149-572: Dionysius Lardner FRS FRSE (3 April 1793 – 29 April 1859) was an Irish scientific writer who popularised science and technology, and edited the 133-volume Cabinet Cyclopædia . He was born in Dublin on 3 April 1793 the son of William Lardner and his wife; his father was a solicitor in Dublin, who wished his son to follow the same calling. After some years of uncongenial desk work, Lardner entered Trinity College, Dublin , in 1812. He obtained
298-641: A British fleet . However, Naples' lower class lazzaroni were strongly pious and royalist, favouring the Bourbons; in the mêlée that followed, they fought the Neapolitan pro-Republican aristocracy, causing a civil war. Eventually, the Republicans conquered Castel Sant'Elmo and proclaimed a Parthenopaean Republic , secured by the French Army . A counter-revolutionary religious army of lazzaroni known as
447-534: A gladiator who, having retired, is free from control. The society's core members are the fellows: scientists and engineers from the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth selected based on having made "a substantial contribution to the improvement of natural knowledge, including mathematics, engineering science and medical science". Fellows are elected for life and gain the right to use the postnominal Fellow of
596-523: A "Colledge for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall Learning". Amongst those founders were Christopher Wren , Robert Boyle , John Wilkins , William Brouncker and Robert Moray . At the second meeting, Sir Robert Moray announced that the King approved of the gatherings, and a royal charter was signed on 15 July 1662 which created the "Royal Society of London", with Lord Brouncker serving as
745-616: A B.A. in 1817 and an M.A. in 1819, winning many prizes. He married Cecilia Flood on 19 December 1815, but they separated in 1820 and were divorced in 1835. About the time of the separation, he began a relationship with a married woman, Anne Maria Darley Boursiquot, the wife of a Dublin wine merchant of Huguenot ancestry. It is believed that he fathered her son, Dion Boucicault , who became an actor and dramatist. Lardner provided him with financial support until 1840. Whilst in Dublin, Lardner began to write and lecture on scientific and mathematical matters, and to contribute articles for publication by
894-535: A Charters Committee "with a view to obtaining a supplementary Charter from the Crown", aimed primarily at looking at ways to restrict membership. The Committee recommended that the election of Fellows take place on one day every year, that the Fellows be selected on consideration of their scientific achievements and that the number of fellows elected a year be limited to 15. This limit was increased to 17 in 1930 and 20 in 1937; it
1043-628: A Grade I listed building located near Milton Keynes , was bought by the Royal Society for £6.5 million, funded in part by the Kavli Foundation . The Royal Society spent several million on renovations adapting it to become the Kavli Royal Society International Centre, a venue for residential science seminars. The centre held its first scientific meeting on 1 June 2010 and was formally opened on 21 June 2010. The Centre
1192-562: A book when they join the Royal Society. This book is known as the Charter Book, which has been signed continuously since 1663. All British monarchs have signed the book since then, apart from William and Mary, and Queen Anne. In 2019, the book was digitised. The society's motto, Nullius in verba , is Latin for "Take nobody's word for it". It was adopted to signify the fellows' determination to establish facts via experiments and comes from Horace 's Epistles , where he compares himself to
1341-583: A central research institute. Similar schemes were expounded by Bengt Skytte and later Abraham Cowley , who wrote in his Proposition for the Advancement of Experimental Philosophy in 1661 of a "'Philosophical College", with houses, a library and a chapel. The society's ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff, but Hunter maintains an influence from Cowley and Skytte's ideas. Henry Oldenburg and Thomas Sprat put forward plans in 1667 and Oldenburg's co-secretary, John Wilkins , moved in
1490-403: A council meeting on 30 September 1667 to appoint a committee "for raising contributions among the members of the society, in order to build a college". These plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the "unrealised—perhaps unrealistic"—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised
1639-575: A desire to imitate the French, in having Philosophical Clubs, or Meetings; and that this was the occasion of founding the Royal Society, and making the French the first. I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But 'tis well known who were the principal men that began and promoted that design, both in this city and in Oxford; and that
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#17328585142071788-476: A hall of the castle, and following this Pope Boniface VIII was elected pope by the cardinal collegium , before moving to Rome. Castel Capuano was built in the 12th century by William I , the son of Roger II of Sicily , the first monarch of the Kingdom of Naples . It was expanded by Frederick II and became one of his royal palaces. The castle was the residence of many kings and queens throughout its history. In
1937-498: A history of Scotland and Thomas Moore contributed a history of Ireland. Connop Thirlwall provided a history of Ancient Greece , whilst Robert Southey provided a section on naval history. Many eminent scientists contributed as well. Lardner himself was the author of the treatises on arithmetic, geometry, heat, hydrostatics and pneumatics , mechanics (in conjunction with Henry Kater ) and electricity (in conjunction with C.V. Walker ). The Cabinet Library (9 vols., 1830–1832),
2086-676: A judgment of £8,000. The Heavisides were divorced in 1845, and in 1846 Lardner was able to marry Mary Heaviside. The scandal caused by his affair with a married woman effectively ended his career in England, so Lardner and his wife remained in Paris until shortly before his death in 1859. He was able to maintain his career by lecturing in the United States between 1841 and 1844, which proved financially rewarding, realising £40,000. He died in Naples , Italy, and
2235-528: A key international role in international diplomacy, since it is home to NATO 's Allied Joint Force Command Naples and of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean . Founded by Greeks in the first millennium BC, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited urban areas in the world. In the eighth century BC, a colony known as Parthenope ( Ancient Greek : Παρθενόπη ) was established on
2384-403: A lesser extent, by J. V. Andreae 's Christianopolis , dedicated research institutes, rather than the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge , since the founders only intended for the society to act as a location for research and discussion. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659; he suggested a grander scheme, with apartments for members and
2533-524: A long while before Mr Oldenburg came into England. And not only these Philosophic Meetings were before Mr Oldenburg came from Paris; but the Society itself was begun before he came hither; and those who then knew Mr Oldenburg, understood well enough how little he himself knew of philosophic matter. On 28 November 1660, which is considered the official foundation date of the Royal Society, a meeting at Gresham College of 12 natural philosophers decided to commence
2682-639: A major setback as a result of his involvement with Mary Spicer Heaviside, the wife of Captain Richard Heaviside, of the Dragoon Guards . He had previously been married to Cecilia Flood from 1815 to their separation in 1820. Lardner ran off to Paris with Mrs Heaviside, pursued by her husband. When he caught up with them, Heaviside subjected Lardner to a flogging but he was unable to persuade his wife to return with him. Later that year he successfully sued Lardner for " criminal conversation " (adultery) and received
