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95-531: [REDACTED] This article relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources . Find sources:   "Early Childhood Longitudinal Study"  –  news   · newspapers   · books   · scholar   · JSTOR ( August 2020 ) The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS) program provides data about

190-430: A fear of kidnappings , rapes , and scary media events, as opposed to fantasy things (e.g., witches, monsters , ghosts). Preadolescents may well view human relationships differently (e.g. they may notice the flawed, human side of authority figures). Alongside that, they may begin to develop a sense of self - identity , and to have increased feelings of independence : 'may feel an individual, no longer "just one of

285-419: A middle school . Though serving a similar purpose in bridging a gap between elementary school and high school , a junior high school typically serves 7th to 9th grade students, whereas a middle school serves 6th to 8th grade students. Therefore, middle schools serve a slightly younger demographic, more befitting of preadolescents, while junior high schools typically serve young adolescents. Being prepubescent

380-428: A child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the zone of proximal development ) could help children learn new tasks. This technique, called "scaffolding," builds new knowledge onto the knowledge children already have to help the child learn. An example of this might be when a parent "helps" an infant clap or roll their hands to the pat-a-cake rhyme, until they can clap and roll their hands themself. Vygotsky

475-402: A child's pattern of growth is in a head-to-toe direction, or cephalocaudal, and in an inward to outward pattern (center of the body to the peripheral) called proximodistal. The speed of physical growth is rapid in the months after birth, then slows, so birth weight is doubled in the first four months, tripled by 1 year, but not quadrupled until 2 years. Growth then proceeds at a slow rate until

570-516: A combination of these approaches. Some child development studies that examine the effects of experience or heredity by comparing characteristics of different groups of children cannot use a randomized design ; while other studies use randomized designs to compare outcomes for groups of children who receive different interventions or educational treatments. When conducting psychological research on infants and children, certain key aspects need to be considered. These include that infants cannot talk, have

665-446: A dependence on their family as their main agent of socialization. This helps the child establish their attitudes, viewpoints, social norms, and societal roles. Among these changes is the shift from elementary to middle (or junior high) school. In this unfamiliar environment, the child may find the pressure to rapidly adapt and fit in. Children start to spend less time with family and more time with friends. At this time, socialization by

760-404: A descriptive and explanatory framework for understanding interpersonal relationships . Bowlby's observations led him to believe that close emotional bonds or "attachments" between an infant and their primary caregiver were an important requirement for forming "normal social and emotional development". Erikson , a follower of Freud, synthesized his theories with Freud's to create what is known as

855-519: A different view of the world from younger children in many significant ways. Typically, theirs is a more realistic view of life than the intense, fantasy-oriented world of earliest childhood. Preadolescents have more mature, sensible, realistic thoughts and actions: 'the most "sensible" stage of development...the child is a much less emotional being now.' They will often have developed a sense of ' intentionality . The wish and capacity to have an impact, and to act upon that with persistence'; and will have

950-513: A distinctive period between major developmental transition points. Adolescence is the stage of life that typically starts around the major onset of puberty , with markers such as menarche and spermarche, typically occurring at 12–14 years of age. It has been defined as ages 10 to 24 years old by the World Happiness Report WHR . In the course of development , the individual human progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy . It

1045-410: A fairly broad range of environmental experiences. Rather than acting as independent mechanisms, genetic and environmental factors often interact to cause developmental change. Some aspects of child development are notable for their plasticity , or the extent to which the direction of development is guided by environmental factors as well as initiated by genetic factors. When an aspect of development

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1140-554: A framework for the consideration of development began in the early 1990s and has continued into the present. This theory stresses nonlinear connections (e.g., between earlier and later social assertiveness) and the capacity of a system to reorganize as a phase shift that is stage-like in nature. Another useful concept for developmentalists is the attractor state, a condition (such as teething or stranger anxiety) that helps to determine apparently unrelated behaviors as well as related ones. Dynamic systems theory has been applied extensively to

1235-581: A heavily targeted market of many advertisers. Their tendency to buy brand-name items may be due to a desire to fit in, although the desire is not as strong as it is with teenagers. Some scholars suggest that 'pre-adolescents ... reported frequent encounters with sexual material in the media, valued the information received from it, and used it as a learning resource ... and evaluated such content through what they perceived to be sexual morality.' However, other research has suggested that sexual media influences on preadolescent and adolescent sexual behavior

