Misplaced Pages

#842157

102-471: The Triple Alliance was a defensive military alliance between Germany , Austria-Hungary , and Italy . It was formed on 20 May 1882 and renewed periodically until it expired in 1915 during World War I . Germany and Austria-Hungary had been closely allied since 1879. Italy was looking for support against France shortly after it lost North African ambitions to the French. Each member promised mutual support in

204-572: A deterrent . Military alliances are related to collective security systems but can differ in nature. An early 1950s memorandum from the United States Department of State explained the difference by noting that historically, alliances "were designed to advance the respective nationalistic interests of the parties, and provided for joint military action if one of the parties in pursuit of such objectives became involved in war." A collective security arrangement "is directed against no one; it

306-524: A complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation. Following Ottoman occupation, there was a steady flow of people out of Bosnia and a large number of abandoned villages in Bosnia are mentioned in the Ottoman registers, while those who stayed eventually became Muslims . Many Catholics in Bosnia fled to neighboring Catholic lands in the early Ottoman occupation. The evidence indicates that

408-424: A conflict over one ally's interests that the other allies do not share. Scholars have disputed the prevalence of entrapment, with Stephen Brooks and William Wohlforth writing "it is nearly impossible to find a clear case of entrapment actually occurring." Abandonment means that allies do not come to the rescue of a fellow ally. Strong commitments to an alliance can reduce the bargaining power of that ally vis-a-vis

510-510: A distinct culture and art form, started to organize itself in today's Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia , Kosovo , Montenegro and Albania . From the 8th century BCE, Illyrian tribes evolved into kingdoms. The earliest recorded kingdom in Illyria was the Enchele in the 8th century BCE. The Autariatae under Pleurias (337 BCE) were considered to have been a kingdom. The Kingdom of

612-681: A form of the name " Bosnia " is in De Administrando Imperio , a politico-geographical handbook written by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in the mid-10th century (between 948 and 952) describing the "small land" ( χωρίον in Greek ) of "Bosona" ( Βοσώνα ), where the Serbs dwell. Bosnia was also mentioned in the DAI (χωριον βοσονα, small land of Bosnia), as a region of Baptized Serbia. The section of

714-517: A large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field , while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals such as Matrakçı Nasuh ; generals such as Isa-Beg Ishaković , Gazi Husrev-beg , Telli Hasan Pasha and Sarı Süleyman Pasha ; administrators such as Ferhad Pasha Sokolović and Osman Gradaščević ; and Grand Viziers such as

816-455: A number of death camps . The regime systematically and brutally massacred Serbs in villages in the countryside, using a variety of tools. The scale of the violence meant that approximately every sixth Serb living in Bosnia and Herzegovina was the victim of a massacre and virtually every Serb had a family member that was killed in the war, mostly by the Ustaše. The experience had a profound impact in

918-657: A period of neutrality in which both the Central Powers and the Allies tried persuading Romania to join their respective sides, eventually joined the Allies in 1916 , after it had been promised significant Romanian-inhabited Hungarian lands. Romania's official reason for not siding with the Triple Alliance when the war started was the same as Italy's: The Triple Alliance was a defensive alliance, but Germany and Austria-Hungary had taken

1020-673: A revolt spanned for four years (6–9 AD), after which they were subdued. In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entire Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region. Following the split of the Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the Western Roman Empire . The region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between

1122-574: A rivalry with France. That was reflected in anger at the French conquest of Tunisia in 1881, the so-called Slap of Tunis by the Italian press, which many Italians had seen as a potential colony. By joining the Alliance, Italy hoped to guarantee itself support in case of foreign aggression. The main alliance compelled any signatory country to support the other parties if two other countries attacked. Germany had won

SECTION 10

#1732856018843

1224-509: A similar guarantee to France. By a particular agreement, neither Austria-Hungary nor Italy would change the status quo in the Balkans without previous consultation. On 18 October 1883 Carol I of Romania , through his Prime Minister Ion C. Brătianu , had also secretly pledged to support the Triple Alliance, but he later remained neutral in the First World War due to viewing Austria-Hungary as