2831-513: A paragon of Hellenistic culture . During the Roman era, the people of Naples maintained their Greek language and customs. At the same time, the city was expanded with elegant Roman villas , aqueducts , and public baths . Landmarks such as the Temple of Dioscures were built, and many emperors chose to holiday in the city, including Claudius and Tiberius . Virgil , the author of Rome's national epic ,
2980-630: A small number of scientists who were required to resign their fellowship on employment. The current executive director is Dame Julie Maxton DBE . The society has a variety of functions and activities. It supports modern science by disbursing over £100 million to fund almost 1,000 research fellowships for both early and late-career scientists, along with innovation, mobility and research capacity grants. Its awards, prize lectures and medals all come with prize money intended to finance research, and it provides subsidised communications and media skills courses for research scientists. Much of this activity
3129-541: A smooth transition to the presidency of Earl Macclesfield , whom Hardwicke helped elect. Under Macclesfield, the circle reached its "zenith", with members such as Lord Willoughby and Birch serving as vice-president and secretary respectively. The circle also influenced goings-on in other learned societies, such as the Society of Antiquaries of London . After Macclesfield's retirement, the circle had Lord Morton elected in 1764 and Sir John Pringle elected in 1772. By this point,
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#17328585142073278-465: A surrender in the face of insurgents. The city was already completely freed by 1 October 1943, when British and American forces entered the city. Departing Germans burned the library of the university , as well as the Italian Royal Society. They also destroyed the city archives. Time bombs planted throughout the city continued to explode into November. The symbol of the rebirth of Naples was
3427-516: A time of decline for the society; of 662 fellows in 1830, only 104 had contributed to the Philosophical Transactions . The same year, Charles Babbage published Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on Some of Its Causes , which was deeply critical of the society. The scientific Fellows of the society were spurred into action by this, and eventually James South established
3576-448: Is Adrian Smith , who took over from Venki Ramakrishnan on 30 November 2020. Historically, the duties of the president have been both formal and social. The Cruelty to Animals Act, 1876 left the president as one of the few individuals capable of certifying that a particular experiment on an animal was justified. In addition, the president is to act as the government's chief (albeit informal) advisor on scientific matters. Yet another task
3725-450: Is Adrian Smith , who took up the post and started his five-year term on 30 November 2020, replacing the previous president, Venki Ramakrishnan . Since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace , a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London . The Invisible College has been described as a precursor group to
3874-439: Is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences . The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, recognising excellence in science, supporting outstanding science, providing scientific advice for policy, education and public engagement and fostering international and global co-operation. Founded on 28 November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II and
4023-499: Is a Grade I listed building and the current headquarters of the Royal Society, which had moved there from Burlington House in 1967. The ground floor and basement are used for ceremonies, social and publicity events, the first floor hosts facilities for Fellows and Officers of the society, and the second and third floors are divided between offices and accommodation for the President, Executive Director and Fellows. Carlton House Terrace
4172-571: Is buried in the Cimitero degli Inglesi there. Lardner became involved in a number of ill-advised public disagreements with Isambard Kingdom Brunel regarding technical matters, in which he came off the worse. During the 1833 Parliamentary hearings discussing the proposal of the Great Western Railway, Lardner criticised Brunel's design of the Box Tunnel . The tunnel had a 1-in-100 gradient from
4321-407: Is contrary to the heraldic rules, as a society or corporation normally has an esquire's helmet (closed helmet); it is thought that either the engraver was ignorant of this rule, which was not strictly adhered to until around 1615, or that he used the peer's helmet as a compliment to Lord Brouncker , a peer and the first President of the Royal Society. Fellows and foreign members are required to sign
4470-528: Is currently 52. This had a number of effects on the society: first, the society's membership became almost entirely scientific, with few political Fellows or patrons. Second, the number of Fellows was significantly reduced—between 1700 and 1850, the number of Fellows rose from approximately 100 to approximately 750. From then until 1941, the total number of Fellows was always between 400 and 500. The period did lead to some reform of internal Society statutes, such as in 1823 and 1831. The most important change there
4619-579: Is one of the city's main museums, with one of the most extensive collections of artefacts of the Roman Empire in the world. It also houses many of the antiques unearthed at Pompeii and Herculaneum , as well as some artefacts from the Greek and Renaissance periods. Previously a Bourbon palace, now a museum and art gallery, the Museo di Capodimonte is another museum of note. The gallery features paintings from
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4768-485: Is similarly divided into two parts. Biology Letters publishes short research articles and opinion pieces on all areas of biology and was launched in 2005. Journal of the Royal Society Interface publishes cross-disciplinary research at the boundary between the physical and life sciences, while Interface Focus , publishes themed issue in the same areas. Notes and Records is the society's journal of
4917-681: Is still awarded on an annual basis and is considered the most important Royal Society prize for the biological sciences. Although the Croonian Lecture was created in 1701, it was first awarded in 1738, seven years after the Copley Medal . The Copley Medal is the oldest Royal Society medal still in use and is awarded for "outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science". Naples Naples ( / ˈ n eɪ p əl z / NAY -pəlz ; Italian : Napoli [ˈnaːpoli] ; Neapolitan : Napule [ˈnɑːpələ] )
5066-648: Is supported by a grant from the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills , most of which is channelled to the University Research Fellowships (URF) . In 2008, the society opened the Royal Society Enterprise Fund, intended to invest in new scientific companies and be self-sustaining, funded (after an initial set of donations on the 350th anniversary of the society) by the returns from its investments. Through its Science Policy Centre,
5215-442: Is that of entertaining distinguished foreign guests and scientists. The society is assisted by a number of full-time paid staff. The original charter provided for "two or more Operators of Experiments, and two or more clerks"; as the number of books in the society's collection grew, it also became necessary to employ a curator. The staff grew as the financial position of the society improved, mainly consisting of outsiders, along with
5364-507: Is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy , after Rome and Milan , with a population of 909,048 within the city's administrative limits as of 2022. Its province-level municipality is the third-most populous metropolitan city in Italy with a population of 3,115,320 residents, and its metropolitan area stretches beyond the boundaries of the city wall for approximately 30 kilometres (20 miles). Naples plays also
5513-435: Is the city's premier place of worship; each year on 19 September, it hosts the longstanding Miracle of Saint Januarius , the city's patron saint . During the miracle, which thousands of Neapolitans flock to witness, the dried blood of Januarius is said to turn to liquid when brought close to holy relics said to be of his body. Below is a selective list of Naples' major churches, chapels, and monastery complexes: Aside from