1330-412: A large role in a child's activities, socialization, and development; having multiple parents can add stability to a child's life and therefore encourage healthy development. Another influential factor in children's development is the quality of their care. Child-care programs may be beneficial for childhood development such as learning capabilities and social skills. The optimal development of children

1425-409: A limited behavioral repertoire, cannot follow instructions, have a short attention span, and that, due to how rapidly infants develop, methods need to be updated for different ages and developmental stages. High-amplitude sucking technique (HAS) is a common way to explore infants' preferences, and is appropriate from birth to four months since it takes advantage of infants' sucking reflex . When this

1520-435: A logical thought, an example of this is "reversibility," where the child now knows to reverse an action by doing the opposite. Formal operations: (around early adolescence to mid/late adolescence) The final stage of Piaget's cognitive development defines a child as now having the ability to "think more rationally and systematically about abstract concepts and hypothetical events". Some strengths during this time are that

1615-490: A more developed sense of looking into the future and seeing effects of their actions (as opposed to early childhood where children often do not worry about their future). This can include more realistic job expectations ("I want to be an engineer when I grow up", as opposed to "I want to be a wizard"). Middle children generally show more investment 'in control over external reality through the acquisition of knowledge and competence': where they do have worries, these may be more

1710-407: A mother-child pair, contributing to the proper development of the child's nervous system from the embryo onward. From the cognitive development perspective, this non-local neuronal coupling enables the mother to indicate the relevant sensory stimulus of an actual cognitive problem to the child, helping the child to grasp the perception of the object. A growing body of evidence in neuroscience supports

1805-435: A muscular, active child may choose after-school sports experiences that increase athletic skills, but may forgo music lessons. In all of these cases, it becomes difficult to know whether the child's characteristics were shaped by genetic factors, by experiences, or by a combination of the two. Asynchronous development occurs in cases when a child's cognitive, physical, and/or emotional development occur at different rates. This

1900-633: A novel stimulus, they show a response, which reveals patterns of cognition and perception. Using this study method, many different cognitive and perceptual ideas can be studied. Looking time, a common measure of habituation, is studied by recording how long an infant looks at a stimulus before they are habituated to it. Then, researchers record if an infant becomes dishabituated to a novel stimulus. This method can be used to measure preferences infants, including preferences for colors, and other discriminatory tasks, such as auditory discrimination between different musical excerpts. Another way of studying children

1995-456: A period of rapid growth occurs shortly before puberty (between about 9 and 15 years of age). Growth is not uniform in rate and timing across all parts of the body. At birth, head size is already relatively near that of an adult, but the lower parts of the body are much smaller than adult size. Thus during development, the head grows relatively little, while the torso and limbs undergo a great deal of growth. Preadolescence Preadolescence

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2090-416: A predictable sequence of developmental events, such that each stage is preceded and followed by specific other periods associated with characteristic behavioral or physical qualities. Stages of development may overlap or be associated with specific other aspects of development, such as speech or movement. Even within a particular developmental area, transition into a stage may not mean that the previous stage

2185-571: A profound interest in the way children's intellectualism works. As a result, he developed his own laboratory, where he spent years recording children's intellectual growth and attempting to find out how children develop through various stages of thinking. This led Piaget to develop four important stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), preoperational stage (age 2 to 7), concrete-operational stage (ages 7 to 12), and formal-operational stage (ages 11 to 12, and thereafter). Piaget concluded that adaption to an environment (behaviour)

2280-451: A relatively linear rate of about 12% from ages 4 through 22, specifically focused in the frontal , parietal , and occipital lobes. Increases in white matter volume may be correlated to improvements of fine motor performance, auditory processing, as well as sensory information transfer between language areas of the brain. In contrast, cortical gray matter increases in early life, peaks in preadolescence, and declines through adulthood, with

2375-499: A sense of autonomy as the child is exposed to a larger world around them full of sudden and unfamiliar changes. Compounded with a sense of self-consciousness, the preadolescent starts to explore their own self-identity and their role in society further. During preadolescence (early adolescence), individuals may become more preoccupied with body image and privacy, corresponding to physical changes seen during adrenarche and puberty. Early adolescents may become aware of their sexuality for

