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88-581: The Dharma Hall , also known as Lecture Hall , is an important building in Han Chinese Buddhist temples. The Dharma Hall is the place for senior monks to preach and generally ranks right after the Mahavira Hall . With the similar architecture form with other halls, the Dharma Hall is more spacious. In the central back, there is a high platform with a sitting chair putting in the middle. In front of

176-550: A conventional everyday sense, madhyamaka does accept that one can speak of "things", and yet ultimately these things are empty of inherent existence. Furthermore, "emptiness" itself is also "empty": it does not have an existence on its own, nor does it refer to a transcendental reality beyond or above phenomenal reality. Svabhāva' s cognitive aspect is merely a superimposition ( samāropa ) that beings make when they perceive and conceive of things. In this sense then, emptiness does not exist as some kind of primordial reality, but it

264-679: A few monastics. The most prestigious monasteries have support from rich elites, and the smallest are usually in small villages. The Chinese word 纯净素 (chún jìng sù ) meaning pure Buddhist Vegan/ Vegetarian is widely promoted and practiced in Chinese Buddhism. The practice is promoted in various Mahayana sutras, like the 楞伽阿跋多羅寶經 léngqié ābáduōluó bǎojīng . Monastics are often required to be vegetarian or Vegan and other animal products are often banned in Buddhist temples and monasteries. Other dietary restrictions may include avoiding eggs, dairy, and

352-406: A kind of sacred podium. Other important Buddhist rituals are those related to death, which is seen as a key moment for Buddhists who want to attain a good rebirth in the pure land of a Buddha (the most popular being Amitabha's pure land). The focus of these rituals is to keep the dying person free of distractions and offer spiritual support (so they can focus their minds on Amitabha Buddha through

440-412: A means to an end (liberation), and therefore they must be founded on the wish to help oneself and others end suffering. Reason and logical arguments, however (such as those employed by classical Indian philosophers , i.e., pramana ), are also seen as being empty of any true validity or reality. They serve only as conventional remedies for our delusions. Nāgārjuna's Vigrahavyāvartanī famously attacked

528-539: A middle way. Madhyamaka thinkers also argue that since things have the nature of lacking true existence or own being ( niḥsvabhāva ), all things are mere conceptual constructs ( prajñaptimatra ) because they are just impermanent collections of causes and conditions. This also applies to the principle of causality itself, since everything is dependently originated. Therefore, in madhyamaka, phenomena appear to arise and cease, but in an ultimate sense they do not arise or remain as inherently existent phenomena. This tenet

616-422: A number of ancillary halls also house the images of lesser Buddhist divinities, giving residents and visitors alike a wide choice of objects of worship and supplication." Another common structure is a pagoda , which may contain Buddhist relics and statues or images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. There is a conception of an "impersonal god" in Chinese Buddhism likely inspired by Shangdi . Buddhist monasticism

704-479: A sort of tension in madhyamaka literature, since it has use some concepts to convey its teachings. For madhyamaka, the realization of emptiness is not just a satisfactory theory about the world, but a key understanding which allows one to reach liberation or nirvana . As Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā ("Root Verses on the Middle Way") puts it: With the cessation of ignorance, formations will not arise. Moreover,

792-710: A thoroughly Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by Taoist philosophy. By the 460s Buddhism was a mainstream institution in China, and its iconography and art were widely recognized. The Dunhuang and Yungang cave complexes are a great example of early Chinese Buddhist art from this period. Another important translator was Paramārtha ( Zhēndì , 499–569 CE) who along with his team of Chinese disciples translated numerous works on Abhidharma , Yogachara philosophy, and other Mahayana texts. The work of other sixth century translators like Bodhiruci and Ratnamati also contributed to

880-605: Is a sinicized form of Mahāyāna Buddhism , which draws on the Chinese Buddhist Canon (大藏經, Dàzàngjīng , "Great Storage of Scriptures") as well as numerous Chinese traditions. Chinese Buddhism focuses on studying Mahayana sutras and Mahāyāna treatises and draws its main doctrines from these sources. Some of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism include: the Lotus Sutra , the Flower Ornament Sutra ,

