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28-408: All but two of the starred languages below ( Yélî Dnye and Sulka ) make a gender distinction in their pronouns. Several of the heavily Papuanized Austronesian languages of New Britain do as well. This suggests a pre-Austronesian language area in the region. The East Papuan languages were proposed as a family by linguist Stephen Wurm (1975) and others. However, their work was preliminary, and there

56-709: A German anthropologist, carried out research at Graciosa Bay on Nendö Island (Ndende/Ndeni) in the Santa Cruz Islands and on Pileni and Fenualoa in the Reef Islands , and returned with documentary film, photographic and audio material. The films that Koch completed are now held by the German National Library of Science and Technology (TIB) in Hanover. He brought back to the Ethnological Museum of Berlin

84-465: A joint 2007 paper, Dunn and Ross argued that this was also Austronesian. Yele language The Yele language , or Yélî Dnye ( IPA: [ˈjelɯ ʈɳʲɛ] ), is the language of Rossel Island , the easternmost island in the Louisiade Archipelago off the eastern tip of Papua New Guinea . There were an estimated 5,000 speakers in 2015, comprising the entire ethnic population. It

112-524: Is known for its many doubly articulated consonants . The language remains unclassified by linguists. For now, the language is best considered unclassified . It has been classified as a tentative language isolate that may turn out to be related to the Anêm and Ata language isolates of New Britain (in a tentative Yele – West New Britain family ), or alternatively closest to Sudest in the Papuan Tip languages of

140-465: Is little evidence that the East Papuan languages actually have a genetic relationship . For example, none of these fifteen languages marked with asterisks below share more than 2–3% of their basic vocabulary with any of the others. Dunn and colleagues (2005) tested the reliability of the proposed 2–3% cognates by randomizing the vocabulary lists and comparing them again. The nonsense comparisons produced

168-470: Is more precisely a labial–dental [β̞͡ð̞] , and may also have an allophone of [β] . These doubly articulated consonants do not contrast with labialization except in the case of the labial–velars. The two coronal articulations are Palatalization occurs at all places of articulation. Stops may be either pre-nasalized or post-nasalized . Altogether, there are 58 attested consonants (56 demonstrated with solid minimal pairs ) and one more that

196-748: Is only attested from the inflectional clitic -dniye , and it is not clear that it is distinct from well-attested palatalized /ʈɳʲ/ (for *-dnyiye ) (Levinson 2022:45). Some palatalized and labialized consonants are only attested from a handful of words. A gap in the chart above, *ɳ͡mɖ͡bʲ (orthographic mdy ), is plausible but unattested (Levinson 2022:45). Other gaps, namely *n̪ʲ and *n̪͡mʲ (orthographic ńy and nmy ) seem to not exist (Levinson 2022:46). Yele also has 34 vowels: ten oral qualities and seven nasal , all long and short: Vowels may occur long or short . SIL (1992/2004) interprets vowel sequences as being separated by /j/ or /w/ rather than being in hiatus . (Possibly redundant y or w are found in

224-618: Is sometimes used to encompass all the islands of Temotu Province, Solomon Islands. The largest island is Nendö , which is also known as Santa Cruz Island proper. Lata , located on Nendö, is the largest town, and is the capital of Temotu Province. Other islands belonging to the Santa Cruz group are Vanikoro (which is actually made up of two islands, Banie and its small neighbour Teanu ) and Utupua . The table below provides basic data on these three islands. The Santa Cruz Islands are less than five million years old and were pushed upward by

252-424: Is somewhat dubious. The attested inventory is as follows: The oral stops apart from the dentialveolars are lightly voiced between vowels when the following vowel is short, but not when it is long. /ʈ/ is further reduced to a flap [ɽ] . All prenasalized stops are fully voiced. The palatalized denti-alveolar stops /t̪ʲ/ and /n̪d̪ʲ/ are pronounced as affricates [t̪͡ɕ] and [n̪d̪͡ʑ] . /ʈɳ/ (orthographic dn )

280-497: Is unsurprising. However, Malcolm Ross (2001; 2005) has presented evidence from comparing pronouns from nineteen of these languages that several of the lower-level branches of East Papuan may indeed be valid families. This is the classification adopted here. For Wurm's more inclusive classification, see the Glottolog page here . Each of the first five entries in boldface is an independent language family, not known to be related to