5662-444: Is the oldest opera house in Italy. Directly across San Carlo is Galleria Umberto . Naples is well known for its castles: The most ancient is Castel dell'Ovo ("Egg Castle"), which was built on the tiny islet of Megarides, where the original Cumaean colonists had founded the city. In Roman times the islet became part of Lucullus 's villa, later hosting Romulus Augustulus , the exiled last western Roman emperor. It had also been
5811-427: Is the oldest continuously existing scientific academy in the world. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the society's president, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the president are elected from and by its Fellows, the basic members of the society, who are themselves elected by existing Fellows. As of 2020 , there are about 1,700 fellows, allowed to use
5960-569: The Aeneid , received part of his education in the city, and later resided in its environs. It was during this period that Christianity first arrived in Naples; the apostles Peter and Paul are said to have preached in the city. Januarius , who would become Naples' patron saint , was martyred there in the fourth century AD. The last emperor of the Western Roman Empire , Romulus Augustulus ,
6109-834: The Edinburgh Cabinet Library (38 vols., 1830–1844) and the Museum of Science and Art (12 vols., 1854–1856) were his other chief undertakings. A few original papers appear in the Royal Irish Academy's Transactions (1824), in the Royal Society 's Proceedings (1831–1836) and in the Astronomical Society's Monthly Notices (1852–1853); and two Reports to the British Association on railway constants (1838, 1841) are from his pen. In 1840 Lardner's career received
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6258-408: The sanfedisti under Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo was raised; they met with great success, and the French were forced to surrender the Neapolitan castles, with their fleet sailing back to Toulon . Ferdinand IV was restored as king; however, after only seven years, Napoleon conquered the kingdom and installed Bonapartist kings, including installing his brother Joseph Bonaparte . With the help of
6407-512: The Alta Velocità high-speed rail link to Rome and Salerno and an expanded subway network . Naples is the third-largest urban economy in Italy by GDP, after Milan and Rome. The Port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe. Naples' historic city centre has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . A wide range of culturally and historically significant sites are nearby, including
6556-683: The Austrian Empire and its allies, the Bonapartists were defeated in the Neapolitan War . Ferdinand IV once again regained the throne and the kingdom. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 saw the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily combine to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , with Naples as the capital city. In 1839, Naples became the first city on the Italian Peninsula to have a railway, with
6705-640: The Battle of Garigliano in 1503. Following the Spanish victory, Naples became part of the Spanish Empire , and remained so throughout the Spanish Habsburg period. The Spanish sent viceroys to Naples to directly deal with local issues: the most important of these viceroys was Pedro Álvarez de Toledo , who was responsible for considerable social, economic and urban reforms in the city; he also tried to introduce
6854-500: The British royal family , representing the British monarchy 's role in promoting and supporting the society, who are recommended by the society's council and elected via postal vote. There are currently four royal fellows: The King of the United Kingdom , The Duke of Kent , The Princess Royal , and The Prince of Wales . Honorary fellows are people who are ineligible to be elected as fellows but nevertheless have "rendered signal service to
7003-568: The Byzantine Emperor , with numerous local pretenders feuding for possession of the ducal throne. Theoctistus was appointed without imperial approval; his appointment was later revoked and Theodore II took his place. However, the disgruntled general populace chased him from the city and elected Stephen III instead, a man who minted coins with his initials rather than those of the Byzantine Emperor. Naples gained complete independence by
7152-518: The Iberian Peninsula . Naples also became a centre of the Renaissance, with artists such as Laurana , da Messina , Sannazzaro and Poliziano arriving in the city. In 1501, Naples came under direct rule from France under Louis XII , with the Neapolitan king Frederick being taken as a prisoner to France; however, this state of affairs did not last long, as Spain won Naples from the French at
7301-808: The Inquisition . In 1544, around 7,000 people were taken as slaves by Barbary pirates and brought to the Barbary Coast of North Africa (see Sack of Naples ). By the 17th century, Naples had become Europe's second-largest city – second only to Paris – and the largest European Mediterranean city, with around 250,000 inhabitants. The city was a major cultural centre during the Baroque era, being home to artists such as Caravaggio , Salvator Rosa and Bernini , philosophers such as Bernardino Telesio , Giordano Bruno , Tommaso Campanella and Giambattista Vico , and writers such as Giambattista Marino . A revolution led by
7450-636: The Kingdom of Sicily , with Palermo as the capital. After a period of Norman rule, in 1189, the Kingdom of Sicily was in a succession dispute between Tancred, King of Sicily of an illegitimate birth and the Hohenstaufens , a Germanic royal house , as its Prince Henry had married Princess Constance the last legitimate heir to the Sicilian throne. In 1191 Henry invaded Sicily after being crowned as Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor , and many cities surrendered. Still, Naples resisted him from May to August under
7599-579: The Lombards for a brief period after the capture by Pandulf IV of the Principality of Capua , a long-term rival of Naples; however, this regime lasted only three years before the Greco-Roman-influenced dukes were reinstated. By the 11th century, Naples had begun to employ Norman mercenaries to battle their rivals; Duke Sergius IV hired Rainulf Drengot to wage war on Capua for him. By 1137,
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#17328585142077748-664: The Neapolitan School . Between 1925 and 1936, Naples was expanded and upgraded by the Fascist regime . During the later years of World War II , it sustained severe damage from Allied bombing as they invaded the peninsula. The city underwent extensive reconstruction work after the war. Since the late 20th century, Naples has had significant economic growth, helped by the construction of the Centro Direzionale business district and an advanced transportation network, which includes
7897-596: The Palace of Caserta and the Roman ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum . In 2017 the BBC defined Naples as "the Italian city with too much history to handle". The most prominent forms of architecture visible in present-day Naples are the Medieval , Renaissance and Baroque styles. Naples has a total of 448 historical churches (1000 in total ), making it one of the most Catholic cities in
8046-519: The Palace of Caserta and the Roman ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum . Naples is also known for its natural beauties, such as Posillipo , Phlegraean Fields , Nisida and Vesuvius . Neapolitan cuisine is noted for its association with pizza , which originated in the city, as well as numerous other local dishes. Restaurants in the Naples' area have earned the most stars from the Michelin Guide of any Italian province. Naples' Centro Direzionale
8195-507: The Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act (POFMA), with four prominent (criminal) cases within the first months of the COVID-19 outbreak. POFMA also lifted any exemptions for internet intermediaries which legally required social media companies like Google, Facebook, Twitter and Baidu to immediately correct cases of misinformation on their platforms." The blazon for the shield in