968-531: Is a complex concept that has ontological and cognitive aspects. The ontological aspects include svabhāva as essence , as a property which makes an object what it is, as well as svabhāva as substance , meaning, as the madhyamaka thinker Candrakīrti defines it, something that does "not depend on anything else". It is substance- svabhāva , the objective and independent existence of any object or concept, which madhyamaka arguments mostly focus on refuting. A common structure which madhyamaka uses to negate svabhāva

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1056-437: Is also "empty": it does not have an existence on its own, nor does it refer to a transcendental reality beyond or above phenomenal reality. Madhya is a Sanskrit word meaning "middle". It is cognate with Latin med-iu-s and English mid . The -ma suffix is a superlative, giving madhyama the meaning of "mid-most" or "medium". The -ka suffix is used to form adjectives, thus madhyamaka means "middling". The -ika suffix

1144-476: Is also nothing to be negated." Therefore, it is only from the perspective of those who cling to the existence of things that it seems as if something is being negated. In truth, madhyamaka is not annihilating something, merely elucidating that this so-called existence never existed in the first place. Thus, madhyamaka uses language to make clear the limits of our concepts. Ultimately, reality cannot be depicted by concepts. According to Jay Garfield , this creates

1232-582: Is an important part of Chinese Buddhism. Chinese Buddhist monastics (both male and female) follow the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya , which is known as the Four Part Vinaya ( Sifen lü ) in China and has 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns. Buddhist monks and nuns perform numerous religious practices and services, including offerings to altars, liturgical services, circumambulating the Buddha hall, preaching

1320-407: Is authoritative cognition, there are objects of knowledge; when there are objects of knowledge, there is authoritative cognition. But neither authoritative cognition nor objects of knowledge exist inherently. To the charge that if Nāgārjuna's arguments and words are also empty they therefore lack the power to refute anything, Nāgārjuna responds that: My words are without nature. Therefore, my thesis

1408-440: Is dependent for its existence and nature on something else which has own-nature. Furthermore, if there is neither own-nature nor other-nature, there cannot be anything with a true, substantial existent nature ( bhava ). If there is no true existent, then there can be no non-existent ( abhava ). An important element of madhyamaka refutation is that the classical Buddhist doctrine of dependent arising (the idea that every phenomena

1496-455: Is dependent on other phenomena) cannot be reconciled with "a conception of self-nature or substance" and that therefore essence theories are contrary not only to the Buddhist scriptures but to the very ideas of causality and change. Any enduring essential nature would prevent any causal interaction, or any kind of origination. For things would simply always have been, and will always continue to be, without any change. As Nāgārjuna writes in

1584-574: Is held to show that views of absolute or eternalist existence (such as the Hindu ideas of Brahman or sat-dravya ) and nihilism are both equally untenable. These two views are considered to be the two extremes that madhyamaka steers clear from. The first is essentialism or eternalism (sastavadava) – a belief that things inherently or substantially exist and are therefore efficacious objects of craving and clinging ; Nagarjuna argues that we naively and innately perceive things as substantial, and it

1672-401: Is not an ontological reality with substantial or independent existence. Hence, the two truths are not two metaphysical realities; instead, according to Karl Brunnholzl, "the two realities refer to just what is experienced by two different types of beings with different types and scopes of perception". As Candrakirti says: It is through the perfect and the false seeing of all entities That

1760-417: Is not ruined. Since there is no inconsistency, I do not have to state an argument for a distinction. Nāgārjuna goes on: Just as one magical creation may be annihilated by another magical creation, and one illusory person by another person produced by an illusionist, this negation is the same. Shantideva makes the same point: "thus, when one's son dies in a dream, the conception "he does not exist" removes

1848-435: Is ruined. In that case, there is an inconsistency, And you ought to provide an argument for this distinction. Candrakirti comments on this statement by stating that madhyamaka does not completely deny the use of pramanas conventionally, and yet ultimately they do not have a foundation: Therefore we assert that mundane objects are known through the four kinds of authoritative cognition. They are mutually dependent: when there