2470-497: A single sport to play intensively or year-round) before puberty has a high risk of injuries. Youth sports organizations recommend a minimum of five hours of free play per week for preadolescent athletes. Greater responsibility within the family can also appear, as middle children become responsible for younger siblings and relatives, as with babysitting ; while preadolescents may start caring about what they look like and what they are wearing. Prior to adolescence, children may have

2565-467: A stage, you can always go through it later,' some middle children 'come to school for another purpose...[not] to learn but to find a home from home...a stable emotional situation in which they can exercise their own emotional liability, a group of which they can gradually become a part.' Children at the threshold of adolescence in the nine-to-twelve-year-old group would seem to have particular vulnerabilities to parental separation. Among such problems were

2660-403: A way that invites preadolescents to have an open discussion about sexual orientation. Where development has been optimal, preadolescents 'come to school for something to be added to their lives; they want to learn lessons...which can lead to their eventually working in a job like their parents.' When earlier developmental stages have gone astray, however, then, on the principle that 'if you miss

2755-410: Is delayed development of age-specific developmental milestones. Preventing, and intervening early, in developmental delays is a significant topic in the study of child development. Developmental delays are characterized by comparison with age variability of a milestone, not with respect to average age at achievement. Physical growth in stature and weight occurs for 15–20 years following birth, as

2850-513: Is a continuous process with a predictable sequence, yet has a unique course for every child. It does not always progress at the same rate and each stage is affected by the preceding developmental experiences. As genetic factors and events during prenatal life may strongly influence developmental changes, genetics and prenatal development usually form a part of the study of child development. Related terms include developmental psychology , referring to development from birth to death, and pediatrics ,

2945-406: Is a critic and they are the ones being critiqued. A personal fable is when the adolescent feels that he or she is a unique person and everything they do is unique. They feel as if they are the only ones that have ever experienced what they are experiencing and that they are invincible and nothing bad will happen to them, bad things only happen to other people. Vygotsky, a Russian theorist, proposed

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3040-408: Is a stage of human development following middle childhood and preceding adolescence . It commonly ends with the beginning of puberty . Preadolescence is commonly defined as ages 9–12 ending with the major onset of puberty . It may also be defined as simply the 2-year period before the major onset of puberty. Preadolescence can bring its own challenges and anxieties . A term used to refer to

3135-431: Is a straightforward way of looking at infants' preferences. Using an eye tracking software, it is possible to see if infants understand commonly used nouns by tracking their eyes after they are cued with the target word. Another unique way to study infants' cognition is through habituation , which is the process of repeatedly showing a stimulus to an infant until they give no response. Then, when infants are presented with

3230-400: Is altered as a result of learning from the environment. Plasticity of this type can occur throughout the lifespan and involve many kinds of behavior, including some emotional reactions. A second type of plasticity, experience-expectant plasticity, involves the strong effect of specific experiences during limited sensitive periods of development. For example, the coordinated use of two eyes, and

3325-462: Is around 15–16. There are significant neurological changes that are expressed during preadolescence. White matter refers to the region of the nervous system corresponding to neuronal axons, which form fibers that convey information across different regions of the brain. In contrast, grey matter refers to the region of the nervous system corresponding to neuronal cell bodies, which process and relay neuronal signals. White matter volume increases at

3420-457: Is being measured, researchers will code a baseline sucking rate for each baby before exposing them to the item of interest. A common finding of HAS shows a relaxed, natural sucking rate when exposed to something the infant is familiar with, like their mother's voice, compared to an increased sucking rate around novel stimuli. The preferential-looking technique was a breakthrough made by Robert L. Fantz in 1961. In his experiments, he would show

3515-484: Is called egocentrism , meaning the child is not able to see someone else's point of view, and they feel as if every other person is experiencing the same events and feelings that they are. However, at about 7, thought processes of children are no longer egocentric and are more intuitive , meaning they now think about the way something looks, though they do not yet use rational thinking. Concrete: (about first grade to early adolescence) In this stage, children between

