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61-535: Diamond Valley Lake is a man-made off-stream reservoir located near Hemet, California , United States. It is one of the largest reservoirs in Southern California and one of the newest. It has a capacity of 800,000 acre-feet (990,000,000 m). The lake nearly doubled the area's surface water storage capacity and provides additional water supplies for drought, peak summer, and emergency needs. The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD) began

122-523: A change in pressure, or a shock initiates the liquefaction, causing the sand to form a suspension with each grain surrounded by a thin film of water. This cushioning gives quicksand, and other liquefied sediments, a spongy, fluidlike texture. Objects in the liquefied sand sink to the level at which the weight of the object is equal to the weight of the displaced sand/water mix and the object floats due to its buoyancy . Quick clay, known as Leda Clay in Canada ,

183-569: A decrease in shear strength , i.e. reduction in effective stress . Deposits most susceptible to liquefaction are young ( Holocene -age, deposited within the last 10,000 years) sands and silts of similar grain size (well-sorted), in beds at least metres thick, and saturated with water. Such deposits are often found along stream beds , beaches , dunes , and areas where windblown silt ( loess ) and sand have accumulated. Examples of soil liquefaction include quicksand , quick clay, turbidity currents and earthquake-induced liquefaction. Depending on

244-510: A depth of approximately 125 feet (38 m). Grouting of the west dam took about two years to complete and required 189 miles (304 km) of grout holes. The 2.1-mile (3.4 km) long East Dam, constructed by a Kiewit -led joint venture, is the longest of the three dams. It measures 1,200 feet (370 m) wide at the base and 40 feet (12 m) wide at the top. Before embankment of the dam could begin, more than 18,000,000 cubic yards (14,000,000 m) of alluvium had to be excavated to reach

305-432: A liquefied soil layer (termed 'lateral spreading'), opening large ground fissures , and can cause significant damage to buildings, bridges, roads and services such as water, natural gas, sewerage, power and telecommunications installed in the affected ground. Buried tanks and manholes may float in the liquefied soil due to buoyancy . Earth embankments such as flood levees and earth dams may lose stability or collapse if

366-531: A liquid (hence 'liquefaction'). Although the effects of soil liquefaction have been long understood, engineers took more notice after the 1964 Alaska earthquake and 1964 Niigata earthquake . It was a major cause of the destruction produced in San Francisco 's Marina District during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake , and in the Port of Kobe during the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake . More recently soil liquefaction

427-424: A nearly flat alluvial valley floor between bedrock abutment ridges. About 65% of the dam's foundation area is founded on quartzite and phyllite bedrock. The remainder is founded on dense alluvium that fills three buried channels, which are up to 120 feet (37 m) deep. The foundation excavations were extended 90 feet (27 m) below the original ground surface to remove liquefaction soils that would have made

488-419: A soil in a saturated loose state, and one which may generate significant pore water pressure on a change in load are the most likely to liquefy. This is because loose soil has the tendency to compress when sheared, generating large excess porewater pressure as load is transferred from the soil skeleton to adjacent pore water during undrained loading. As pore water pressure rises, a progressive loss of strength of

549-558: A solid bedrock foundation. The embankment required 43,000,000 cubic yards (33,000,000 m) of crushed rock. An on-site crushing plant crushed and processed over 14 million tons of rock in 20 months to supply the dam's materials. The cut-off wall, which consists of a 3 feet (0.91 m) thick plastic concrete mix constructed through the weathered portion of bedrock, varies in depth from 10 feet (3.0 m) to 110 feet (34 m) and totals 250,000 square feet (23,000 m). A two-line grout curtain reaches depths of 150 feet (46 m) below

610-505: A sudden loss of support, which will result in drastic and irregular settlement of the building causing structural damage, including cracking of foundations and damage to the building structure, or leaving the structure unserviceable, even without structural damage. Where a thin crust of non-liquefied soil exists between building foundation and liquefied soil, a 'punching shear' type foundation failure may occur. Irregular settlement may break underground utility lines. The upward pressure applied by