308-421: Is written mb, but /nd̪/ and /ŋɡ/ are written nt and nk to distinguish them from nd /nɖ/ and ng /ŋ/ . Prenasalized stops are written with an m when labial, including the doubly articulated stops md /ɳ͡mɖ͡b/ , mg /ŋ͡mɡ͡b/ and mt /n̪͡md̪͡b/ , and with n otherwise. Nasal release is likewise written n or m, as in dny /ʈɳʲ/ , kn /kŋ/ , dm /ʈ͡pɳ͡m/ , km /k͡pŋ͡m/ . Labialization

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336-563: Is written w, and palatalization y, apart from ch for /t̪ʲ/ and nj for /nd̪ʲ/ . Of the vowels, only a and u occur initially. Long vowels are written double, and nasal vowels with a preceding colon ( ꞉a for /æ̃/ ), except for short vowels after an orthographic nasal consonant, where vowel nasality is not contrastive. Yele has been studied extensively by cognitive linguists . It has an extensive set of spatial postpositions . Yele has eleven postpositions equivalent to English on ; using different ones depending factors such as whether

364-686: The International Phonetic Alphabet : Translation: (SIL 1992/2004) Santa Cruz Islands The Santa Cruz Islands form an archipelago in Temotu Province , Solomon Islands . They lie approximately 250 miles (220 nmi; 400 km) to the southeast of the Solomon Islands archipelago , just north of the archipelago of Vanuatu and are considered part of the Vanuatu rain forests ecoregion . The term Santa Cruz Islands

392-586: The New Georgia Islands ) Lavukaleve * ( Russell Islands ) Savosavo * ( Savo Island ) * Dunn and colleagues found no demonstrable shared vocabulary between these fifteen languages. ** Ross considered these four languages in addition to the fifteen studied by Dunn and colleagues. These three languages are not thought to be demonstrably related to each other or to any language in the world. * Dunn and colleagues found no demonstrable shared vocabulary between these fifteen languages. Wurm classified

420-758: The tectonic subduction of the northward-moving Indo-Australian Plate under the Pacific Plate . The islands are mostly composed of limestone and volcanic ash over limestone. The native languages of the islands are classified as the Reef Islands – Santa Cruz languages , within the Oceanic subgroup of the Austronesian language family. Historically, the people of Santa Cruz made long-distance ocean-going voyages using Tepukei . Tepukei are ocean-going outrigger canoes specific to some Polynesian societies of eastern Solomon Islands including Santa Cruz. In 1966 Gerd Koch ,

448-488: The Oceanic family. Typologically it is more similar to the Oceanic languages of southern New Guinea than to the isolates of New Britain. Word order tends to be subject–object–verb (SOV; verb-final). Stebbins et al. (2018) classifies Yélî Dnye as an isolate. They explain similarities with Austronesian as being due to contact and diffusion. Usher classifies it as an Oceanic language, with regular sound correspondences obscured by

476-660: The development of the doubly articulated consonants. Yele has a uniquely rich set of doubly articulated consonants . In nearly all the languages of the world which have them, these are labial–velar consonants —that is, they are pronounced simultaneously with the lips and the back of the tongue, such as a simultaneous p and k . However, Yele is known to contrast other doubly articulated positions: besides labial–velar, it has two distinct labial–coronal articulations, all as both stops and nasals as illustrated below. There are also doubly articulated approximants: [l͡βʲ] as in lvamê (a type of cane) and [j͡β̞] . The Yele /w̪/

504-528: The language has fallen into disuse, many of this special vocabulary is no longer used. Additionally, special registers and terms are used when discussing shell money ( kêndapî ), at a mortuary feast ( kpaakpaa ) and during songs. As a form of women's speech, women avoid certain words, especially those related to the sea. Instead, other words are substituted. Since great respect is shown to in-laws on Rossel Island, speakers of Yélî Dnye will not say their in-laws' names, will only speak of each in-law using

532-756: The last still complete Tepukei from the Santa Cruz Islands. In 1971 Koch published Die Materielle Kultur der Santa Cruz-Inseln (The Material Culture of the Santa Cruz Islands). Navigators from the Santa Cruz islands retained traditional navigation techniques into the 20th century; these techniques were also known by the navigators of the Caroline Islands . In 1969, Tevake accompanied David Henry Lewis on his ketch Isbjorn from Taumako using traditional navigation techniques by studying wave patterns and made landfall at Fenualoa , having navigated for 50 miles (43 nmi; 80 km) without being able to view