8344-718: The Roman Republic against Carthage . During the Samnite Wars , the city, now a bustling centre of trade, was captured by the Samnites ; however, the Romans soon captured the city from them and made it a Roman colony . During the Punic Wars , the strong walls surrounding Neápolis repelled the invading forces of the Carthaginian general Hannibal . The Romans greatly respected Naples as
8493-427: The Royal Palace of Naples stands the Galleria Umberto I , which contains the Coral Jewellery Museum . Occupying a 19th-century palazzo renovated by the Portuguese architect Álvaro Siza , the Museo d'Arte Contemporanea Donnaregina (MADRE) features an enfilade procession of permanent installations by artists such as Francesco Clemente , Richard Serra , and Rebecca Horn . The 16th-century palace of Roccella hosts
8642-405: The coat of arms of the Royal Society is in a dexter corner of a shield argent our three Lions of England, and for crest a helm adorned with a crown studded with florets, surmounted by an eagle of proper colour holding in one foot a shield charged with our lions: supporters two white hounds gorged with crowns , with the motto of nullius in verba . John Evelyn, interested in the early structure of
8791-416: The late-2000s recession had a severe impact on the city, intensifying its waste-management and unemployment problems. By August 2011, the number of unemployed in the Naples area had risen to 250,000, sparking public protests against the economic situation. In June 2012, allegations of blackmail, extortion, and illicit contract tendering emerged concerning the city's waste management issues. Naples hosted
8940-420: The "Original Fellows". After the expiration of this two-month period, any appointments were to be made by the president, council and existing fellows. Many early fellows were not scientists or particularly eminent intellectuals; it was clear that the early society could not rely on financial assistance from the king, and scientifically trained fellows were few and far between. It was, therefore, necessary to secure
9089-411: The 13th to the 18th centuries, including major works by Simone Martini , Raphael , Titian , Caravaggio , El Greco , Jusepe de Ribera and Luca Giordano . The royal apartments are furnished with antique 18th-century furniture and a collection of porcelain and majolica from the various royal residences: the famous Capodimonte Porcelain Factory once stood just adjacent to the palace. In front of
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#17328585142079238-445: The 14th century, the Hungarian Angevin king Louis the Great captured the city several times. In 1442, Alfonso I conquered Naples after his victory against the last Angevin king, René , and Naples was unified with Sicily again for a brief period. Sicily and Naples were separated since 1282, but remained dependencies of Aragon under Ferdinand I . The new dynasty enhanced Naples' commercial standing by establishing relations with
9387-401: The 16th century by the Spanish, was demolished in 1906 to make room for the Via Marina, although two of the castle's towers remain as a monument. The Vigliena Fort, built in 1702, was destroyed in 1799 during the royalist war against the Parthenopean Republic and is now abandoned and in ruin. Naples is widely known for its wealth of historical museums. The Naples National Archaeological Museum
9536-431: The 16th century, it became the Hall of Justice. Another Neapolitan castle is Castel Sant'Elmo , which was completed in 1329 and is built in the shape of a star . Its strategic position overlooking the entire city made it a target of various invaders. During the uprising of Masaniello in 1647, the Spanish took refuge in Sant'Elmo to escape the revolutionaries. The Carmine Castle , built in 1392 and highly modified in
9685-428: The 3,500 mi (5,600 km) transatlantic passage to New York, at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Lardner stated that: As the project of making the voyage directly from New York to Liverpool, it was perfectly chimerical, and they might as well talk of making the voyage from New York to the moon... 2,080 mi (3,350 km) is the longest run that a steamer could encounter – at
9834-403: The Duke of Noja , employing rigorous surveying accuracy and becoming an essential urban planning tool for Naples. During the time of Ferdinand IV , the effects of the French Revolution were felt in Naples: Horatio Nelson , an ally of the Bourbons, arrived in the city in 1798 to warn against the French republicans. Ferdinand was forced to retreat and fled to Palermo , where he was protected by
9983-495: The East Wing. The top floor was used as accommodation for the Assistant Secretary, while the library was scattered over every room and the old caretaker's apartment was converted into offices. One flaw was the lack of space for the office staff, which was then approximately eighty. On 22 March 1945, the first female Fellows were elected to the Royal Society. This followed a statutory amendment in 1944 that read "Nothing herein contained shall render women ineligible as candidates", and
10132-463: The Irish Academy. In 1828, Lardner was elected professor of natural philosophy and astronomy at University College, London , a position he held until he resigned his professorship in 1831. Lardner showed himself to be a successful populariser of science, giving talks on contemporary topics such as Babbage 's Difference Engine (1834). He was the author of numerous mathematical and physical treatises on such subjects as algebraic geometry (1823),
10281-563: The Naples area between 1876 and 1913. In the forty years following unification, the population of Naples grew by only 26%, vs. 63% for Turin and 103% for Milan; however, by 1884, Naples was still the largest city in Italy with 496,499 inhabitants, or roughly 64,000 per square kilometre (more than twice the population density of Paris). Public health conditions in certain areas of the city were poor, with twelve epidemics of cholera and typhoid fever claiming some 48,000 people between 1834 and 1884. A death rate 31.84 per thousand, high even for
10430-510: The Normans had attained great influence in Italy, controlling previously independent principalities and duchies such as Capua , Benevento , Salerno , Amalfi , Sorrento and Gaeta ; it was in this year that Naples, the last independent duchy in the southern part of the peninsula, came under Norman control. The last ruling duke of the duchy, Sergius VII , was forced to surrender to Roger II , who had been proclaimed King of Sicily by Antipope Anacletus II seven years earlier. Naples thus joined
10579-427: The Palazzo delle Arti Napoli, which contains the civic collections of art belonging to the City of Naples, and features temporary exhibits of art and culture. Palazzo Como, which dates from the 15th century, hosts the Museo Civico Filangieri of plastic arts , created in 1883 by Gaetano Filangieri . Naples is the seat of the Archdiocese of Naples ; there are hundreds of churches in the city. The Cathedral of Naples
10728-504: The Pizzofalcone hill. In the sixth century BC, it was refounded as Neápolis. The city was an important part of Magna Graecia , played a major role in the merging of Greek and Roman society, and was a significant cultural centre under the Romans. Naples served as the capital of the Duchy of Naples (661–1139), subsequently as the capital of the Kingdom of Naples (1282–1816), and finally as
10877-575: The Royal Society (FRS). The rights and responsibilities of fellows also include a duty to financially contribute to the society, the right to stand for council posts and the right to elect new fellows. Up to 52 fellows are elected each year and in 2014 there were about 1,450 living members in total. Election to the fellowship is decided by ten sectional committees (each covering a subject area or set of subjects areas) which consist of existing fellows. The society also elects royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members. Royal fellows are those members of
11026-472: The Royal Society of London, consisting of a number of natural philosophers around Robert Boyle . The concept of "invisible college" is mentioned in German Rosicrucian pamphlets in the early 17th century. Ben Jonson in England referenced the idea, related in meaning to Francis Bacon 's House of Solomon , in a masque The Fortunate Isles and Their Union from 1624/5. The term accrued currency in