1326-690: A state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms they intended would make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model" colony. Habsburg rule had several key concerns in Bosnia. It tried to dissipate the South Slav nationalism by disputing the earlier Serb and Croat claims to Bosnia and encouraging identification of Bosnian or Bosniak identity. Habsburg rule also tried to provide for modernisation by codifying laws, introducing new political institutions, establishing and expanding industries. Austria–Hungary began to plan

1428-565: A third unit, the Brčko District , which is governed by its own local government. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a developing country and ranks 74th in the Human Development Index . Its economy is dominated by industry and agriculture, followed by tourism and the service sector. Tourism has increased significantly in recent years. The country has a social-security and universal-healthcare system, and primary and secondary level education

1530-436: A war against France in 1870 and was a natural ally for Italy. Thus, Italy found itself coming to terms with its historical enemy, Austria-Hungary, against which Italy had fought three wars in the 34 years before the signing of the first treaty. However, Italian public opinion remained unenthusiastic about their country's alignment with Austria-Hungary, a past enemy of Italian unification and whose Italian-populated districts in

1632-577: Is a country in Southeast Europe , situated on the Balkan Peninsula . It borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to the north and southwest. In the south it has a 20 kilometres (12 miles) long coast on the Adriatic Sea , with the town of Neum being its only access to the sea. Bosnia has a moderate continental climate with hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In

1734-443: Is a subject of much academic study past and present. Influential works include those by Glenn Snyder , Stephen Walt , and Kenneth Waltz . Kenneth Waltz outlined in his 1979 book Theory of International Politics a neorealist theory of international politics where he argued that balances of power tend to form in world politics. Alongside neoliberalism , neorealism is one of the two most influential contemporary approaches to

1836-573: Is also believed to be first mentioned as a land (horion Bosona) in Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus' De Administrando Imperio in the mid 10th century, at the end of a chapter entitled Of the Serbs and the country in which they now dwell . This has been scholarly interpreted in several ways and used especially by the Serb national ideologists to prove Bosnia as originally a "Serb" land. Other scholars have asserted

1938-501: Is directed solely against aggression. It seeks not to influence any shifting 'balance of power' but to strengthen the 'balance of principle'." The obvious motivation in states engaging in military alliances is to protect themselves against threats from other countries. However, states have also entered into alliances to improve ties with a particular nation or to manage conflict with a particular nation. The nature of alliances, including their formation and cohesiveness (or lack thereof),

2040-947: Is free. It is a member of the UN , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , the Council of Europe , the Partnership for Peace , and the Central European Free Trade Agreement ; it is also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean , established in July 2008. Bosnia and Herzegovina is an EU candidate country and has also been a candidate for NATO membership since April 2010. The first preserved widely acknowledged mention of

2142-738: Is scarce, but overall it appears the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. In the Neretva Delta in the south, there were important Hellenistic influences of the Illyrian Daors tribe. Their capital was Daorson in Ošanići near Stolac . Daorson, in the 4th century BCE, was surrounded by megalithic , 5 m high stonewalls (as large as those of Mycenae in Greece), composed of large trapezoid stone blocks. Daors made unique bronze coins and sculptures. Conflict between

SECTION 20

#1732856018843

2244-408: Is subdivided into defensive and offensive neorealism . During peace-time, according to a 2019 study, almost all alliances from 1870 to 1916 may have been covert or implied. In other time periods, covert alliances have been rare. The study argues that from 1870 to 1916, the unusual amount of covert alliances was incentivized by other covert alliances. The creation of public alliances would signal to

2346-532: Is subject to scholarly debate, came to predominate over the Slavs in the neighbouring regions. Croats "settled in area roughly corresponding to modern Croatia, and probably also including most of Bosnia proper, apart from the eastern strip of the Drina valley" while Serbs "corresponding to modern south-western Serbia (later known as Raška ), and gradually extended their rule into the territories of Duklja and Hum ". Bosnia

2448-724: The Alans and the Huns . By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian I had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire . Slavs overwhelmed the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Illyrian cultural traits were adopted by the South Slavs, as evidenced in certain customs and traditions, placenames, etc. The Early Slavs raided the Western Balkans, including Bosnia, in the 6th and early 7th century (amid