671-696: A unique snapshot on inland southern California during the Ice Ages, and bridge a massive information gap between fossil deposits at La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California and Ice Age sites in the Mojave Desert. Unofficially, the Diamond Valley Lake area is often referred to as the "Valley of the Mastodons". Fossils from the Diamond Valley Lake site comprise a classic late Pleistocene assemblage, which includes

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732-442: Is a soil test-based definition, usually performed via cyclic triaxial , cyclic direct simple shear , or cyclic torsional shear type apparatus. These tests are performed to determine a soil's resistance to liquefaction by observing the number of cycles of loading at a particular shear stress amplitude required to induce 'fails'. Failure here is defined by the aforementioned shear strain criteria. The term 'cyclic mobility' refers to

793-461: Is a water-saturated gel , which in its solid form resembles highly sensitive clay . This clay has a tendency to change from a relatively stiff condition to a liquid mass when it is disturbed. This gradual change in appearance from solid to liquid is a process known as spontaneous liquefaction. The clay retains a solid structure despite its high-water content (up to 80% by volume), because surface tension holds water-coated flakes of clay together. When

854-550: Is generally governed by the loading rate, soil permeability , pressure gradient , and boundary conditions . It is well known that for a sufficiently high seepage velocity, the governing flow law in porous media is nonlinear and does not follow Darcy's law. This fact has been recently considered in the studies of soil-pore fluid interaction for liquefaction modeling. A fully explicit dynamic finite element method has been developed for turbulent flow law. The governing equations have been expressed for saturated porous media based on

915-457: Is most often observed in saturated, loose (low density or uncompacted), sandy soils. This is because a loose sand has a tendency to compress when a load is applied. Dense sands, by contrast, tend to expand in volume or ' dilate '. If the soil is saturated by water, a condition that often exists when the soil is below the water table or sea level , then water fills the gaps between soil grains ('pore spaces'). In response to soil compressing,

976-561: Is supplied by a pipeline , aqueduct or an adjacent stream. San Luis Reservoir is the largest off-stream reservoir in the United States . Although it is located on a small stream, it gets the vast majority of its water from the California Aqueduct by pumping aqueduct water up-hill to the reservoir. This article about geography terminology is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Soil liquefaction If

1037-465: Is the Aberfan disaster . Casagrande referred to this type of phenomena as 'flow liquefaction' although a state of zero effective stress is not required for this to occur. 'Cyclic liquefaction' is the state of soil when large shear strains have accumulated in response to cyclic loading. A typical reference strain for the approximate occurrence of zero effective stress is 5% double amplitude shear strain. This

1098-514: The 1929 Grand Banks earthquake that struck the continental slope off the coast of Newfoundland . Minutes later, transatlantic telephone cables began breaking sequentially, further and further downslope, away from the epicenter . Twelve cables were snapped in a total of 28 places. Exact times and locations were recorded for each break. Investigators suggested that a 60-mile-per-hour (100 km/h) submarine landslide or turbidity current of water-saturated sediments swept 400 miles (600 km) down

1159-524: The Colorado River Aqueduct and San Diego Canal. Water first entered the forebay, a 35-acre (14 ha)  — 163-million-US-gallon (620,000 m)  — basin that held the water before being pumped through the pumping station. The pumping station, named after one of the founders of the MWD, Hiram W. Wadsworth, features twelve 6,000 horsepower (4,500 kW) pumps for moving water from the forebay to

1220-413: The effective stress ( shear strength ) of soil is reduced to essentially zero. This may be initiated by either monotonic loading (i.e., a single, sudden occurrence of a change in stress – examples include an increase in load on an embankment or sudden loss of toe support) or cyclic loading (i.e., repeated changes in stress condition – examples include wave loading or earthquake shaking). In both cases