3610-400: Is common for gifted children when their cognitive development outpaces their physical and/or emotional maturity, such as when a child is academically advanced and skipping school grade levels yet still cries over childish matters and/or still looks their age. Asynchronous development presents challenges for schools, parents, siblings, peers, and the children themselves, such as making it hard for

3705-805: Is completely finished. For example, in Erikson's stages, he suggests that a lifetime is spent in reworking issues that were originally characteristic of a childhood stage. Similarly, the theorist of cognitive development, Piaget , described situations in which children could solve one type of problem using mature thinking skills, but could not accomplish this for less familiar problems, a phenomenon he called horizontal decalage. Although developmental change runs parallel with chronological age, age itself cannot cause development. The basic causes for developmental change are genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors are responsible for cellular changes like overall growth, changes in proportion of body and brain parts, and

3800-496: Is considered vital to society and it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, and educational development of children. Increased research and interest in this field has resulted in new theories and strategies, especially with regard to practices that promote development within the school systems. Some theories seek to describe a sequence of states that compose child development. Also called "development in context" or " human ecology " theory, ecological systems theory

3895-425: Is discontinuous, however, researchers may identify not only milestones of development, but related age periods often called stages. These stages are periods of time, often associated with known age ranges, during which a behavior or physical characteristic is qualitatively different from what it is at other ages. When an age period is referred to as a stage, the term implies not only this qualitative difference, but also

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3990-434: Is divided into three stages of life which include early childhood , middle childhood, and late childhood ( preadolescence ). Early childhood typically ranges from infancy to the age of 6 years old. During this period, development is significant, as many of life's milestones happen during this time period such as first words, learning to crawl, and learning to walk. Middle childhood/preadolescence or ages 6–12 universally mark

4085-563: Is managed through schemas and adaption occurs through assimilation and accommodation . Sensory Motor: (birth to about age 2) In the first stage in Piaget's theory, infants have the following basic senses: vision, hearing, and motor skills. In this stage, knowledge of the world is limited but is constantly developing due to the child's experiences and interactions. According to Piaget, when an infant reaches about 7–9 months of age they begin to develop what he called object permanence , meaning

4180-483: Is minimal. Freud called this stage the latency period to indicate that sexual feelings and interest went underground. Erik H. Erikson noted that latency period children in middle childhood can then direct more of their energy into asexual pursuits such as school, athletics, and same-sex friendships. Nevertheless, recent research contradicts these notions—suggesting that sexual development, interest, and behavior among latent period children does not cease. Instead,

4275-455: Is no exact agreement as to when preadolescence starts and ends. Early puberty begins as the result of the initiation of the pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion by the hypothalamus; the exact mechanism of this initiation is currently unknown and remains under investigation. Pulsatile GnRH secretion results in the pulsatile secretions of gonadotropins Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), which act on

4370-404: Is not the same thing as being preadolescent. Instead, prepubescent (and sometimes child ) is a term for boys and girls who have not developed secondary sex characteristics , while preadolescent is generally defined as those ranging from age 9 to 12 years. Preadolescence may also be defined as the period from 10 to 13 years. The point at which a child becomes an adolescent is defined by

4465-432: Is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Tanner staging ranges from 1 through 5 (with 5 being the most developed). With regards to pubic hair development, the scale goes as follows: Stage 1-no hair; 2-downy hair; 3-scant terminal hair; 4-terminal hair overlying the pubic triangle; 5-terminal hair extending to the thigh. With regards to male genitalia development, the scale goes as follows: 1-testes at

4560-410: Is strongly affected by early experience, it is said to show a high degree of plasticity ; when the genetic make-up is the primary cause of development, plasticity is said to be low. Plasticity may involve guidance by endogenous factors like hormones as well as by exogenous factors like infection. One way the environment guides development is through experience-dependent plasticity, in which behavior

4655-494: Is that there exists significant variability in the timing and characteristics of neurological change in preadolescents. Neurological changes, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, appear to be highly dependent on environmental input . Toxins, hormones, and lifestyle factors including stress and nutrition impact neurological maturation, demonstrating the importance of early lifestyle health interventions in preadolescence with regards to neurological and psychological development. Of

4750-407: Is through brain imaging technology, such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), electroencephalography (EEG). MRI can be used to track brain activity, growth, and connectivity in children, and can track brain development from when a child is a fetus. EEG can be used to diagnose seizures and encephalopathy, but the conceptual age of the infant must be considered when analyzing the results. Most of