2550-709: The Ardiaei (originally a tribe from the Neretva valley region) began at 230 BCE and ended at 167 BCE. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardylis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last and best-known Illyrian kingdom. Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. From the 7th century BCE, bronze was replaced by iron, after which only jewelry and art objects were still made out of bronze. Illyrian tribes, under

2652-700: The Banate of Bosnia was established; by the 14th century, this had evolved into the Kingdom of Bosnia . In the mid-15th century, it was annexed into the Ottoman Empire , under whose rule it remained until the late 19th century; the Ottomans brought Islam to the region. From the late 19th century until World War I , the country was annexed into the Austro-Hungarian monarchy . In the interwar period , Bosnia and Herzegovina

2754-535: The Bosnia Eyalet until the formation of the short-lived Herzegovina Eyalet in the 1830s, which reemerged in the 1850s, after which the administrative region became commonly known as Bosnia and Herzegovina . On initial proclamation of independence in 1992 , the country's official name was the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , but following the 1995 Dayton Agreement and the new constitution that accompanied it,

2856-570: The Bosnian parliament and growth of new political life. On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip , a Bosnian Serb member of the revolutionary movement Young Bosnia , assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand , in Sarajevo—an event that was the spark that set off World War I . At the end of the war, the Bosniaks had lost more men per capita than any other ethnic group in

2958-517: The Chancellor of Germany . His primary goal was to preserve the status quo in Europe after he had unified Germany in 1871. He was particularly concerned about France finding allies to help it regain Alsace-Lorraine . By promising to aid Austria-Hungary and Italy in the event of an attack, Bismarck sought to make them somewhat dependent on Germany and therefore unsympathetic to French adventures. By

3060-568: The Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These factors caused the Austro-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question sooner, rather than later. Taking advantage of turmoil in the Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian diplomacy tried to obtain provisional Russian approval for changes over the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina and published

3162-742: The Migration Period ), and were composed of small tribal units drawn from a single Slavic confederation known to the Byzantines as the Sclaveni (whilst the related Antes , roughly speaking, colonized the eastern portions of the Balkans). Tribes recorded by the ethnonyms of "Serb" and "Croat" are described as a second, latter, migration of different people during the second quarter of the 7th century who could or could not have been particularly numerous; these early "Serb" and "Croat" tribes, whose exact identity

Triple Alliance (1882) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3264-566: The Neolithic age, permanent human settlements were established, including those that belonged to the Butmir , Kakanj , and Vučedol cultures. After the arrival of the first Indo-Europeans , the area was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. The ancestors of the South Slavic peoples that populate the area today arrived during the 6th through the 9th century. In the 12th century,

3366-756: The Quadruple Treaty signed at Paris on 20 November 1815 – which renewed that of Chaumont and was again renewed, in 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle – the scope of the Grand Alliance was extended to objects of common interest not specifically stated in the treaties. The article runs: "In order to consolidate the intimate tie which unites the four sovereigns for the happiness of the world, the High Contracting Powers have agreed to renew at fixed intervals, either under their own auspices or by their respective ministers, meetings consecrated to great common objects and to

3468-539: The Trentino and Istria were seen as occupied territories by Italian irredentists . In the years before World War I , many distinguished military analysts predicted that Italy would attack its supposed ally in the event of a large scale conflict. On its own hand, the Austro-Hungarian General Staff maintained at least from 1903 plans for a possible war against Rome. Mutual suspicions led to reinforcement of

3570-570: The 11th century, although it retained its own nobility and institutions. In the High Middle Ages , political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as the Banate of Bosnia (under the rule of local bans ). The first Bosnian ban known by name

3672-437: The 4th century BCE, the first invasion of Celts is recorded. They brought the technique of the pottery wheel , new types of fibulas and different bronze and iron belts. They only passed on their way to Greece, so their influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina is negligible. Celtic migrations displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period

3774-627: The Balkans or on the coasts and islands of the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Italy and Austria-Hungary did not overcome their basic conflict of interest in that region despite the treaty. In 1891, attempts were made to join Britain to the Triple Alliance, which, though unsuccessful, were widely believed to have succeeded in Russian diplomatic circles. Shortly after renewing the Alliance in June 1902, Italy secretly extended