11175-619: The accident. A committee of the Franklin Institute pointed out that there was no lightning present at that time and that the pumps had been faulty, the water indicator was ill-designed and the bridge bands made of cast iron rather than wrought iron. The Coroner's inquest jury were persuaded by Lardner that the accident was an 'act of God' but the company were careful to design their later locomotives with wrought-iron bands. Royal Society of London The Royal Society , formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge ,
11324-537: The ancient Greek foundation of Neapolis is still discernible. It has indeed continued to provide the layout for the present-day Historic Centre of Naples, one of the major Mediterranean port cities. From the Middle Ages to the 18th century, Naples was a focal point in terms of art and architecture, expressed in its ancient forts, the royal ensembles such as the Royal Palace of 1600, and the palaces and churches sponsored by
11473-476: The argument that occurred when deciding which to use, opponents of Franklin's invention accused supporters of being American allies rather than being British, and the debate eventually led to the resignation of the society's president, Sir John Pringle . During the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of
11622-414: The capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies — until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples is also considered a capital of the Baroque , beginning with the artist Caravaggio 's career in the 17th century and the artistic revolution he inspired. It was also an important centre of humanism and Enlightenment . The city has long been a global point of reference for classical music and opera through
11771-471: The cause of science, or whose election would significantly benefit the Society by their great experience in other walks of life". Six honorary fellows have been elected to date, including Baroness O'Neill of Bengarve . Foreign members are scientists from non-Commonwealth nations "who are eminent for their scientific discoveries and attainments". Eight are elected each year by the society and also hold their membership for life. Foreign members are permitted to use
11920-431: The charter, the president, two secretaries and the treasurer are collectively the officers of the society. The current officers are: The president of the Royal Society is the head of both the society and the council. The details for the presidency were set out in the second charter and initially had no limit on how long a president could serve; under current society statute, the term is five years. The current president
12069-811: The city for the Ostrogoths, but the Byzantines seized control of the area following the Battle of Mons Lactarius on the slopes of Vesuvius . Naples was expected to keep in contact with the Exarchate of Ravenna , which was the centre of Byzantine power on the Italian Peninsula . After the exarchate fell, a Duchy of Naples was created. Although Naples' Greco-Roman culture endured, it eventually switched allegiance from Constantinople to Rome under Duke Stephen II , putting it under papal suzerainty by 763. The years between 818 and 832 saw tumultuous relations with
12218-706: The city from Vienna through viceroys of his own. However, the War of the Polish Succession saw the Spanish regain Sicily and Naples as part of a personal union , with the 1738 Treaty of Vienna recognising the two polities as independent under a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons . In 1755, the Duke of Noja commissioned an accurate topographic map of Naples, later known as the Map of
12367-528: The city's recent illegal waste disposal issues to the Camorra , the organized crime network centered in Campania. Due to illegal waste dumping, as exposed by Roberto Saviano in his book Gomorrah , severe environmental contamination and increased health risks remain prevalent. In 2007, Silvio Berlusconi 's government held senior meetings in Naples to demonstrate their intention to solve these problems. However,
12516-629: The city. Many examples of Gothic architecture sprang up around Naples, including the Naples Cathedral , which remains the city's main church. In 1282, after the Sicilian Vespers , the Kingdom of Sicily was divided into two. The Angevin Kingdom of Naples included the southern part of the Italian peninsula, while the island of Sicily became the Aragonese Kingdom of Sicily . Wars between
12665-401: The claims of the society's degradation during the 18th century are false. Richard Sorrenson writes that "far from having 'fared ingloriously', the society experienced a period of significant productivity and growth throughout the eighteenth century", pointing out that many of the sources critical accounts are based on are in fact written by those with an agenda. While Charles Babbage wrote that
12814-487: The competing dynasties continued until the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, which saw Frederick III recognised as king of Sicily, while Charles II was recognised as king of Naples by Pope Boniface VIII . Despite the split, Naples grew in importance, attracting Pisan and Genoese merchants, Tuscan bankers, and some of the most prominent Renaissance artists of the time, such as Boccaccio , Petrarch and Giotto . During
12963-795: The construction of the Naples–Portici railway . After the Expedition of the Thousand led by Giuseppe Garibaldi , which culminated in the controversial siege of Gaeta , Naples became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 as part of the Italian unification , ending the era of Bourbon rule. The economy of the area formerly known as the Two Sicilies as dependant on agriculture suffered the international pressure on prices of wheat, and together with lower sea fares prices lead to an unprecedented wave of emigration , with an estimated 4 million people emigrating from
13112-458: The council bought two houses in Crane Court, Fleet Street , on 26 October 1710. This included offices, accommodation and a collection of curiosities. Although the overall fellowship contained few noted scientists, most of the council were highly regarded, and included at various times John Hadley , William Jones and Hans Sloane . Because of the laxness of fellows in paying their subscriptions,
13261-416: The differential and integral calculus (1825), and the steam engine (1828). He also wrote hand-books on various departments of natural philosophy (1854–1856); but it is as the editor of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia (1830–1844) that he is best remembered. The Cabinet Cyclopædia eventually comprised 133 volumes, and many of the ablest savants of the day contributed to it. Sir Walter Scott contributed
13410-476: The early ninth century. Naples allied with the Muslim Saracens in 836 and asked for their support to repel the siege of Lombard troops coming from the neighbouring Duchy of Benevento . However, during the 850s, Muslim general Muhammad I Abu 'l-Abbas sacked Miseno , but only for Khums purposes (Islamic booty), without conquering the territories of Campania . The duchy was under the direct control of
13559-651: The early years of the society faded; with a small number of scientific "greats" compared to other periods, little of note was done. In the second half, it became customary for His Majesty's Government to refer highly important scientific questions to the council of the society for advice, something that, despite the non-partisan nature of the society, spilled into politics in 1777 over lightning conductors . The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, while Benjamin Wilson invented blunted ones. During
13708-405: The east end to the west end. Lardner asserted that if a train's brakes were to fail in the tunnel, it would accelerate to over 120 mph (190 km/h), at which speed the train would break up and kill the passengers. Brunel pointed out that Lardner's calculations totally disregarded air resistance and friction, a basic error. In 1836, when Brunel was proposing to build SS Great Western for