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1936-413: Is simply a corrective to a mistaken conception of how things exist. This idea of svabhāva that madhyamaka denies is then not just a conceptual philosophical theory, but it is a cognitive distortion that beings automatically impose on the world, such as when we regard the five aggregates as constituting a single self . Candrakirti compares it to someone who suffers from vitreous floaters that cause

2024-433: Is the catuṣkoṭi ("four corners" or tetralemma ), which roughly consists of four alternatives: a proposition is true; a proposition is false; a proposition is both true and false; a proposition is neither true nor false. Some of the major topics discussed by classical madhyamaka include causality , change, and personal identity . Madhyamaka's denial of svabhāva does not mean a nihilistic denial of all things, for in

2112-494: Is the limited truth – saṃvṛti satya, which means "to cover", "to conceal", or "obscure". (and thus it is a kind of ignorance) Saṃvṛti is also said to mean "conventional", as in a customary , norm based, agreed upon truth (like linguistic conventions) and it is also glossed as vyavahāra-satya (transactional truth). Finally, Chandrakirti also has a third explanation of saṃvṛti, which is "mutual dependence" ( parasparasaṃbhavana ). This seeming reality does not really exist as

2200-516: Is the use of mantras and dhāraṇī s , such as the popular Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī . Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices of Cundī enjoyed popularity among both the common people and the elite. Various Mahāyāna Buddhist deities are venerated in Chinese Buddhism, most of which are Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Some of

2288-406: Is the world of samsara because conceiving of concrete and unchanging objects leads to clinging and suffering. As Buddhapalita states: "unskilled persons whose eye of intelligence is obscured by the darkness of delusion conceive of an essence of things and then generate attachment and hostility with regard to them". According to Hayes, the two truths may also refer to two different goals in life:

2376-467: Is this predisposition which is the root delusion that lies at the basis of all suffering. The second extreme is nihilism or annihilationism (ucchedavada) – encompassing views that could lead one to believe that there is no need to be responsible for one's actions – such as the idea that one is annihilated at death or that nothing has causal effects – but also the view that absolutely nothing exists. In madhyamaka, reason and debate are understood as

2464-527: Is to be accomplished do not see anything that is delusive or not delusive". From within the experience of the enlightened ones there is only one reality which appears non-conceptually, as Nāgārjuna says in the Sixty stanzas on reasoning: "that nirvana is the sole reality, is what the Victors have declared." Bhāvaviveka's Madhyamakahrdayakārikā describes the ultimate truth through a negation of all four possibilities of

2552-465: Is used to form possessives, with a collective sense, thus mādhyamika mean "belonging to the mid-most" (the -ika suffix regularly causes a lengthening of the first vowel and elision of the final -a ). In a Buddhist context, these terms refer to the "middle path" ( madhyama pratipada ), which refers to right view ( samyagdṛṣṭi ) which steers clear of the metaphysical extremes of annihilationism ( ucchedavāda ) and eternalism ( śasvatavāda ). For example,

2640-606: The Vimalakirtī Sutra , the Nirvana Sutra , and the Amitābha Sutra . As such, Chinese Buddhism follows the classic Mahāyāna Buddhist worldview, which includes a belief in many realms of existence , the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas , as well as many other kinds of divine beings, ghosts, and so on. Chinese Buddhism also upholds classic Mahayana Buddhist doctrines like karma ( 報應 ) and rebirth ( 超生 ),

2728-443: The catuskoti : Its character is neither existent, nor nonexistent, / Nor both existent and nonexistent, nor neither. / Centrists should know true reality / That is free from these four possibilities. Atisha describes the ultimate as "here, there is no seeing and no seer, no beginning and no end, just peace.... It is nonconceptual and nonreferential ... it is inexpressible, unobservable, unchanging, and unconditioned." Because of

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2816-456: The Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) and the religion was present in China at the beginning of the common era. Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central Asian Silk Road and the maritime routes. Initially Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with Taoism. The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions. There was also much criticism leveled at