3876-462: The Bosnian heartland. Following his death in 1391, however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463 after its conquest by the Ottoman Empire. There

3978-727: The Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decrees and in accordance and the full extent of Ottoman laws; however, in effect, these often merely affected arbitrary rule and behavior of powerful local elite. As the Ottoman Empire continued its rule in the Balkans ( Rumelia ), Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar , were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi in 1648. Within these cities, various Ottoman Sultans financed

4080-428: The Empire's westernmost province. The 18th century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbreaks of plague. The Porte's efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed Tanzimat reforms. This, combined with frustrations over territorial, political concessions in

4182-643: The German-backed Ottoman Empire. King Carol I of Romania was of German ancestry, which, combined with his wish to turn Romania into a centre of stability in Southeastern Europe and his fear of Russian expansion and the competing claims on Bessarabia , led to Romania secretly joining the Triple Alliance on 18 October 1883. Only the King and a handful of senior Romanian politicians knew about it. Romania and Austria-Hungary pledged to help each other in

Triple Alliance (1882) - Misplaced Pages Continue

4284-683: The Habsburg Empire whilst serving in the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry (known as Bosniaken ) of the Austro-Hungarian Army . Nonetheless, Bosnia and Herzegovina as a whole managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed. The Austro-Hungarian authorities established an auxiliary militia known as the Schutzkorps with a moot role in the empire's policy of anti-Serb repression. Schutzkorps, predominantly recruited among

4386-416: The Hungarian statesman Gyula Andrássy declined because Austria-Hungary was already a "saturated" state and could not cope with additional territories. The whole empire was thus drawn into a new style of diplomatic brinkmanship, which was first conceived of by Andrássy, centering on the province of Bosnia and Herzegovina , a predominantly-Slav area that was still under the control of the Ottoman Empire . On

4488-464: The Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BCE, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9. It was precisely in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the Punic Wars , as described by the Roman historian Suetonius . This was the Roman campaign against Illyricum , known as Bellum Batonianum . The conflict arose after an attempt to recruit Illyrians, and

4590-701: The Muslim (Bosniak) population, were tasked with hunting down rebel Serbs (the Chetniks and Komitadji ) and became known for their persecution of Serbs particularly in Serb populated areas of eastern Bosnia, where they partly retaliated against Serbian Chetniks who in fall 1914 had carried out attacks against the Muslim population in the area. The proceedings of the Austro-Hungarian authorities led to around 5,500 citizens of Serb ethnicity in Bosnia and Herzegovina being arrested, and between 700 and 2,200 died in prison while 460 were executed. Around 5,200 Serb families were forcibly expelled from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following World War I, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined

4692-412: The Ottoman and the Russian Empires over the control of Serbia , Austria–Hungary declared neutrality when the conflict between the empires escalated into war . To counter Russian and French interests in Europe, an alliance was concluded with Germany in October 1879 and with Italy in May 1882. Italy had several motives for joining the existing Austro-German alliance. The Italian government at that time

4794-432: The Ottomans. Quite a few Vlachs also became Islamized in Bosnia, and some (mainly in Croatia) became Catholics. The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became

4896-399: The Proto-Indo-European root bʰegʷ- , meaning "the running water". According to the English medievalist William Miller , the Slavic settlers in Bosnia "adapted the Latin designation ... Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna and themselves Bosniaks ". The name Herzegovina means "herzog's [land]", and "herzog" derives from the German word for "duke". It originates from

4998-401: The South Slav Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia and Herzegovina at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution and the formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The dominant ideological conflict of

5100-560: The Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia and Herzegovina's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere. The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosnian Muslims; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austria-Hungary, Muslims owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbs owned 6.0%, Croat Catholics owned 2.6% and others, 0.3% of

5202-459: The aggressor. On 1 November 1902, five months after the Triple Alliance was renewed, Italy reached an understanding with France that each would remain neutral in the event of an attack on the other. When Austria-Hungary found itself at war in August 1914 with the rival Triple Entente , Italy proclaimed its neutrality, considering Austria-Hungary the aggressor. Italy also defaulted on the obligation to consult and agree to compensations before changing