1281-403: The pore water pressure increases and the water attempts to flow out from the soil to zones of low pressure (usually upward towards the ground surface). However, if the loading is rapidly applied and large enough, or is repeated many times (e.g., earthquake shaking, storm wave loading) such that the water does not flow out before the next cycle of load is applied, the water pressures may build to

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1342-457: The $ 1.9 billion construction project in 1995. Filling of the lake, by way of the Colorado River Aqueduct , began in 1999 (25 years ago)  ( 1999 ) and was completed in 2003 (21 years ago)  ( 2003 ) . The lake is served by the Inland Feeder . The lake features three earth fill dams, two located on either side of the valley and one on the north rim. Construction of

1403-538: The Domenigoni/Diamond valleys, between the Domenigoni Mountains and Rawson Mountains , 4 miles (6.4 km) southwest of the city of Hemet. The site was chosen because of its location between the cities of San Diego and Los Angeles, and because of the raw materials located on-site for the construction of the three dams. The location was also chosen because of its proximity, about 5 miles (8.0 km), to

1464-659: The San Bernardino County Museum in Redlands, California uncovered thousands of fossils in the Diamond and Domenigoni valleys that will add immensely to the store of public knowledge about the region. Collectively, these animal fossils are named the Diamond Valley Lake Local Fauna. The paleontological finds of mammoth, mastodon, bison, and other Pleistocene Epoch species from Diamond Valley Lake provide

1525-508: The aqueduct. In 2009, the lake began being filled with water provided by the Inland Feeder after nearly two years without a source. The water replenished much of what was lost after drought conditions required the MWD to tap into the lake. By March 2016, an extended drought had dropped storage to 299,638 acre-feet (369,598,000 m). During excavation , bones and skeletons were found from extinct mastodons , mammoth , camel, sloth , dire wolf and long-horned bison . Paleontologists from

1586-456: The case of flowing underground water, the force of the water flow opposes the force of gravity, causing the granules of sand to be more buoyant. In the case of earthquakes, the shaking force can increase the pressure of shallow groundwater, liquefying sand and silt deposits. In both cases, the liquefied surface loses strength, causing buildings or other objects on that surface to sink or fall over. The saturated sediment may appear quite solid until

1647-468: The cohesionless soil to liquefaction will depend on the density of the soil, confining stresses, soil structure (fabric, age and cementation ), the magnitude and duration of the cyclic loading, and the extent to which shear stress reversal occurs. Three parameters are needed to assess liquefaction potential using the simplified empirical method : The interaction between the solid skeleton and pore fluid flow has been considered by many researchers to model

1708-528: The construction of the dams was the largest earthworks project in the United States. The shovels, loaders and trucks used on the project were the largest available, and established a new standard for earth and rock movement. The two rock processing plants established for the project provided combined production exceeding the capability of any single commercial processing operation in California. Construction of

1769-404: The dam unstable in an earthquake. To minimize foundation seepage through the alluvium, 3 feet (0.91 m) thick cut-off walls of plastic concrete were constructed across the three alluvial channels and excavated at least 2 feet (0.61 m) into bedrock. To reduce seepage through the rock foundation, the entire core width was consolidation grouted and a double-line grout curtain was installed to

1830-479: The dams used nearby materials, and was one of the largest earthworks projects in the United States. Excavation of core materials for the dams resulted in many paleontological finds, all of which are displayed at the Western Science Center at the lake's East end. The lake is open to boating and fishing, along with hiking and other recreational activities around the lake. Diamond Valley Lake is located within

1891-405: The eastern and western end of the lake complete with golf courses, campgrounds, swimming lakes, water parks and other amenities. The MWD still plans on building the additional recreation facilities, but lack of funding and lack of support from developers has prevented them from doing so. Off-stream reservoir An off-stream reservoir is a reservoir that is not located on a streambed, and