4845-606: The "psychosocial" stages of human development. Spanning from birth to death, they focus on "tasks" at each stage that must be accomplished to successfully navigate life's challenges. Erikson's eight stages consist of the following: John B. Watson 's behaviorism theory forms the foundation of the behavioral model of development . Watson explained human psychology through the process of classical conditioning , and he believed that all individual differences in behavior were due to different learning experiences. He wrote extensively on child development and conducted research, such as

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4940-583: The Little Albert experiment , which showed that a phobia could be created by classical conditioning. Watson was instrumental in the modification of William James ' stream of consciousness approach to construct behavior theory . He also helped bring a natural science perspective to child psychology by introducing objective research methods based on observable and measurable behavior. Following Watson's lead, B.F. Skinner further extended this model to cover operant conditioning and verbal behavior . Skinner used

5035-528: The Shared intentionality approach. Hyperscanning research studies show inter-brain coordinated activity under conditions without communication in pairs while subjects are solving a shared cognitive task This increased inter-brain activity is observed in pairs, which differs from the result in the condition where subjects solve a similar task alone. The significance of this knowledge is that although Shared intentionality enables social cooperation to be achieved in

5130-1500: The development of children in the United States . It is carried out by the Institute of Education Sciences . It provides data on children's status at birth and at various points thereafter. The ECLS program also provides data to analyze the relationships among a wide range of family, school, community, and individual variables with children's development, early learning , and performance in school. References [ edit ] ^ Moore, Kristin; Jennifer Manlove; Kerry Richter; Tamara Halle; Suzanne Le Menestrel; Martha Zaslow; Angela Dungee Greene; Carrie Mariner; Angela Romano; Lisa Bridges (1999). "A Birth Cohort Study: Conceptual and Design Considerations and Rationale" . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics . Retrieved 2013-04-26 . {{ cite journal }} : Cite journal requires |journal= ( help ) External links [ edit ] ECLS Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Childhood_Longitudinal_Study&oldid=970960818 " Categories : Child development Educational programs Epidemiological study projects Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles needing additional references from August 2020 All articles needing additional references Child development Childhood

5225-493: The ethical challenges that exist in studies with adults also exist in studying children, with some notable differences. Namely informed consent , as while it is important that children consent to participate in research, they cannot give legal consent; parents must give informed consent for their children. Children can informally consent though, and their continued agreement should be reliably checked for by both verbal and nonverbal cues throughout their participation. Also, due to

5320-431: The operant chamber , or Skinner box , to observe the behavior of animals in a controlled situation and proved that behaviors are influenced by the environment. Furthermore, he used reinforcement and punishment to shape the desired behavior. Children's behavior can strongly depend on their psychological development. Sigmund Freud divided development, from infancy onward, into five stages. In accordance with his view that

5415-516: The 'two major socializing agents in children's lives: the family environment...and formal educational institutions,' it is 'the family in its function a primary socializer of the child' that predominates in the first five years of life: middle childhood by contrast is characterized by 'a child's readiness for school...being self-assured and interested; knowing what kind of behavior is expected...being able to wait, to follow directions, and getting along with other children.' Preadolescent children have

5510-557: The 1920s. Interested in the ways animals adapt to their environments, his first scientific article was published when he was 10 years old, and he pursued a Ph.D. in zoology, where he became interested in epistemology. Epistemology branches off from philosophy and deals with the origin of knowledge, which Piaget believed came from Psychology. After travelling to Paris, he began working on the first "standardized intelligence test" at Alfred Binet laboratories, which influenced his career greatly. During this intelligence testing he began developing

5605-416: The age of 7 and 11 use appropriate logic to develop cognitive operations and begin applying this new way of thinking to different events they encounter. Children in this stage incorporate inductive reasoning , which involves drawing conclusions from other observations in order to make a generalization. Unlike in the preoperational stage, children can now change and rearrange mental images and symbols to form

5700-402: The branch of medicine relating to the care of children. Developmental change may occur as a result of genetically controlled processes, known as maturation , or environmental factors and learning, but most commonly involves an interaction between the two. Development may also occur as a result of human nature and of human ability to learn from the environment. There are various definitions of