SECTION 50

#1732856018843

5304-412: The annexation of Bosnia, but due to international disputes the issue was not resolved until the annexation crisis of 1908. Several external matters affected the status of Bosnia and its relationship with Austria–Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia in 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade . Then in 1908, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire raised concerns that

5406-411: The annexation proclamation on 6 October 1908. Despite international objections to the Austro-Hungarian annexation, Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1909. In 1910, Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph proclaimed the first constitution in Bosnia, which led to relaxation of earlier laws, elections and formation of

5508-404: The central and eastern regions, the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and in the northeast it is predominantly flat. Herzegovina , the smaller, southern region, has a Mediterranean climate and is mostly mountainous. Sarajevo is the capital and the largest city. The area has been inhabited since at least the Upper Paleolithic , but evidence suggests that during

5610-413: The collective memory of Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. An estimated 209,000 Serbs or 16.9% of its Bosnia population were killed on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war. The Ustaše recognized both Catholicism and Islam as the national religions, but held the position Eastern Orthodox Church , as a symbol of Serb identity, was their greatest foe. Although Croats were by far

5712-426: The concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The Cvetković-Maček Agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Croatia and Serbia. However the rising threat of Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Germany forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement,

5814-439: The construction of many works of Bosnian architecture such as the country's first library in Sarajevo, madrassas , a school of Sufi philosophy , and a clock tower ( Sahat Kula ), bridges such as the Stari Most , the Emperor's Mosque and the Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque . Furthermore, several Bosnian Muslims played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time. Bosnian recruits formed

5916-421: The country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape. The Ottomans incorporated Bosnia as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity. Within Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and

6018-521: The covert ally that the public alliance was more valuable. According to Ronald Krebs, pre-WWII alliances were generally "relatively simple, short-lived affairs." Common problems for alliances revolve around free-riding and burden-sharing. Members of an alliance have incentives not to contribute to the alliance while simultaneously benefiting on the public goods provided by the alliance. According to Mancur Olson and Richard Zeckhauser 's classic study of alliances, small states frequently free-ride on

6120-532: The early Muslim conversions in Ottoman Bosnia in the 15th–16th century were among the locals who stayed rather than mass Muslim settlements from outside Bosnia. In Herzegovina, many Orthodox people had also embraced Islam. By the late 16th and early 17th century, Muslims are considered to have become an absolute majority in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Albanian Catholic priest Pjetër Mazreku reported in 1624 that there were 450,000 Muslims, 150,000 Catholics and 75,000 Eastern Orthodox in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There

6222-419: The event of a Russian, Serbian or Bulgarian attack. There were, however, several disputes between Romania and Hungary, the most notable being the status and community rights of Romanians in Transylvania . Romania eventually managed to achieve the status of regional power in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars and the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest , but less than a year later, World War I started, and Romania, after

SECTION 60

#1732856018843

6324-431: The event of an attack by any other great power . The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary were to assist Italy if it was attacked by France without provocation. In turn, Italy would assist Germany if attacked by France. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia , Italy promised to remain neutral. Despite having nominally joined the Triple Alliance before, Italy did not take part in World War I on

6426-514: The examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of the nations and the maintenance of the tranquility of Europe". It was this article of the treaty of the 20 November 1815, rather than the Holy Alliance, that formed the basis of the serious effort made by the great powers, between 1815 and 1822, to govern Europe in concert. In general it proved that an alliance, to be effective, must be clearly defined as to its objects, and that in

6528-416: The frontier and speculation in the press about a war between the two countries into the first decade of the 20th century. As late as 1911, Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf , the chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff, was advocating a preemptive strike against Austria's supposed Italian ally. That prediction was strengthened by Italy's invasion and annexation of Libya , bringing it into conflict with

6630-413: The handbook is devoted to the Serbian prince 's lands, and Bosnia is treated as a separate territory, though one that is particularly dependent on Serbs. The name of the land is believed to derive from the name of the river Bosna that courses through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer, the name Bosna could derive from Illyrian *"Bass-an-as", which in turn could derive from