2904-557: The Kuchan scholar Kumārajīva (334–413 CE) was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor. The numerous high quality translations of his translation team had a great impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be called Sanlun (the "Three Treatise school"). His work also established

2992-663: The Longmen Grottoes , also attest to the artistic vibrancy of Chinese Buddhism at this time. A famous proponent of Buddhism during the Tang era was empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705) and she is known for her promotion of the Longmen cave complex . She also depicted herself as a bodhisattva. The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival of Subhakarasimha , Vajrabodhi , and Amoghavajra , and their establishment of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism from 716 to 720, during

3080-519: The bodhisattva path, and the doctrines of emptiness , buddha-nature , and the one vehicle . When it comes to Buddhist philosophy , Chinese Buddhism contains various doctrinal traditions, the most important being the Tiantai, Huayan , Sanlun , and Weishi schools of thought. These different doctrinal traditions developed their own scriptural commentaries and treatises and also various doctrinal classifications ( panjiao ), which hierarchically ordered

3168-428: The eight precepts , silent meditation, and Dharma lectures . Textual practices are also commonly practiced by monks and laypersons. These include printing, copying, propagating and reciting Buddhist scriptures, studying Buddhist texts, and attending lectures. Buddhist temples may also have special elements associated with sacred texts, such as lecture halls or dharma halls , libraries, and scripture platforms (施法壇),

3256-603: The spread of Buddhism throughout Asia . It is the dominant interpretation of Buddhist philosophy in Tibetan Buddhism and has also been influential in East Asian Buddhist thought. According to the classical Indian Mādhyamika thinkers, all phenomena ( dharmas ) are empty ( śūnya ) of "nature", of any "substance" or "essence" ( svabhāva ) which could give them "solid and independent existence", because they are dependently co-arisen . But this "emptiness" itself

3344-446: The Buddha's name ( nianfo ), which is the core practice of Pure Land Buddhism , and seated meditation ( zazen ), which is the focus of the Chan tradition. The practice of recitation of the Buddha's name is commonly done in a group setting, sometimes as part of an intensive nianfo recitation retreat, which can last for several days. These retreats might also include chanting sutras, taking of

3432-737: The Buddhist teachings, the name madhyamaka refers to a school of Mahayana philosophy associated with Nāgārjuna and his commentators. The term mādhyamika refers to adherents of the madhyamaka school. Note that in both words the stress is on the first syllable. [REDACTED] Religion portal Central to madhyamaka philosophy is śūnyatā , "emptiness", and this refers to the central idea that dharmas are empty of svabhāva . This term has been translated variously as essence, intrinsic nature, inherent existence, own being and substance. Furthermore, according to Richard P. Hayes, svabhāva can be interpreted as either "identity" or as "causal independence". Likewise, Westerhoff notes that svabhāva

3520-749: The MMK: We state that conditioned origination is emptiness. It is mere designation depending on something, and it is the middle path. (24.18) Since nothing has arisen without depending on something, there is nothing that is not empty. (24.19) Beginning with Nāgārjuna , madhyamaka discerns two levels of truth , conventional truth (everyday commonsense reality) and ultimate truth ( emptiness ). Ultimately, madhyamaka argues that all phenomena are empty of svabhava and only exist in dependence on other causes, conditions and concepts. Conventionally, madhyamaka holds that beings do perceive concrete objects which they are aware of empirically. In madhyamaka this phenomenal world

3608-556: The Mādhyamaka tradition is Nāgārjuna 's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā ("Root Verses on the Middle Way"). More broadly, Mādhyamaka also refers to the ultimate nature of phenomena as well as the non-conceptual realization of ultimate reality that is experienced in meditation . Since the 4th century CE onwards, Mādhyamaka philosophy had a major influence on the subsequent development of the Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition, especially following

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3696-485: The Sanskrit Kātyāyanaḥsūtra states that though the world "relies on a duality of existence and non-existence", the Buddha teaches a correct view which understands that: Arising in the world, Kātyayana, seen and correctly understood just as it is, shows there is no non-existence in the world. Cessation in the world, Kātyayana, seen and correctly understood just as it is, shows there is no permanent existence in