13857-450: The end of that distance she would require a relay of coals. Again, Brunel was able to show that Lardner's calculations were too simplistic. The principle that Brunel understood, which Lardner did not, was that the carrying capacity of a ship increases as the cube of its dimensions, whilst the water resistance only increases as the square of its dimensions. This meant that large ships were more fuel efficient, and could carry sufficient coal for
14006-554: The exchanges of correspondence within the Republic of Letters . In letters dated 1646 and 1647, Boyle refers to "our invisible college" or "our philosophical college". The society's common theme was to acquire knowledge through experimental investigation. Three dated letters are the basic documentary evidence: Boyle sent them to Isaac Marcombes (Boyle's former tutor and a Huguenot , who was then in Geneva ), Francis Tallents who at that point
14155-833: The experimental medical interventions. This was brought to popular notice in January 2020 by a retired justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom , Lord Sumption , who in his broadside wrote "Science advances by confronting contrary arguments, not by suppressing them." The proposal was authored by sociologist Melinda Mills and approved by her colleagues on the "Science in Emergencies Tasking – COVID" in an October 2020 report entitled "COVID-19 vaccine deployment: Behaviour, ethics, misinformation and policy strategies". The SET-C committee favoured legislation from China, Singapore and South Korea, and found that "Singapore, for instance has
14304-399: The favour of wealthy or important individuals for the society's survival. While the entrance fee of £4 and the subscription rate of one shilling a week should have produced £600 a year for the society, many fellows paid neither regularly nor on time. Two-thirds of the fellows in 1663 were non-scientists; this rose to 71.6% in 1800 before dropping to 47.4% in 1860 as the financial security of
14453-616: The first female mathematician elected to be a Fellow of the Royal Society. Cartwright was also the first woman to serve on the Council of the Royal Society. Due to overcrowding at Burlington House, the society moved to Carlton House Terrace in 1967. To show support for vaccines against COVID-19 , the Royal Society under the guidance of both Nobel prize-winner Venki Ramakrishnan and Sir Adrian Smith added its power to shape public discourse and proposed "legislation and punishment of those who produced and disseminated false information" about
14602-591: The first president. A second royal charter was signed on 23 April 1663, with the king noted as the founder and with the name of "the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge"; Robert Hooke was appointed as Curator of Experiments in November. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society. The society's early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin , who
14751-730: The growing number of Fellows. Therefore, the Library Committee asked the Council to petition Her Majesty's Government to find new facilities, with the advice being to bring all the scientific societies, such as the Linnean and Geological societies, under one roof. In August 1866, the government announced their intention to refurbish Burlington House and move the Royal Academy and other societies there. The Academy moved in 1867, while other societies joined when their facilities were built. The Royal Society moved there in 1873, taking up residence in
14900-417: The history of science. Biographical Memoirs is published twice annually and contains extended obituaries of deceased Fellows. Open Biology is an open access journal covering biology at the molecular and cellular level . Royal Society Open Science is an open access journal publishing high-quality original research across the entire range of science on the basis of objective peer-review. All
15049-435: The invention of infinitesimal calculus , he used his position to appoint an "impartial" committee to decide it, eventually publishing a report written by himself in the committee's name. In 1705, the society was informed that it could no longer rent Gresham College and began a search for new premises. After unsuccessfully applying to Queen Anne for new premises, and asking the trustees of Cotton House if they could meet there,
15198-614: The kingdom. Conflict between the Hohenstaufens and the Papacy led in 1266 to Pope Innocent IV crowning the Angevin duke Charles I King of Sicily: Charles officially moved the capital from Palermo to Naples, where he resided at the Castel Nuovo . Having a great interest in architecture, Charles I imported French architects and workmen and was personally involved in several building projects in
15347-504: The leadership of Richard, Count of Acerra , Nicholas of Ajello , Aligerno Cottone and Margaritus of Brindisi before the Germans suffered from disease and were forced to retreat. Conrad II, Duke of Bohemia and Philip I, Archbishop of Cologne died of disease during the siege . During his counterattack, Tancred captured Constance, now empress. He had the empress imprisoned at Castel dell'Ovo at Naples before her release on May 1192 under
15496-529: The local fisherman Masaniello saw the creation of a brief independent Neapolitan Republic in 1647. However, this lasted only a few months before Spanish rule was reasserted. In 1656, an outbreak of bubonic plague killed about half of Naples' 300,000 inhabitants. In 1714, Spanish rule over Naples came to an end as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession ; the Austrian Charles VI ruled
15645-563: The long voyage across the Atlantic. Brunel was proved right when the Great Western steamed into New York harbour with 200 long tons (200 tonnes) of coal to spare. In 1838 while Brunel was building the broad-gauge Great Western Railway , Lardner carried out some experiments with the company's flagship locomotive, North Star . He asserted that, whilst the engine was capable of hauling 82 long tons (83 tonnes) at 33 mph (53 km/h), it
15794-465: The main cause of insalubrity , with large and airy avenues. The project proved difficult to accomplish politically and economically due to corruption, as shown in the Saredo Inquiry , land speculation and extremely long bureaucracy. This led to the project to massive delays with contrasting results. The most notable transformations made were the construction of Via Caracciolo in place of the beach along
15943-482: The move. Somerset House, while larger than Crane Court, was not satisfying to the fellows; the room to store the library was too small, the accommodation was insufficient and there was not enough room to store the museum at all. As a result, the museum was handed to the British Museum in 1781 and the library was extended to two rooms, one of which was used for council meetings. The early 19th century has been seen as
16092-412: The names had only been announced a couple of days before. As with the other reforms, this helped ensure that Fellows had a chance to vet and properly consider candidates. In 1850 the society accepted the responsibility of administering a government grant-in-aid of scientific research of £1,000 per year; this was supplemented in the financial year 1876/1877 by a Government Fund of £4,000 per year, with
16241-421: The ninth century BC. By the eighth century BC, the settlement was expanded by Cumaeans , as evidenced by the archaeological findings, to include Monte Echia. In the sixth century BC the city was refounded as Neápolis ( Νεάπολις ), eventually becoming one of the foremost cities of Magna Graecia . The city grew rapidly due to the influence of the powerful Greek city-state of Syracuse , and became an ally of
16390-673: The noble families. The main city square or piazza of the city is the Piazza del Plebiscito . Its construction was begun by the Bonapartist king Joachim Murat and finished by the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV . The piazza is bounded on the east by the Royal Palace and on the west by the church of San Francesco di Paola , with the colonnades extending on both sides. Nearby is the Teatro di San Carlo , which
16539-602: The post of Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy there. He was influential in publicising Charles Babbage 's Difference Engine . Whilst lecturing in America Lardner was paid by Norris Brothers, the largest firm of locomotive builders, to investigate a fatal accident in Reading, near Philadelphia, where a boiler had exploded on a newly made train. Lardner pronounced that the accident had been caused by lightning, which meant that Norris Brothers were not personally liable for