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1952-500: The existing Colorado River Aqueduct that originally supplied the lake with water. Planning for the lake began in 1987. The main goal was to meet Southern California seasonal, drought and emergency needs. MWD chose the current site because of its geographic location, and began construction planning in 1993. Construction of the lake began in 1995 with construction of the three dams. With over 40 million cubic yards of foundation excavation and 110 million cubic yards of embankment construction,

2013-618: The extension of the Biot formulation. The elastoplastic behavior of soil under earthquake loading has been simulated using a generalized plasticity theory that is composed of a yield surface along with a non-associated flow rule. Pressures generated during large earthquakes can force underground water and liquefied sand to the surface. This can be observed at the surface as effects known alternatively as " sand boils ", "sand blows" or " sand volcanoes ". Such earthquake ground deformations can be categorized as primary deformation if located on or close to

2074-439: The extent that it exceeds the force ( contact stresses ) between the grains of soil that keep them in contact. These contacts between grains are the means by which the weight from buildings and overlying soil layers is transferred from the ground surface to layers of soil or rock at greater depths. This loss of soil structure causes it to lose its strength (the ability to transfer shear stress ), and it may be observed to flow like

2135-514: The following extinct animals: Many fossils of rabbits, rodents and pond turtles, as well as coyotes, deer and the Black bear, have been recovered as well. One of the most common animals identified from the Diamond Valley Lake site by San Bernardino County Museum scientists was the extinct American mastodon, Mammut americanum . In North American paleontology, mastodons are thought to have been solitary forest-dwelling browsers. The abundance of mastodons in

2196-480: The fossil record from the site suggests that, during the last Ice Age, the Diamond Valley Lake site was more wooded or forested than today. Fossil remains of ponderosa pine and manzanita recovered from the site lend credence to this interpretation. Radiometric dating of fossil plants from the Diamond Valley Lake site confirms an age range of less than 13,000 years ago to more than 60,000 years ago for these fossils. Diamond Valley Lake offers fishing and light boating on

2257-529: The foundation in the north segment of the East Dam and 100 feet (30 m) in the south segment. Because of the amount of material used in the construction of the east dam, some of the biggest trucks in the world were used. Twelve Caterpillar 789 dump trucks were used in construction of the East Dam. The Saddle Dam rises 130 feet (40 m) above the lowest point in the Domenigoni Mountains ridgeline of

2318-525: The ground surface. Studies of liquefaction features left by prehistoric earthquakes, called paleoliquefaction or paleoseismology , can reveal information about earthquakes that occurred before records were kept or accurate measurements could be taken. Soil liquefaction induced by earthquake shaking is a major contributor to urban seismic risk . The effects of soil liquefaction on the built environment can be extremely damaging. Buildings whose foundations bear directly on sand which liquefies will experience

2379-402: The horizontal. One positive aspect of soil liquefaction is the tendency for the effects of earthquake shaking to be significantly damped (reduced) for the remainder of the earthquake. This is because liquids do not support a shear stress and so once the soil liquefies due to shaking, subsequent earthquake shaking (transferred through ground by shear waves ) is not transferred to buildings at

2440-427: The initial void ratio , the soil material can respond to loading either strain-softening or strain-hardening. Strain-softened soils, e.g., loose sands, can be triggered to collapse, either monotonically or cyclically, if the static shear stress is greater than the ultimate or steady-state shear strength of the soil. In this case flow liquefaction occurs, where the soil deforms at a low constant residual shear stress. If

2501-424: The intake-outlet (I/O) tower. In 2001, four of the twelve pumps were converted to hydroelectric turbine generators capable of producing 3 megawatts of power each. If all the pumps were converted, the entire facility could produce up to 40 megawatts of power. Water is pumped from the pumping station, located just outside the west dam, through a 2,000-foot (610 m) long, 16-foot (4.9 m) diameter pipe and into