6732-448: The heels of the Great Balkan Crisis , Austro-Hungarian forces occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in August 1878 , and Austria-Hungary eventually annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908 as a common holding under the control of the finance ministry , rather than attaching it to either Austria or Hungary . The occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina was a step taken in response to Russian advances into Bessarabia . Unable to mediate between

6834-519: The inclusion of Bosnia in the chapter to merely be the result of Serbian Grand Duke Časlav 's temporary rule over Bosnia at the time, while also pointing out Porphyrogenitus does not say anywhere explicitly that Bosnia is a "Serb land". In fact, the very translation of the critical sentence where the word Bosona (Bosnia) appears is subject to varying interpretation. In time, Bosnia formed a unit under its own ruler, who called himself Bosnian. Bosnia, along with other territories, became part of Duklja in

6936-457: The influence of Hallstatt cultures to the north, formed regional centers that were slightly different. Parts of Central Bosnia were inhabited by the Daesitiates tribe, most commonly associated with the Central Bosnian cultural group . The Iron Age Glasinac-Mati culture is associated with the Autariatae tribe. A very important role in their life was the cult of the dead, which is seen in their careful burials and burial ceremonies, as well as

7038-440: The influential Sokollu Mehmed Pasha and Damat Ibrahim Pasha . Some Bosnians emerged as Sufi mystics, scholars such as Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi Bosnevi , Ali Džabić ; and poets in the Turkish , Albanian , Arabic , and Persian languages . However, by the late 17th century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the end of the Great Turkish War with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 again made Bosnia

7140-525: The large state's contributions to an alliance. Small allies that are militarily vulnerable are less likely to free-ride, whereas strategically important small allies are most likely to free-ride. Alliances may also lead to moral hazard whereby allies behave more aggressively and recklessly if they believe that the alliance will aid them in any conflict. On the whole, alliances do deter aggression on net. Within alliances, actors may fear entrapment or abandonment. Entrapment means that allies get dragged into

7242-520: The largest group, Serbs the second-largest, and Croats the third-largest. Minorities include Jews , Roma , Albanians, Montenegrins, Ukrainians and Turks . Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member presidency made up of one member from each of the three major ethnic groups. However, the central government's power is highly limited, as the country is largely decentralized. It comprises two autonomous entities—the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska —and

7344-493: The largest of the ethno-religious groups due to a lack of strong Christian church organizations and continuous rivalry between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, while the indigenous Bosnian Church disappeared altogether (ostensibly by conversion of its members to Islam). The Ottomans referred to them as kristianlar while the Orthodox and Catholics were called gebir or kafir , meaning "unbeliever". The Bosnian Franciscans (and

7446-474: The late 1870s, Austrian territorial ambitions in both the Italian Peninsula and Central Europe had been thwarted by the rise of Italy and Germany as new powers. With the decline and the failed reforms of the Ottoman Empire , Slavic discontent in the occupied Balkans grew, which both Russia and Austria-Hungary saw as an opportunity to expand in the region. In 1876, Russia offered to partition the Balkans, but

7548-435: The long run the treaty in which these objects are defined must – to quote Otto von Bismarck 's somewhat cynical dictum – "be reinforced by the interests" of the parties concerned. Yet the "moral alliance" of Europe, as Count Karl Nesselrode called it, though it failed to secure the permanent harmony of the powers, was an effective instrument for peace during the years immediately following the downfall of Napoleon; and it set

7650-762: The north-east, and the plight of Slavic Muslim refugees arriving from the Sanjak of Smederevo into Bosnia Eyalet , culminated in a partially unsuccessful revolt by Husein Gradaščević , who endorsed a Bosnia Eyalet autonomous from the authoritarian rule of the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II , who persecuted, executed and abolished the Janissaries and reduced the role of autonomous Pashas in Rumelia. Mahmud II sent his Grand vizier to subdue Bosnia Eyalet and succeeded only with