3784-602: The United States, and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings. Monks are required to obtain certificates from the authorities that permit them to reside in monasteries. The Buddhist Association of China is the sole official government supervisory organ of Buddhism in the country. It is directed by the United Front Work Department of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Chinese Buddhism

3872-506: The Yogachara texts are where the "third turning" of the Dharma can be found, and thus, represent the final and ultimate teaching of the Buddha. Chinese Buddhism contains a wide array of religious practices and observances. Ritual and devotional practices are commonly seen as generating karmic merit , which can bring about positive results in this life or the next. According to Mario Poceski, for

3960-771: The arrival of Christian missionaries to China, a right which had been granted to Western powers after the Opium Wars . During the Republican period (1912–1949), there were various attempts to reform and modernize Chinese Buddhism and to respond to the various challenges of modernity. The most notable of these reformers were the Humanistic Buddhists , like Taixu and Yin Shun . Humanistic Buddhism sought to move away from ritualistic and otherworldly obsessions to embrace more worldly pursuits like education and charitable work. There

4048-643: The capital of Luoyang . His work was followed by the extensive Mahayana translations of the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (Ch. 支婁迦讖 , active c.  164 –186 CE), as well as the work of Dharmarakṣa (3rd century). During this early period, the Dharmaguptaka school was very influential in establishing Buddhism in China. This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school's Vinaya (monastic rule) by all Chinese Buddhist schools . The arrival of

4136-575: The chair is a table with a small sitting Buddha on it, behind the platform is a screen or a picture of lion which is also known as "Roaring lion" ( 獅子吼 ) in Buddhism Dharma hung on the wall. Seats are placed on both sides of the platform with bells and drums for senior monks to beat when they are preaching. There are also seats on both sides of the monks' seats for laymen to listen to the Buddha Dharma by senior monks. Chinese Buddhism Buddhism

4224-543: The dead). According to Chün-fang Yü, the most popular Chinese Buddhist ritual that is most widely performed today is the Great Compassion Repentance associated with Guanyin and the Great Compassion Dharani . Keeping sets of ethical rules, like the classic Buddhist five precepts , are another key part of Buddhist practice. Taking up the ethical precepts in a ceremony, along with taking refuge in

4312-581: The dissemination of Buddhism throughout the East Asian cultural sphere , including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, including Tiantai , Huayan , Chan Buddhism , and Pure Land Buddhism . From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by native Chinese religions and philosophy , especially Confucianism and Taoism , but also Chinese folk religion . Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism to China during

4400-772: The end of the Cultural Revolution . Chinese Buddhism suffered extensive repression, persecution, and destruction during the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 until Mao Zedong 's death in 1976). Maoist propaganda depicted Buddhism as one of the Four Olds , as a superstitious instrument of the ruling class and as counter-revolutionary . Buddhist clergy were attacked, disrobed, arrested, and sent to camps. Buddhist writings were burned. Buddhist temples, monasteries, and art were systematically destroyed and Buddhist lay believers ceased any public displays of their religion. During

4488-420: The entities that are thus found bear two natures. The object of perfect seeing is true reality, And false seeing is seeming reality. This means that the distinction between the two truths is primarily epistemological and dependent on the cognition of the observer, not ontological . As Shantideva writes, there are "two kinds of world", "the one of yogins and the one of common people". The seeming reality

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4576-417: The establishment of a new Chinese Yogacara school , also known as the "Consciousness-Only school" (唯識宗; pinyin: Wéishí-zōng). The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including: During the Tang dynasty, the monk Xuanzang (602–664) journeyed to India and back and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for

4664-579: The five types of pungent vegetables. Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; Chinese : 中觀見 ; pinyin : Zhōngguān Jìan ; Tibetan : དབུ་མ་པ་  ; dbu ma pa ), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no svabhāva doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist philosophy and practice founded by the Indian Buddhist monk and philosopher Nāgārjuna ( c.  150  – c.  250 CE ). The foundational text of