5795-473: The child now has the ability to understand that objects keep existing even when they cannot be seen. An example of this would be hiding the child's favorite toy under a blanket, and although the child cannot physically see it they still know to look under the blanket. Preoperational: (begins about the time the child starts to talk, around age 2) During this stage, young children begin analyzing their environment using mental symbols, including words and images;

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5890-490: The child or adolescent begins forming their identity and begins understanding why people behave the way they behave. While some weaknesses include the child or adolescent developing some egocentric thoughts, including the imaginary audience and the personal fable . An imaginary audience is when an adolescent feels that the world is just as concerned and judgemental of anything the adolescent does as they themselves are; an adolescent may feel as if they are "on stage" and everyone

5985-436: The child to fit in or frustrating adults who have become accustomed to the child's advancement in other areas. Research questions include: Empirical research that attempts to answer these questions may follow a number of patterns. Initially, observational research in naturalistic conditions may be needed to develop a narrative describing and defining an aspect of developmental change, such as changes in reflex reactions in

6080-636: The child will begin to apply these in their everyday lives as they come across different objects, events, and situations. However, Piaget's main focus on this stage, and the reason why he named it "preoperational," is that children at this point are not able to apply specific cognitive operations, such as mental math . In addition to symbolism, children start to engage in pretend play , pretending to be people they are not, for example teachers or superheroes; they sometimes use different props to make this pretend play more real. Some weaknesses in this stage are that children who are about 3–4 years old often display what

6175-450: The child's genetically produced characteristics cause other people to respond in certain ways, providing a different environment than might occur for a genetically different child; for instance, a child with Down syndrome may be protected more and challenged less than a child without Down syndrome. Finally, an active genetic-environmental correlation is one in which the child chooses experiences that in turn have their effect, for instance,

6270-519: The chronological age at which they typically occur, have been established via study of when various developmental tasks are accomplished. However, there is considerable variation in when milestones are reached, even between children developing within the typical range. Some milestones are more variable than others; for example, receptive speech indicators do not show much variation among children with typical hearing, but expressive speech milestones can be quite variable. A common concern in child development

6365-470: The exception of occipital lobe gray matter. For example, parietal lobe gray matter peaks at age 10 in girls and 12 in boys, while frontal lobe gray matter peaks at age 11 in girls and 12 in boys. Such changes might reflect overproduction of synapses in the preadolescent years; in subsequent years, there seems to be pruning dependent on environmental context, corresponding to increased synchronicity of neuron firing. A key caveat from these imaging studies, however,

6460-456: The experience of a single three-dimensional image rather than the two-dimensional images created by each eye, depends on experiences with vision during the second half of the first year of life. Experience-expectant plasticity works to fine-tune aspects of development that cannot proceed to optimum outcomes as a result of genetic factors alone. In addition to plasticity, genetic-environmental correlations may function in several ways to determine

6555-765: The family. " ' A different view on morality can emerge; and the middle child will also show more cooperativeness . The ability to balance one's own needs with those of others in group activities'. Many preadolescents will often start to question their home life and surroundings around this time and they may also start to form opinions that may differ from their upbringing in regards to issues such as politics , religion , sexuality , and gender roles . They may choose their own activities, though they are still susceptible to pressure from others around them. Many preadolescents play organized sports, but necessary free play ( self-directed , freely chosen, independent play) may get overlooked. Early sports specialization (choosing

6650-777: The first time, and experience attraction towards others. Homosexual and heterosexual experimentation is not uncommon, although it is important to note that many teens who eventually identify as LGBT do not always do so during adolescence. On average, gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals report experiencing same-sex attraction in early adolescence, at age 12. About 4 in 10 gay men, and 2 in 10 lesbian women report experiencing same-sex attraction before age 10. For individuals who begin to experience same-sex attraction, familial support and acceptance consistently predicts positive outcomes. Parents and guardians can support preadolescents, regardless of sexual orientation, by having honest conversations about sex. Specifically, parents can talk and listen in

6745-537: The first year. Observational research may be followed by correlational studies, which collect information about chronological age and some type of development, such as increasing vocabulary; such studies examine the characteristics of children at different ages. Other methods may include longitudinal studies , in which a group of children is re-examined on a number of occasions as they get older; cross-sectional studies , where groups of children of different ages are tested once and compared with each other; or there may be

