to do something is put in the dative in such a situation. There are four participles in Meadow Mari: There are five gerunds in Meadow Mari: Word order in Mari is subject–object–verb . This means that the object appears directly before the predicate. Word order in Mari is affected by information structure. However,

2709-462: The stressed vowel in the word is rounded , then the suffix will contain a rounded vowel: for example, кӱтӱ́ ([kyˈty] 'herd') becomes кӱтӱ́штӧ ([kyˈtyʃtø], 'in the herd'); if the stressed vowel is unrounded, then the suffix will contain an unrounded vowel: ки́д ([kid], 'hand') becomes ки́дыште ([ˈkidəʃte], 'in the hand'). If the stressed vowel is back, then the suffix will end in a back vowel: агу́р ([aˈgur], 'whirlpool') becomes агу́рышто ([aˈgurəʃto], 'in

2772-407: The subjects readers were interested in, and organizing the material in a fashion to better serve the readers. Committees were held to improve card catalogs. Krupskaya stated at a library conference: "We have a laughable number of libraries, and their book stocks are even more inadequate. Their quality is terrible, the majority of the population does not know how to use them and does not even know what

2835-549: The thyroid gland in the neck which causes the eyes to bulge and the neck to tighten. It can also disrupt the menstrual cycle, which may explain why Lenin and Krupskaya never had children. Upon his release, Lenin went off to Europe and settled in Munich. Upon her release Krupskaya joined him (1901). After she arrived, the couple moved to London. Krupskaya wrote a memoir of her life with Lenin, translated in 1930 as Memories of Lenin and in 1959 as Reminiscences of Lenin . The book gives

2898-467: The tools of education and libraries, needed to forge a more fulfilling life. The fulfillment was education and the tools were education and library systems. In December 1922, just after Lenin had suffered a second stroke, Krupskaya had a violent quarrel with Stalin, who was demanding access to Lenin, when she argued that he was too ill. On 23 December, she wrote to Kamenev complaining that the "vile invectives and threats" that Stalin had directed at her were

2961-437: The unity of the ethnic group, and the two forms are very close, but distinct enough to cause some problems with communication. The Mari language and people were known as "Cheremis" ( Russian : черемисы, черемисский язык , cheremisy , cheremisskiy yazyk ). In medieval texts the variant forms Sarmys and Tsarmys are also found, as well as Tatar : Чирмеш , romanized:  Çirmeş ; and Chuvash : Ҫармӑс , Śarmăs before

3024-418: The whirlpool'). Like other Uralic languages , Mari is an agglutinating language . It lacks grammatical gender, and does not use articles. Meadow Mari has 9 productive cases , of which 3 are locative cases . The usage of the latter ones is restricted to inanimate objects. Many cases, aside from their basic function, are used in other situations, such as in expressions of time. If a locative statement

3087-418: The word went out to party circles to give her a working-over ... It was a bitter thing to watch her at these sessions when everyone started coming out against her. I remember her as a broken old woman." Khrushchev also claimed that Stalin threatened to remove Krupskaya's status, and nominate another woman as "Lenin's widow." The same story was told by the former NKVD officer, Alexander Orlov , who claimed that

3150-533: The word. Post- and prefixes behave as clitics , i.e., they do not have their own stress. For example, пӧ́рт ( pört , "house") гыч ( gəč , "out of") ( [ˈpørt ɣɤt͡ʃ] ); or му́ро ( muro , "song") дене ( dene , "with") ( [ˈmuro ðene] ). Consonants are shown in Cyrillic, Latin, and the IPA : Like several other Uralic languages, Mari has vowel harmony . In addition to front/back harmony, Mari also features round/unround harmony. If

3213-625: The worst abuse she had suffered from a fellow revolutionary in 30 years. When Lenin learned of this incident in March, he threatened to break off relations with Stalin. After the death of Vladimir Lenin in January 1924, Krupskaya grew closer to the political positions of Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev in Party debates. Factions that would later form throughout the 1920s included the Trotsky -led Left Opposition ,

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3276-754: Was a Russian military officer and a nobleman of the Russian Empire who had been orphaned in 1847 at the age of nine. He was educated and given a commission as an infantry officer in the Imperial Russian Army . Just before leaving for his assignment in Poland, he married Krupskaya's mother. After six years of service, Krupski lost favour with his supervisors and was charged with "un-Russian activities." He may have been suspected of being involved with revolutionaries. Following this time he worked in factories or wherever he could find work. Just before his death, he