4752-424: The highest goal of nirvana, and the lower goal of "commercial good". The highest goal is the liberation from attachment, both material and intellectual. According to Paul Williams, Nāgārjuna associates emptiness with the ultimate truth but his conception of emptiness is not some kind of Absolute , but rather it is the very absence of true existence with regards to the conventional reality of things and events in

4840-497: The highest truth realized by wisdom which is paramartha satya ( parama is literally "supreme or ultimate", and artha means "object, purpose, or actuality"), and yet it has a kind of conventional reality which has its uses for reaching liberation. This limited truth includes everything, including the Buddha himself, the teachings ( dharma ), liberation and even Nāgārjuna's own arguments. This two truth schema which did not deny

4928-404: The illusion of hairs appearing in their visual field. This cognitive dimension of svabhāva means that just understanding and assenting to madhyamaka reasoning is not enough to end the suffering caused by our reification of the world, just like understanding how an optical illusion works does not make it stop functioning. What is required is a kind of cognitive shift (termed realization ) in

5016-415: The images of these holy beings." According to Mario Poceski, Chinese Buddhist temples generally follow a traditional Chinese palace layout. They "consist of a series of halls and courtyards that are arranged symmetrically around a central axis, which usually runs from north to south. The main hall is typically a large building that is centrally located along the main axis. In larger monasteries or temples,

5104-418: The importance of convention allowed Nāgārjuna to defend himself against charges of nihilism ; understanding both correctly meant seeing the middle way : "Without relying upon convention, the ultimate fruit is not taught. Without understanding the ultimate, nirvana is not attained." The limited, perceived reality is an experiential reality or a nominal reality which beings impute on the ultimate reality. It

5192-546: The key figures include: Chinese Buddhist temples usually include numerous images and statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. They are often ritually carved and installed as part of a consecration ritual that may include chanting and scripture reading. Devotion towards these are a major part of Chinese Buddhism. As Chün-fang Yü writes, "people in China worship Buddhas and bodhisattvas in rituals, write poems and novels about them, praise them in songs and hymns, and tell stories and stage plays about them. And above all else, they worship

5280-622: The mass of Buddhist scriptures in order to advance their school's hermeneutical worldview. For example, according to master Zhiyi's "eight teachings and five periods" classification, the final and supreme teaching of the Buddha is found in the Lotus Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra . According to the Huayan masters like Fazang , the Huayan sutra contains the supreme teaching, while the Weishi school held that

5368-550: The most influential school, with close ties to the imperial government and a highly organized system of temple rank and administration system developed. It was during this time that the classic Five Houses of Chan developed. Many classic Chan texts were written during this era, such as the famed koan collections of the Linji school , like the Blue Cliff Record (1125) and The Gateless Gate (1228). Likewise, during this time,

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5456-650: The new foreign religion by the Confucian elites. Centuries after Buddhism originated in India , the Mahayana Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in 1st century CE via Tibet . One of the central tasks of the initial missionaries was the translation of Buddhist texts. The first surviving translations of Buddhist texts into Chinese were those of the 2nd century Parthian An Shigao (Ch. 安世高 ), who worked in

5544-434: The nihilist interpretation from the outset: Nāgārjuna writes: "through explaining true reality as it is, the seeming samvrti does not become disrupted." Candrakirti also responds to the charge of nihilism in his Lucid Words : Therefore, emptiness is taught in order to completely pacify all discursiveness without exception. So if the purpose of emptiness is the complete peace of all discursiveness and you just increase

5632-501: The non-conceptual nature of the ultimate, according to Brunnholzl, the two truths are ultimately inexpressible as either "one" or "different". As noted by Roger Jackson, some non-Buddhist writers, like some Buddhist writers both ancient and modern, have argued that the madhyamaka philosophy is nihilistic . This claim has been challenged by others who argue that it is a Middle Way ( madhyamāpratipad ) between nihilism and eternalism. Madhyamaka philosophers themselves explicitly rejected