16688-480: The post-nominal ForMemRS (Foreign Member of the Royal Society) and as of August 2020 number about 185. The appointment of fellows was first authorised in the second charter, issued on 22 April 1663, which allowed the president and council, in the two months following the signing, to appoint as fellows any individual they saw fit. This saw the appointment of 94 fellows on 20 May and 4 on 22 June; these 98 are known as
16837-418: The postnominal title FRS ( Fellow of the Royal Society ), with up to 73 new fellows appointed each year from a pool of around 800 candidates. There are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members. Up to 24 new foreign members are appointed each year (from the same pool of 800) and they are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS (Foreign Member of the Royal Society). The Royal Society president
16986-498: The practice of pure mathematics in Britain was weak, laying the blame at the doorstep of the society, the practice of mixed mathematics was strong and although there were not many eminent members of the society, some did contribute vast amounts – James Bradley , for example, established the nutation of the Earth's axis with 20 years of detailed, meticulous astronomy. Politically within
17135-400: The president, and the other officers are elected from and by its fellowship. The council is a body consisting of 20 to 24 Fellows, including the officers (the president, the treasurer, two secretaries—one from the physical sciences, one from life sciences—and the foreign secretary), one fellow to represent each sectional committee and seven other fellows. The council is tasked with directing
17284-422: The pressure of Pope Celestine III . In 1194 Henry started his second campaign upon the death of Tancred, but this time Aligerno surrendered without resistance, and finally, Henry conquered Sicily, putting it under the rule of Hohenstaufens. The University of Naples , the first university in Europe dedicated to training secular administrators, was founded by Frederick II , making Naples the intellectual centre of
17433-528: The previous Whig "majority" had been reduced to a "faction", with Birch and Willoughby no longer involved, and the circle declined in the same time frame as the political party did in British politics under George III , falling apart in the 1780s. In 1780, the society moved again, this time to Somerset House . The property was offered to the society by His Majesty's Government and, as soon as Sir Joseph Banks became president in November 1778, he began planning
17582-440: The prison for Empress Constance between 1191 and 1192 after her being captured by Sicilians, and Conradin and Giovanna I of Naples before their executions. Castel Nuovo , also known as Maschio Angioino , is one of the city's top landmarks; it was built during the time of Charles I , the first king of Naples . Castel Nuovo has seen many notable historical events: for example, in 1294, Pope Celestine V resigned as pope in
17731-475: The promenade, the creation of Galleria Umberto I and Galleria Principe and the construction of Corso Umberto. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II . Though Neapolitans did not rebel under Italian Fascism , Naples was the first Italian city to rise up against German military occupation ; for the first time in Europe, the Nazis, whose leader in this case was Colonel Scholl, negotiated
17880-536: The property. New waiting, exhibition and reception rooms were created in the house at No.7, using the Magna Boschi marble found in No.8, and greenish grey Statuario Venato marble was used in other areas to standardise the design. An effort was also made to make the layout of the buildings easier, consolidating all the offices on one floor, Fellows' Rooms on another and all the accommodation on a third. In 2009 Chicheley Hall ,
18029-480: The rebuilding of the church of Santa Chiara , which had been destroyed in a United States Army Air Corps bombing raid. Special funding from the Italian government's Fund for the South was provided from 1950 to 1984, helping the Neapolitan economy to improve somewhat, with city landmarks such as the Piazza del Plebiscito being renovated. However, high unemployment continues to affect Naples. Italian media attributed
18178-607: The sixth World Urban Forum in September 2012 and the 63rd International Astronautical Congress in October 2012. In 2013, it was the host of the Universal Forum of Cultures and the host for the 2019 Summer Universiade . Naples' 2,800-year history has left it with a wealth of historical buildings and monuments, from medieval castles to classical ruins, and a wide range of culturally and historically significant sites nearby, including
18327-507: The society acting as the administering body of these funds, distributing grants to scientists. The Government Fund came to an end after a period of five years, after which the Government Grant was increased to £4,000 a year in total. This grant has now grown to over £47 million, some £37 million of which is to support around 370 fellowships and professorships. By 1852, the congestion at Somerset House had increased thanks to
18476-649: The society acts as an advisor to the UK Government , the European Commission and the United Nations on matters of science. It publishes several reports a year, and serves as the Academy of Sciences of the United Kingdom. Since the middle of the 18th century, government problems involving science were irregularly referred to the society, and by 1800 it was done regularly. The premises at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace
18625-427: The society became more certain. In May 1846, a committee recommended limiting the annual intake of members to 15 and insisting on scientific eminence; this was implemented, with the result being that the society now consists exclusively of scientific fellows. The society is governed by its council, which is chaired by the society's president , according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of council,
18774-530: The society ran into financial difficulty during this time; by 1740, the society had a deficit of £240. This continued into 1741, at which point the treasurer began dealing harshly with fellows who had not paid. The business of the society at this time continued to include the demonstration of experiments and the reading of formal and important scientific papers, along with the demonstration of new scientific devices and queries about scientific matters from both Britain and Europe. Some modern research has asserted that
18923-557: The society temporarily moved to Arundel House in 1666 after the Great Fire of London , which did not harm Gresham but did lead to its appropriation by the Lord Mayor. The society returned to Gresham in 1673. There had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent "college" for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by " Solomon's House " in Bacon's New Atlantis and, to
19072-452: The society's early problems. The number of fellows had increased from 110 to approximately 300 by 1739, the reputation of the society had increased under the presidency of Sir Isaac Newton from 1703 until his death in 1727, and editions of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society were appearing regularly. During his time as president, Newton arguably abused his authority; in a dispute between himself and Gottfried Leibniz over
19221-409: The society's first secretary. It remains the oldest and longest-running scientific journal in the world. It now publishes themed issues on specific topics and, since 1886, has been divided into two parts; A, which deals with mathematics and the physical sciences, and B, which deals with the biological sciences. Proceedings of the Royal Society consists of freely submitted research articles and
19370-491: The society's journals are peer-reviewed . In May 2021, the society announced plans to transition its four hybrid research journals to open access The Royal Society presents numerous awards, lectures, and medals to recognise scientific achievement. The oldest is the Croonian Lecture , created in 1701 at the request of the widow of William Croone , one of the founding members of the Royal Society. The Croonian Lecture