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2562-503: The lake is the Southwestern Riverside County Multi-Species Reserve, a 13,500-acre (5,500 ha) preserve between Diamond Valley Lake and Skinner Reservoir . The reserve is home to at least 16 sensitive, endangered or threatened native California bird, animal and plant species. Stocking of the lake with fish began before the reservoir was filled, with a small rearing pond being placed on the bottom of

2623-610: The lake via the I/O tower. At peak rate, water flowed into the lake at 1,000 cubic feet (28 m) per second. Filling of the lake finished in 2003. The reservoir was initially filled to its capacity of 800,000 acre-feet (990,000,000 m) in 2003. Water from the Colorado River Aqueduct stopped being used due to the threat of the Quagga mussel , an invasive species that has already contaminated other Southern California lakes served by

2684-402: The lake was the largest construction project by the MWD since building the Colorado River Aqueduct. At its peak in 1997 and 1998, the reservoir construction project employed an average of 1,800 people. At times, more than 1,900 people labored in building the reservoir's three dams. From start to finish, about 5,000 people were employed by the construction project. Construction of the three dams

2745-473: The lake. A recreation park, aquatic center, visitor center and the Western Science Center along with the lake marina are located on the eastern end of the lake. The park and aquatic center are operated by the Valley-Wide Recreation & Park District. A viewpoint, offering views of the pumping station and I/O tower, along with most of the lake is located on the western end of the lake. To the south of

2806-609: The material comprising the embankment or its foundation liquefies. Over geological time, liquefaction of soil material due to earthquakes could provide a dense parent material in which the fragipan may develop through pedogenesis. Mitigation methods have been devised by earthquake engineers and include various soil compaction techniques such as vibro compaction (compaction of the soil by depth vibrators), dynamic compaction , and vibro stone columns . These methods densify soil and enable buildings to avoid soil liquefaction. Existing buildings can be mitigated by injecting grout into

2867-408: The material softening associated with the liquefaction phenomenon. The dynamic performance of saturated porous media depends on the soil-pore fluid interaction. When the saturated porous media is subjected to strong ground shaking, pore fluid movement relative to the solid skeleton is induced. The transient movement of pore fluid can significantly affect the redistribution of pore water pressure, which

2928-716: The mechanism of progressive reduction of effective stress due to cyclic loading. This may occur in all soil types including dense soils. However, on reaching a state of zero effective stress such soils immediately dilate and regain strength. Thus, shear strains are significantly less than a true state of soil liquefaction. Liquefaction is more likely to occur in loose to moderately saturated granular soils with poor drainage , such as silty sands or sands and gravels containing impermeable sediments . During wave loading , usually cyclic undrained loading, e.g. seismic loading , loose sands tend to decrease in volume , which produces an increase in their pore water pressures and consequently

2989-411: The movement of liquefied soil through the crust layer can crack weak foundation slabs and enter buildings through service ducts and may allow water to damage building contents and electrical services. Bridges and large buildings constructed on pile foundations may lose support from the adjacent soil and buckle or come to rest at a tilt. Sloping ground and ground next to rivers and lakes may slide on

3050-416: The north rim and is around 0.5 miles (0.80 km) long. The dam was built to increase the storage capacity of the lake, which would have been limited due to the lower ridge in this area. It is founded completely on phyllite and schist bedrock. To minimize foundation seepage, a two-line grout curtain extends up to 100 feet (30 m) below the foundation. Filling of the lake began in 1999 with water from

3111-431: The pressure of the water in the pores is great enough to carry all the load, it will have the effect of holding the particles apart and of producing a condition that is practically equivalent to that of quicksand ... the initial movement of some part of the material might result in accumulating pressure, first on one point, and then on another, successively, as the early points of concentration were liquefied. The phenomenon

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3172-567: The rock fill came from the bedrock highlands of the reservoir's south rim. Design and construction of the dams took into consideration the threat of earthquakes with the San Jacinto Fault Zone , located about 4 miles (6.4 km) from the reservoir, and the San Andreas Fault , located about 19 miles (31 km) from the reservoir. The west dam rises to 285 feet (87 m) above the valley floor. It spans 1.5 miles (2.4 km) over