5720-545: The normalization period ( Boluan Fanzheng , 1977 to early 80s) led by Deng Xiaoping , a new revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place. This was a period which saw the restoration of damaged Buddhist temples like Guoqing Temple and Guanghua Temple , as well as the return of monastic ordination and Buddhist institutions. Monks like Zhenchan (真禪) and Mengcan (夢參), who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, traveled widely throughout China as well as other countries, such as

5808-466: The notion that one could establish a valid cognition or epistemic proof ( pramana ): If your objects are well established through valid cognitions, tell us how you establish these valid cognitions. If you think they are established through other valid cognitions, there is an infinite regress . Then, the first one is not established, nor are the middle ones, nor the last. If these [valid cognitions] are established even without valid cognition, what you say

5896-423: The reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang . This Chinese form of Vajrayana Buddhism now became popular with the elites and by the time of Emperor Daizong of Tang (r. 762–779), its influence among the upper classes was significant. The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution (841–845) under Emperor Wuzong of Tang greatly impacted and weakened the Buddhist institutions in China. Perhaps the main reason for this persecution

5984-492: The repetition of the Buddha's name). It is commonly believed that during these rituals one can experience auspicious signs, like visions of Amitabha and bright lights. Pilgrimages to well-known monasteries and sites, like the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ( Mount Wutai , Mount Emei , Mount Jiuhua , and Mount Putuo ) are also undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike. Another popular practice

6072-400: The scriptures, Dharma lectures, ritual meals, and chanting at mealtime, as well as confession and repentance rituals. There have been many different types of monasteries throughout Chinese Buddhist history. There are city monasteries, country monasteries, and monasteries deep in the mountains. Some monasteries may be large and rich, with thousands of monastics, while others are small with just

6160-472: The study of India during this period. Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a translation team which was responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works. His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic Yogachara (Consciousness-only) tradition in East Asia. The Tang era was one of the golden ages of Buddhism in China. During this time, a sinicized Buddhism

6248-486: The thought that he does exist, but it is also delusive". In other words, madhyamaka thinkers accept that their arguments, just like all things, are not ultimately valid in some foundational sense. But one is still able to use the opponent's own reasoning apparatus in the conventional field to refute their theories and help them see their errors. This remedial deconstruction does not replace false theories of existence with other ones, but simply dissolves all views, including

6336-547: The three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha), is a common way of entering the Buddhist path. Another important set of ethical precepts is the " bodhisattva precepts " of the Brahmā's Net Sutra , which are often practiced by both laity and monastics. Acts of charity or social service ( 結緣 ) are also an important of part of Chinese Buddhist ethics . Another key part of Chinese Buddhism is engaging in Buddhist meditations such as chanting

6424-468: The two dominant Chan schools: Linji and Caodong . At this point in its history, Chinese Buddhism had also become quite eclectic, drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure of Hanshan Deqing , one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism. Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods. He also directed practitioners in

6512-472: The ultimate. This is often called "the emptiness of emptiness" and refers to the fact that even though madhyamikas speak of emptiness as the ultimate unconditioned nature of things, this emptiness is itself empty of any real existence. The two truths themselves are therefore just a practical tool used to teach others, but do not exist within the actual meditative equipoise that realizes the ultimate. As Candrakirti says: "the noble ones who have accomplished what

6600-688: The use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and was admired for his strict adherence to the precepts. During the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the imperial court shifted its support to the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism suffered much during the various imperial and internal conflicts of the Qing dynasty, especially the devastating Taiping rebellion (December 1850 – August 1864), which saw many temples destroyed and scriptures burned by rebels. This era also saw

6688-446: The vast majority of ordinary Chinese Buddhists, "prevalent expressions of Buddhist piety were (and still are) channeled via a variety of popular modes of worship and ritual observance." Worship services can include Buddhist devotional practices like offerings to an altar (of items like incense, flowers, food, and candles), ceremonial bowing, and extensive liturgies (including repentance ceremonies, rites for good health, and memorials for