7752-522: The occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , which would remain under Ottoman administration until 1908, when the Austro-Hungarian troops withdrew from the Sanjak. Although Austro-Hungarian officials quickly came to an agreement with the Bosnians, tensions remained and a mass emigration of Bosnians occurred. However,

7854-487: The offensive. Military alliance According to a 2002 dataset of military alliances, there have been 538 alliance treaties from 1815 to 2003. The vast majority of the alliances involve commitments to come to the military support of one ally involved in war. The vast majority are defensive in nature. Since the end of the Second World War , military alliances have usually behaved less aggressively and act more as

7956-561: The official name was changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia has been inhabited by humans since at least the Paleolithic , as one of the oldest cave paintings was found in Badanj cave . Major Neolithic cultures such as the Butmir and Kakanj were present along the river Bosna dated from c.  6230 BCE – c.  4900 BCE . The bronze culture of the Illyrians , an ethnic group with

8058-400: The other allies. However, an ally whose commitment to the alliance is in doubt has greater bargaining leverage. Weak alliance commitments can make it easier for the ally to realign the alliance if a fellow ally is considered unsatisfactory. Strong alliance commitments may strengthen the adversary's alliance, as the adversary may face a greater threat. The failure of a strong ally to come to

8160-659: The other powers. Occasionally, however, attempts have been made to give alliances a more general character. Thus the Holy Alliance of 26 September 1815 was an attempt, inspired by the religious idealism of the Emperor Alexander I of Russia , to find in the "sacred precepts of the Gospel", a common basis for a general league of the European governments, its object being, primarily, the preservation of peace. So, too, by Article VI of

8262-495: The overthrow of Napoleon and his dynasty, and the confining of France within her traditional boundaries. The Triple Alliance of 1882 between Germany, Austria and Italy was ostensibly directed to the preservation of European peace against any possible aggressive action of France or Russia; and this led in turn, some ten years later, to the Dual Alliance between Russia and France , for mutual support in case of any hostile action of

8364-428: The population was called Dobri Bošnjani ("Good Bosnians"). The names Serb and Croat, though occasionally appearing in peripheral areas, were not used in Bosnia proper. Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by a power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stephen II Kotromanić became Ban . By the time of his death in 1353, he

8466-605: The precedent for those periodical meetings of the representatives of the powers, for the discussion and settlement of questions of international importance, which, though cumbrous and inefficient for constructive work, contributed much to the preservation of the general peace during much of the nineteenth century. Bosnia and Herzegovina in Europe  (dark grey) Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Serbo-Croatian : Bosna i Hercegovina , Босна и Херцеговина ), sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia ,

8568-406: The property. Following the reforms, Bosnian Muslims were dispossessed of a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land. Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians, such as Mehmed Spaho , ensured the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to

8670-579: The purpose of combined action, defensive or offensive, or both. The oldest such alliance in the world today is the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance , dating back to 1373 where the then Kingdoms of England and Portugal pledged to "perpetual friendship" between the two countries. This remains in action today between the current United Kingdom and Portugal , and the two have never fought against each other in any military campaign. Alliances have often been directed to specific objects carefully defined in

8772-464: The reluctant assistance of Ali Pasha Rizvanbegović . Related rebellions were extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. New nationalist movements appeared in Bosnia by the middle of the 19th century. Shortly after Serbia's breakaway from the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, Serbian and Croatian nationalism rose up in Bosnia, and such nationalists made irredentist claims to Bosnia's territory. This trend continued to grow in

8874-443: The rescue of a weaker ally (abandonment) may jeopardize the strong ally's other alliances. However, it may also strengthen the other alliances, as the other allies may sometimes prefer that the strong ally abandons a weak ally if it is likely to raise the risks of military escalation for the other allies. In the European historical context, a military alliance can be viewed as a league between independent states, defined by treaty, for

8976-722: The rest of the 19th and 20th centuries. Agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion , a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation that led to the Congress of Berlin and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy obtained

9078-586: The richness of their burial sites. In northern parts, there was a long tradition of cremation and burial in shallow graves, while in the south the dead were buried in large stone or earth tumuli (natively called gromile ) that in Herzegovina were reaching monumental sizes, more than 50 m wide and 5 m high. Japodian tribes had an affinity to decoration (heavy, oversized necklaces out of yellow, blue or white glass paste, and large bronze fibulas , as well as spiral bracelets, diadems and helmets out of bronze foil). In