19519-482: The society's overall policy, managing all business related to the society, amending, making or repealing the society's standing orders and acting as trustees for the society's possessions and estates. Members are elected annually via a postal ballot, and current standing orders mean that at least ten seats must change hands each year. The council may establish (and is assisted by) a variety of committees, which can include not only fellows but also outside scientists. Under
19668-513: The society, had sketched out at least six possible designs, but in August 1662 Charles II told the society that it was allowed to use the arms of England as part of its coat and the society "now resolv'd that the armes of the Society should be, a field Argent, with a canton of the armes of England; the supporters two talbots Argent ; Crest, an eagle Or holding a shield with the like armes of England, viz. 3 lions . The words Nullius in verba ". This
19817-512: The society, the mid-18th century featured a " Whig supremacy" as the so-called "Hardwicke Circle" of Whig-leaning scientists held the society's main Offices. Named after Lord Hardwicke , the group's members included Daniel Wray and Thomas Birch and was most prominent in the 1750s and '60s. The circle had Birch elected secretary and, following the resignation of Martin Folkes , the circle helped oversee
19966-408: The time, insisted in the absence of epidemics between 1878 and 1883. Then in 1884, Naples fell victim to a major cholera epidemic, caused largely by the city's poor sewerage infrastructure. In response to these problems, in 1885, the government prompted a radical transformation of the city called risanamento to improve the sewerage infrastructure and replace the most clustered areas, considered
20115-474: The world in terms of the number of places of worship. In 1995, the historic centre of Naples was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site , a United Nations programme which aims to catalogue and conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of mankind . Naples is one of the most ancient cities in Europe, whose contemporary urban fabric preserves the elements of its long and eventful history. The rectangular grid layout of
20264-518: The world. Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. In the second millennium BC, a first Mycenaean settlement arose not far from the geographical position of the future city of Parthenope. Sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established probably a small commercial port called Parthenope ( Παρθενόπη , meaning "Pure Eyes", a Siren in Greek mythology ) on the island of Megaride in
20413-477: Was a fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge , and London-based Samuel Hartlib . The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers , meeting at a variety of locations, including Gresham College in London. They were influenced by the " new science ", as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis , from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as " Philosophical Society of Oxford "
20562-662: Was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their subject area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The society also published an English translation of Essays of Natural Experiments Made in the Accademia del Cimento, under the Protection of the Most Serene Prince Leopold of Tuscany in 1684, an Italian book documenting experiments at the Accademia del Cimento . Although meeting at Gresham College,
20711-409: Was approved by Charles, who asked Garter King of Arms to create a diploma for it, and when the second charter was signed on 22 April 1663 the arms were granted to the president, council and fellows of the society along with their successors. The helmet of the arms was not specified in the charter, but the engraver sketched out a peer's helmet (barred helmet) on the final design, which is used. This
20860-599: Was built in 1994 as the first grouping of skyscrapers in Italy, remaining the only such grouping in Italy until 2009. The most widely-known sports team in Naples is the Serie A football club Napoli , three-time Italian champions (most recently in 2023), who play at the Stadio Diego Armando Maradona in the west of the city, in the Fuorigrotta quartier. In 2024, TasteAtlas ranked Naples the 2nd city with best food in
21009-512: Was contained in Chapter 1 of Statute 1. Because of the difficulty of co-ordinating all the Fellows during the Second World War , a ballot on making the change was conducted via the post, with 336 Fellows supporting the change and 37 opposing. Following approval by the Council, Marjory Stephenson and Kathleen Lonsdale were elected as the first female Fellows. In 1947, Mary Cartwright became
21158-524: Was designed by John Nash as two blocks of houses, with a space in between them. The building is still owned by the Crown Estates and leased by the society; it underwent a major renovation from 2001 to 2004 at the cost of £9.8 million, and was reopened by the Prince of Wales on 7 July 2004. Carlton House Terrace underwent a series of renovations between 1999 and November 2003 to improve and standardise
21307-555: Was easily rectified and the North Star's performance immediately improved. At the next meeting of the company's directors, Brunel triumphantly dismissed Lardner's evidence. Lardner is mentioned in Karl Marx 's Das Kapital and was well respected as an economist. He mixed with the rich and famous. He was involved in the founding of the University of London and was the first person to hold
21456-417: Was exiled to Naples by the Germanic king Odoacer in the fifth century AD. Following the decline of the Western Roman Empire , Naples was captured by the Ostrogoths , a Germanic people , and incorporated into the Ostrogothic Kingdom . However, Belisarius of the Byzantine Empire recaptured Naples in 536, after entering the city via an aqueduct. In 543, during the Gothic Wars , Totila briefly took
21605-415: Was held by Jean-Baptiste du Hamel , Giovanni Domenico Cassini , Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle and Melchisédech Thévenot at the time and has some grounding in that Henry Oldenburg , the society's first secretary, had attended the Montmor Academy meeting. Robert Hooke , however, disputed this, writing that: [Cassini] makes, then, Mr Oldenburg to have been the instrument, who inspired the English with
21754-399: Was only capable of hauling 16 long tons (16 tonnes) at 41 mph (66 km/h). He also recorded excessive fuel consumption at higher speeds. Lardner attributed this to the greater wind resistance of broad-gauge engines. Brunel and his assistant Daniel Gooch carried out their own experiments on the same locomotive and found that the only problem was that the blast pipe was too small. This
21903-416: Was permanently closed on 18 June 2020 and the building was sold in 2021. Through Royal Society Publishing, the society publishes the following journals: The society introduced the world's first journal exclusively devoted to science in 1665, Philosophical Transactions , and in so doing originated the peer review process now widespread in scientific journals. Its founding editor was Henry Oldenburg ,
22052-488: Was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library . After the English Restoration , there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society. An alternative view of the founding, held at the time, was that it was due to the influence of French scientists and the Montmor Academy in 1657, reports of which were sent back to England by English scientists attending. This view
22201-440: Was the requirement that the Treasurer publish an annual report, along with a copy of the total income and expenditure of the society. These were to be sent to Fellows at least 14 days before the general meeting, with the intent being to ensure the election of competent Officers by making it readily apparent what existing Officers were doing. This was accompanied by a full list of Fellows standing for Council positions, where previously
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