6776-419: The very fictional system of epistemic warrants ( pramanas ) used to establish them. The point of madhyamaka reasoning is not to establish any abstract validity or universal truth, it is simply a pragmatic project aimed at ending delusion and suffering. Nāgārjuna also argues that madhyamaka only negates things conventionally, since ultimately, there is nothing there to negate: "I do not negate anything and there

6864-681: The way the world appears and therefore some kind of practice to lead to this shift. As Candrakirti says: For one on the road of cyclic existence who pursues an inverted view due to ignorance , a mistaken object such as the superimposition ( samāropa ) on the aggregates appears as real, but it does not appear to one who is close to the view of the real nature of things. Much of madhyamaka philosophy centers on showing how various essentialist ideas have absurd conclusions through reductio ad absurdum arguments (known as prasanga in Sanskrit). Chapter 15 of Nāgārjuna 's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā centers on

6952-405: The web of discursiveness by thinking that the meaning of emptiness is nonexistence, you do not realize the purpose of emptiness [at all]. This although some scholars (e.g., Murti) interpret emptiness as described by Nāgārjuna as a Buddhist transcendental absolute , other scholars (such as David Kalupahana ) consider this claim a mistake, since then emptiness teachings could not be characterized as

7040-427: The words svabhava parabhava bhava and abhava . According to Peter Harvey: Nagarjuna's critique of the notion of own-nature ( Mk. ch. 15) argues that anything which arises according to conditions, as all phenomena do, can have no inherent nature, for what is depends on what conditions it. Moreover, if there is nothing with own-nature, there can be nothing with 'other-nature' ( para-bhava ), i.e. something which

7128-452: The works of Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) developed the silent sitting method of "silent illumination". Both of these traditions of Chan practice were very influential (and remain so) on East Asian Zen Buddhism (including on Japanese Zen , Korean Seon , and Vietnamese Thiền ). The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) patronized Tibetan Buddhism and thus, during this period there was a steady growth of this tradition in China. A common perception

7216-406: The world. Because the ultimate is itself empty, it is also explained as a "transcendence of deception" and hence is a kind of apophatic truth which experiences the lack of substance. Because the nature of ultimate reality is said to be empty, empty even of "emptiness" itself, both the concept of "emptiness" and the very framework of the two truths are also mere conventional realities, not part of

7304-463: The world. Thus avoiding both extremes the Tathāgata teaches a dharma by the middle path ( madhyamayā pratipadā ) . That is: this being, that becomes; with the arising of this, that arises. With ignorance as condition there is volition ... [to be expanded with the standard formula of the 12 links of dependent origination] Though all Buddhist schools saw themselves as defending a middle path in accord with

7392-759: Was also a revival of Chinese Chan by Hsu Yun and Sheng Yen , as well as a revival of Tiantai Buddhism by Dixian and Tanxu (1875 – 1963). After the Chinese Communist Revolution , many Buddhists and monastics followed the Republican exodus to Taiwan . In the latter half of the twentieth century, many new Buddhist temples and organizations were set up by the exiles in Taiwan, including Fo Guang Shan , Dharma Drum Mountain , and Tzu Chi . These organizations also became influential back in Mainland China after

7480-492: Was first introduced to China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). It was promoted by multiple emperors , especially during the Tang dynasty (618–907), which helped it spread across the country. The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations (along with Taoist and Confucian works) into a Chinese Buddhist canon had far-reaching implications for

7568-595: Was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the Ming dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as not being an orthodox path. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), there was a revival of the study of native Chinese traditions like Tiantai, Huayan , and Yogachara, and most monks belonged to

7656-460: Was the Chinese state's need for tax and wealth. The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979), an era of great political upheaval and civil war, also negatively impacted Chinese Buddhism. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period. The Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the flourishing of Chinese Buddhist culture. During the Song, Chan Buddhism grew to become

7744-459: Was widely accepted and practiced throughout the empire, with many monasteries and temples. Buddhism was popular with all social classes and was very influential on Chinese culture, being more popular and having more followers than Taoism. Buddhist themes can be found in much of the literature of this period, such as in the works of famous poets like Wang Wei (701–761) and Bo Juyi (772 – 846). The various artistic complexes from this period, such as

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