9180-682: The side of the Central Powers and later joined on the side of the Allied Powers . When the treaty was renewed in February 1887, Italy gained an empty promise of German support of Italian colonial ambitions in North Africa in return for Italy's continued friendship. Austria-Hungary had to be pressured by German chancellor Otto von Bismarck into accepting the principles of consultation and mutual agreement with Italy on any territorial changes initiated in

9282-769: The signing of the Tripartite Treaty , and a coup d'état , Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941. Once the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by German forces in World War II , all of Bosnia and Herzegovina was ceded to the Nazi puppet regime, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) led by the Ustaše . The NDH leaders embarked on a campaign of extermination of Serbs, Jews, Romani as well as dissident Croats, and, later, Josip Broz Tito 's Partisans by setting up

9384-476: The six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole. The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates or banovinas that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with

9486-513: The status quo in the Balkans, as agreed in 1912 renewal of the Triple Alliance. Following parallel negotiation with both Triple Alliance (which aimed to keep Italy neutral) and the Triple Entente (which aimed to make Italy enter the conflict), Italy sided with the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary. The man chiefly responsible for the Triple Alliance was Otto von Bismarck ,

9588-467: The study of military alliances in international relations; the two perspectives dominated international relations theory from the 1960s to the 1990s. Neorealism emerged from the North American discipline of political science , and reformulates the understanding of military alliances in the classical realist tradition of E. H. Carr , Hans Morgenthau , George Kennan and Reinhold Niebuhr . Neorealism

9690-520: The title of a 15th-century Bosnian magnate, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača , who was "Herceg [Herzog] of Hum and the Coast" (1448). Hum (formerly called Zachlumia ) was an early medieval principality that had been conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. When the Ottomans took over administration of the region, they called it the Sanjak of Herzegovina ( Hersek ). It was included within

9792-638: The treaties. Thus the Triple Alliance of 1668 between Great Britain, Sweden and the Netherlands, and the Grand Alliance of 1689 between the Holy Roman Empire, Holland, England, Spain and Saxony, were both directed against the power of Louis XIV of France . The Quadruple or Grand Alliance of 1814, defined in the Treaty of Chaumont , between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, had for its object

9894-676: Was Ban Borić . The second was Ban Kulin , whose rule marked the start of a controversy involving the Bosnian Church – considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church . In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254. During this time,

9996-400: Was a general awareness in medieval Bosnia, at least amongst the nobles, that they shared a joint state with Serbia and that they belonged to the same ethnic group. That awareness diminished over time, due to differences in political and social development, but it was kept in Herzegovina and parts of Bosnia which were a part of Serbian state. The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in

10098-509: Was a lack of Orthodox Church activity in Bosnia proper in the pre-Ottoman period. An Orthodox Christian population in Bosnia was introduced as a direct result of Ottoman policy. From the 15th century and onwards, Orthodox Christians (Orthodox Vlachs and non-Vlach Orthodox Serbs) from Serbia and other regions settled in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Favored by the Ottomans over the Catholics, many Orthodox churches were allowed to be built in Bosnia by

10200-608: Was controlled by conservatives, who sympathized ideologically with the two monarchies. Also, Catholic Austria was a traditional protector of the Papacy , which Italy had poor relations with. However, perhaps most importantly, Italy was seeking potential allies against France. The Kingdom of Italy, like most of the other European powers, wanted to set up colonies and build up an overseas empire. Although France had supported Italian unification, Italy's colonial ambitions in Africa quickly brought it into

10302-553: Was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . After World War II , it was granted full republic status in the newly formed Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . In 1992, following the breakup of Yugoslavia , the republic proclaimed independence . This was followed by the Bosnian War , which lasted until late 1995 and ended with the signing of the Dayton Agreement . The country is home to three main ethnic groups : Bosniaks are

10404-456: Was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his ambitious nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. By the year 1377, Bosnia was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko as the first Bosnian King in Mile near Visoko in

#842157