6840-442: The formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." Vygotsky felt that development was a process, and saw that during periods of crisis there was a qualitative transformation in the child's mental functioning. Attachment theory, originating in the work of John Bowlby and developed by Mary Ainsworth , is a psychological , evolutionary and ethological theory that provides

6935-735: The gonads (ovaries in females or testicles in males) to cause increase secretion of sex steroids. In females, the predominant sex steroid released is estrogen and in males, the predominant sex steroid released is testosterone . These sex hormones then lead to the development of secondary sex characteristics. The stages of puberty can be described with the Tanner scale , also known as the Sexual Maturity Rating, which incorporates measurements and characteristics of primary and secondary sex characteristics. For example, genital and breast development , as well as pubic hair growth. Pubertal development

7030-411: The individual changes from the average weight of 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) and length of 50 cm (20 in) at full term birth to their final adult size. As stature and weight increase, proportions also change, from the relatively large head and small torso and limbs of the neonate , to the adult's relatively small head and long torso and limbs. In a book directed toward pediatricians it says

7125-448: The infants in his study two different stimuli. If an infant looks at one image longer than the other, there are two things that can be inferred: the infant can see that they are two different images and that the infant is showing preference to one image in some capacity. Depending on the experiment, infants may prefer to look at the novel and more interesting stimulus or they may look at the more comforting and familiar image. Eye tracking

7220-411: The inherent power structure in most research settings, researchers must consider study designs that protect children from feeling coerced. Milestones are changes in specific physical and mental abilities (such as walking and understanding language) that mark the end of one developmental period and the beginning of another; for stage theories, milestones indicate a stage transition. These milestones, and

7315-416: The knowledge gap on how social interaction provides cognition in newborns and infants. Developmental psychologist Michael Tomasello contributed to knowledge about the origins of social cognition in children by developing the notion of Shared intentionality . He posed ideas about unaware processes during social learning after birth to explain processes in shaping Intentionality . Other researchers developed

7410-445: The major onset of puberty . However, in some individuals (particularly females), puberty begins in the preadolescence years. Studies indicate that the onset of puberty has been one year earlier with each generation since the 1950s. One can also distinguish middle childhood and preadolescence  – middle childhood from approximately 5–8 years, as opposed to the time children are generally considered to reach preadolescence. There

7505-466: The maturation of aspects of function such as vision and dietary needs. Because genes can be "turned off" and "turned on", the individual's initial genotype may change in function over time, giving rise to further developmental change. Environmental factors affecting development may include both diet and disease exposure, as well as social, emotional, and cognitive experiences. However, examination of environmental factors also shows that children can survive

7600-459: The mature characteristics of the individual. Genetic-environmental correlations are circumstances in which genetic factors interact with the environment to make certain experiences more likely to occur. In passive genetic-environmental correlation, a child is likely to experience a particular environment because his or her parents' genetic make-up makes them likely to choose or create such an environment. In evocative genetic-environmental correlation,

7695-686: The notion, by observing this collaborative interaction in psychophysiological research. This concept has been expanded to the intrauterine period. Research professor in bioengineering at Liepaja University Igor Val Danilov developed the idea of Michael Tomasello by introducing a hypothesis of neurophysiological processes occurring during Shared intentionality . It explains the onset of childhood development, describing this cooperative interaction at different levels of bio-system complexity, from interpersonal dynamics to neuronal interactions. The Shared intentionality hypothesis argues that nervous system synchronization provides non-local neuronal coupling in

7790-482: The periods in a child's development, since each period is a continuum with individual differences regarding starting and ending. Some age-related development periods with defined intervals include: newborn (ages 0 – 2 months); infant (ages 3 – 11 months); toddler (ages 1 – 2 years); preschooler (ages 3 – 4 years); school-aged child (ages 5 – 12 years); teens (ages 13 – 19 years); adolescence (ages 10 - 25 years); college age (ages 18 - 25 years). Parents play