3233-415: The ruptured fault, or distributed deformation if located at considerable distance from the ruptured fault. The other common observation is land instability – cracking and movement of the ground down slope or towards unsupported margins of rivers, streams, or the coast. The failure of ground in this manner is called 'lateral spreading' and may occur on very shallow slopes with angles only 1 or 2 degrees from

3294-469: The soil occurs as effective stress is reduced. Liquefaction is more likely to occur in sandy or non-plastic silty soils but may in rare cases occur in gravels and clays (see quick clay ). A 'flow failure' may initiate if the strength of the soil is reduced below the stresses required to maintain the equilibrium of a slope or footing of a structure. This can occur due to monotonic loading or cyclic loading and can be sudden and catastrophic. A historical example

3355-601: The soil strain-hardens, e.g., moderately dense to dense sand, flow liquefaction will generally not occur. However, cyclic softening can occur due to cyclic undrained loading, e.g., earthquake loading. Deformation during cyclic loading depends on the density of the soil, the magnitude and duration of the cyclic loading, and amount of shear stress reversal. If stress reversal occurs, the effective shear stress could reach zero, allowing cyclic liquefaction to take place. If stress reversal does not occur, zero effective stress cannot occur, and cyclic mobility takes place. The resistance of

3416-572: The soil to stabilize the layer of soil that is subject to liquefaction. Another method called IPS (Induced Partial Saturation) is now practicable to apply on larger scale. In this method, the saturation degree of the soil is decreased. Quicksand forms when water saturates an area of loose sand, and the sand is agitated. When the water trapped in the batch of sand cannot escape, it creates liquefied soil that can no longer resist force. Quicksand can be formed by standing or (upwards) flowing underground water (as from an underground spring), or by earthquakes. In

3477-676: The structure is broken by a shock or sufficient shear, it enters a fluid state. Quick clay is found only in northern countries such as Russia , Canada , Alaska in the U.S., Norway , Sweden and Finland , which were glaciated during the Pleistocene epoch . Quick clay has been the underlying cause of many deadly landslides . In Canada alone, it has been associated with more than 250 mapped landslides. Some of these are ancient, and may have been triggered by earthquakes. Submarine landslides are turbidity currents and consist of water-saturated sediments flowing downslope. An example occurred during

3538-482: The suburb of Balaroa and Petobo village 3 metres (9.8 ft) deep in mud. The government of Indonesia is considering designating the two neighborhoods of Balaroa and Petobo, that have been totally buried under mud, as mass graves. The building codes in many countries require engineers to consider the effects of soil liquefaction in the design of new buildings and infrastructure such as bridges, embankment dams and retaining structures. Soil liquefaction occurs when

3599-458: The valley. The lake has several species of freshwater fish; largemouth bass , smallmouth bass , bluegill , crappie , rainbow trout , striped bass , channel catfish , and shad . It was discovered that a small population of flathead catfish were accidentally introduced. It is considered one of the best fisheries in California. Much of the area around the lake remains undeveloped and empty. Original plans included large recreation areas on both

3660-411: Was completed in 1999, requiring the excavation of 31,000,000 cubic metres (41,000,000 cu yd) of foundation material. The earth fill dam project required about 110,000,000 cubic yards (84,000,000 m) of sand, clay and rock. Much of the materials needed were obtained from the project area. Core materials were obtained from the silty and clayey sandy alluvium in the floor of the reservoir and

3721-536: Was largely responsible for extensive damage to residential properties in the eastern suburbs and satellite townships of Christchurch during the 2010 Canterbury earthquake and more extensively again following the Christchurch earthquakes that followed in early and mid-2011 . On 28 September 2018, an earthquake of 7.5 magnitude hit the Central Sulawesi province of Indonesia. Resulting soil liquefaction buried

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