3339-478: Was a Russian revolutionary and the wife of Vladimir Lenin . Krupskaya was born in Saint Petersburg to an aristocratic family that had descended into poverty , and she developed strong views about improving the lives of the poor. She embraced Marxism and met Lenin at a Marxist discussion group in 1894. Both were arrested in 1896 for revolutionary activities and after Lenin was exiled to Siberia , Krupskaya

3402-433: Was a courtesy and an opportunity for more education in socialist political values, not something that was required of the librarian. They were to become facilitators of the revolution and, later, those who helped preserve the values of the resulting socialist state. Krupskaya was a committed Marxist for whom each element of public education was a step toward improving the life of her people, granting all individuals access to

3465-446: Was a low interest in the library career field due to low income and the libraries were sorely in need of re-organization. Krupskaya directed a census of the libraries in order to address these issues. She encouraged libraries to collaborate and to open their doors to the general public. She encouraged librarians to use common speech when speaking with patrons. Knowing the workers needs was encouraged; what kind of books should be stocked,

3528-607: Was allowed to join him in 1898 on the condition that they marry. The two settled in Munich and then London after their exile, before briefly returning to Russia to take part in the Revolution of 1905 . Following the 1917 Revolution , Krupskaya was at the forefront of the political scene, becoming a member of the Communist Party's Central Committee in 1924. She was deputy education commissar from 1929 to 1939, with strong influence over

3591-564: Was almost no education in Mari language. After the October Revolution , there was a period of support of all lesser national cultures in the Soviet Union , but eventually Russification returned. While the development of Mari literary language continued, still, only elementary-school education was available in Mari in the Soviet period, with this policy ending in village schools in the 1970–1980s. The period of glasnost and perestroika in

3654-501: Was arrested, Krupskaya was also arrested. She was briefly interned in the Peter and Paul Fortress , but was released after another female convict burned herself to death. She was sentenced to three years exile in Ufa , but before she was deported, she received a "secret note" from Lenin, delivered by her mother, which suggested that she could be permitted to join him in his place of exile, a village in

3717-457: Was first introduced to the theories of Marx . This piqued her interest as a potential way of making life better for her people and she began an in-depth study of Marxist philosophy. This was difficult since books on the subject had been banned by the Russian government, meaning that revolutionaries collected them and kept them in underground libraries. In 1890, she joined a Marxist circle organised by

3780-499: Was quoted in 1991 as saying "I can't dismiss that possibility. He might have." In 1939, Leon Trotsky had made similar assertions about the circumstances of Krupskaya's death. Conversely, Luigi Zoja , a writer disputed these claims as he argued that Stalin had sent birthday cakes to Krupskaya on previous occasions and other guests who had eaten the cake were seemingly unaffected. Stefan Thomas Possony suggested that she may have consumed poisoned coffee. Arkadi Vaksberg argued that

3843-682: Was recommissioned as an officer. Krupskaya's mother, Yelizaveta Vasilyevna Tistrova (1843–1915), was a daughter of landless Russian nobles. Yelizaveta's parents died when she was young and she was enrolled in the Bestuzhev Courses , the highest formal education available to women in Russia at the time. After earning her degree, Yelizaveta worked as a governess for noble families until she married Krupski. Having parents who were well educated and of aristocratic descent, combined with first-hand experience of lower-class working conditions, probably led to

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3906-508: Was renamed the Nadezhda Krupskaya Municipal Library after the Soviet annexation of Vyborg. The revolution did not cause an overnight improvement in the libraries. In fact, for a while there were even more problems. The Trade Unions still refused to allow general public use, funds for purchasing books and materials were in short supply and books that were already a part of the libraries were falling apart. In addition there

3969-475: Was to be made about an animate object, postpositions would be used. Additionally, terms denoting family members have vocative forms. These are, however, not created with a specific paradigm, and only exist in a few pre-defined cases. Hill Mari has these cases, plus the abessive case (of the form -де), which is used to form adverbials stating without the involvement or influence of which an action happens. Mari, though an agglutinative language, does not have

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