560-509: The object is on a table (horizontal), a wall (vertical), or atop a peak; whether or not it is attached to the surface; and whether it is solid or granular (distributed). Yele has a set of free pronouns and a set of bound possessive pronouns. There are three different types of taboos present in Yélî Dnye: vocabulary avoided by women, vocabulary avoided when in the presence of in-laws , and vocabulary related to sacred places . However, since

588-809: The others. Languages that are transparently related to each other are listed together on the same line. The first family is a more tentative proposal than the others and awaits confirmation. Reconstructed pronoun sets for each of the families are given in the individual articles. Yélî Dnye ( Yele ) * ( Rossel Island ) Anêm * ( New Britain ) Ata (Pele-Ata, Wasi) * (New Britain) Baining : Mali *, Qaqet , Kairak , Simbali , Ura , Makolkol Taulil–Butam : Taulil **, Butam (extinct)** Keriaka Konua (Rapoisi) ** Rotokas: Rotokas *, Eivo Buin * Motuna (Siwai) * Uisai Nasioi: Koromira , Lantanai , Naasioi *, Nagovisi (Sibe)**, Oune , Simeku Bilua * ( Vella Lavella Island) Touo (Baniata) * (southern Rendova Island , part of

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616-610: The place also named by the Spaniards as Graciosa Bay, and he died there in 1596. During the Pacific campaign of World War II , the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands was fought north of the Santa Cruz group and some United States Navy seaplanes were based in Graciosa Bay, with one reportedly sinking at the seaplane base there. U.S. Navy Patrol Squadron 23 (VP-23) , known as the "Seahawks,"

644-561: The polite third-person plural pronoun yi , and will replace certain words when speaking near them. While the alternative vocabulary is mostly no longer used, the name and pronoun taboos are still observed. Most of the taboo words are body parts, clothing or carried possessions. Not all body words are replaced, however: for example, 'neck', 'Adam's apple' and 'stomach' retain their everyday forms. Selected basic vocabulary items in Yélî Dnye: Yélî Dnye: Yélî Dnye in

672-474: The same 2–3% of "shared" vocabulary, demonstrating that the proposed cognates of the East Papuan languages, and even of proposed families within the East Papuan languages, are as likely to be due to chance as to any genealogical relationship. Thus in a conservative classification, many of the East Papuan languages would be considered language isolates . Since the islands in question have been settled for at least 35,000 years, their considerable linguistic diversity

700-529: The sequences iy and uw followed by most short vowels.) Given that vowels may be long or short, Yele syllables may only be of the form V or CV, with V only being short /æ/ or /u/ at the beginning of a word (assuming lack of hiatus within a word). The multigraphs for complex consonants are not always transparent. The labial-velar and labial-coronal consonants are written with the labial second: kp /k͡p/ , dp /ʈ͡p/ , tp /t̪͡p/ , ngm /ŋ͡m/ , nm /ɳ͡m/ , ńm /n̪͡m/ , lv /l͡βʲ/ . Prenasalized /mp/

728-439: The stars, due to cloud cover. On a second voyage from Nifiloli to Vanikoro , Tevake navigated by the stars, wave patterns, and the patterns of bioluminescence that indicated the direction in which islands were located. The islands were visited by Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña , the first European to sight them, on his second Pacific expedition in 1595. Mendaña started a colony on Nendö which he named Santa Cruz , at

756-474: The three languages of the Santa Cruz and Reef Islands as an additional family within East Papuan. However, new data on these languages, along with advances in the reconstruction of Proto-Oceanic , has made it clear that they are in fact Austronesian : Similarly, Wurm had classified the extinct Kazukuru language and its possible sister languages of New Georgia as a sixth branch of East Papuan. However, in

784-628: Was stationed at Graciosa Bay, from which it operated Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boats , including on "Black Cat" night missions. Chemical ordnance stored on Vanikoro Island during World War II was not completely removed until the 1990s. The Santa Cruz Islands were affected by the 2013 Solomon Islands earthquake and subsequent tsunami on 6 February 2013. The earthquake produced a tsunami measuring 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) at Lata, Solomon Islands , that reached about 500 m (1,640 ft) inland. The airport and low-lying areas were flooded, killing nine people, five of them elderly and one

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