7885-480: The preadolescent stage in everyday speech is tween and its perhaps older variants tweenie , tweeny , tweenager , and tweener . It's a blend ( portmanteau ) of the words "teen" and "between" in the sense of "between childhood and adolescence" and refers to 9- to 12-year-olds. Sometimes the terms tweenie and tweenager are used to differentiate between older (10 to 15) and younger (7 to 11) age groups, respectively. While known as preadolescent in psychology,

7980-601: The same size and proportion of early childhood; 2-enlargement of the scrotum /change in texture of scrotal skin; 3-growth of the penis length-wise; 4-growth of the penis in terms of length and circumference; 5-adult-sized genitalia. With regards to female breast development, the scale is as follows: 1-no palpable gland tissue; 2-palpable breast bud under areola ; 3-breast tissue palpable outside of areola; 4-areola elevated above breast contour; 5-areolar mound recedes into single breast contour. The average age in which both males and females reach Tanner stage 5 of pubertal development

8075-409: The school and peer environment can become more predominant, as the preadolescent starts to learn more about how they would wish to hold themselves during interpersonal relationships. While children find this need to fit in, preadolescents have a conflicting desire to establish their own individualism. As the child grows into the transitionary period of preadolescence, the child often starts to develop

8170-425: The sexual drive is a basic human motivation, each stage centered around the gratification of the libido within a particular area, or erogenous zone, of the body. He argued that as humans develop, they become fixated on different and specific objects throughout their stages of development. Each stage contains conflict which requires resolution to enable the child to develop. The use of dynamical systems theory as

8265-449: The sociocultural theory of child development. During the 1920s–1930s, while Piaget was developing his own theory, Vygotsky was an active scholar and at that time his theory was said to be "recent" because it was translated out of Russian and began influencing Western thinking. He posited that children learn through hands-on experience, as Piaget suggested. However, unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when

8360-869: The study of motor development; the theory also has strong associations with some of Bowlby's views about attachment systems. Dynamic systems theory also relates to the concept of the transactional process, a mutually interactive process in which children and parents simultaneously influence each other, producing developmental change in both over time. The "core knowledge perspective" is an evolutionary theory in child development that proposes "infants begin life with innate, special-purpose knowledge systems referred to as core domains of thought". These five domains are each crucial for survival, and prepare us to develop key aspects of early cognition, they are: physical, numerical, linguistic, psychological, and biological. The most influential theories emphasize social interaction's essential contribution to child development from birth (e.g.,

8455-556: The terms preteen or tween are common in everyday use. A preteen or preteenager is a person below 13 years of age. Generally, the term is restricted to those close to reaching age 13, especially ages 9 to 12. Tween is an American neologism and marketing term for preteen , which is a blend of between and teen . People within this age range are variously described as tweens , preadolescents , tweenies , preteens , pubescents , middle schoolers , or tweenagers . A junior high school can sometimes be confused with

8550-477: The theories of Bronfenbrenner, Piaget, Vygotsky ). It means that organisms with simple reflexes begin to cognize the environment in collaboration with caregivers. However, different viewpoints on this issue - the binding problem and the primary data entry problem - challenge the ability of children in this stage of development to meaningfully interact with the environment. Recent advances in neuroscience and wisdom from physiology and physics studies reconsider

8645-559: The unaware condition (unconsciously), it constitutes society. While this social interaction modality facilitates child development, it also contributes to grasping social norms and shaping individual values in children. Although the identification of developmental milestones is of interest to researchers and caregivers, many aspects of development are continuous and do not display noticeable milestones. Continuous changes, like growth in stature, involve fairly gradual and predictable progress toward adult characteristics. When developmental change

8740-557: The very "eagerness of these youngsters to be co-opted into the parental battling; their willingness to take sides...and the intense, compassionate, caretaking relations which led these youngsters to attempt to rescue a distressed parent often to their own detriment". Preadolescents may well be more exposed to popular culture than younger children and have interests based on internet trends, television shows and movies (no longer just cartoons), fashion, technology, music and social media. Preadolescents generally prefer certain brands , and are

8835-407: The way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this influential conceptualization of development, these environments – from the family to economic and political structures – have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through adulthood. Jean Piaget was a Swiss scholar who began his studies in intellectual development in

8930-470: Was originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner . It specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems; they are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms, and rules that can powerfully shape development. Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, The Ecology of Human Development, has had widespread influence on

9025-403: Was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development. He argued that "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to

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