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110-478: Daik was the capital of the Lingga Sultanate for almost 100 years, from 1819 to 1911. Daik has a tropical rainforest climate (Af) with heavy rainfall year-round. This Riau Islands location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Lingga Sultanate Riau-Lingga Sultanate ( Jawi : کسلطانن رياوليڠݢ ‎, romanized: Kesultanan Riau-Lingga ), also known as

220-498: A covalent structure in which electrons cannot move freely. α-tin is a dull-gray powdery material with no common uses other than specialized semiconductor applications. γ-tin and σ-tin exist at temperatures above 161 °C (322 °F)  and pressures above several GPa . In cold conditions β-tin tends to transform spontaneously into α-tin, a phenomenon known as " tin pest " or "tin disease". Some unverifiable sources also say that, during Napoleon 's Russian campaign of 1812,

330-438: A superconductor below 3.72  K and was one of the first superconductors to be studied. The Meissner effect , one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals. Tin resists corrosion from water , but can be corroded by acids and alkalis . Tin can be highly polished and is used as a protective coat for other metals. When heated in air it oxidizes slowly to form

440-706: A fortnight; thus these cities became major ports for the Hajj pilgrimage. Inspired by the experience and intellectual progress attained in the Middle East and influenced by the Pan-Islamism brotherhood, the Riau Malay intelligentsia established the Roesidijah (Club) Riouw in 1895. The association was born as a literary circle to develop the religious, cultural and intellectual needs of the sultanate, but as it matured, it changed into

550-553: A high neutron capture cross section for fast neutrons, at 30 barns . Tin-117 has a cross section of 2.3 barns, one order of magnitude smaller, while tin-119 has a slightly smaller cross section of 2.2 barns. Before these cross sections were well known, it was proposed to use tin-lead solder as a coolant for fast reactors because of its low melting point. Current studies are for lead or lead-bismuth reactor coolants because both heavy metals are nearly transparent to fast neutrons, with very low capture cross sections. In order to use

660-532: A major "tin crisis" ensued—tin was delisted from trading on the London Metal Exchange for about three years. ITC dissolved soon afterward, and the price of tin, now in a free-market environment, fell to $ 4 per pound and remained around that level through the 1990s. The price increased again by 2010 with a rebound in consumption following the 2007–2008 economic crisis , accompanying restocking and continued growth in consumption. London Metal Exchange (LME)

770-626: A military regiment under the leadership of the prince regent, Tengku Umar. During a visit of the Dutch Resident's visit to Penyengat, the sultan then, on his own authority and without Dutch approval, summoned the rulers of Reteh, Gaung and Mandah, making the Resident feel as if he was being besieged by the sultanate. The affiliates of the Roesidijah Klub, mainly the members of the administrative class, were thus able to slowly manoeuvre Abdul Rahman, once

880-403: A more critical organisation and began to address the fight against Dutch rule in the kingdom. The era was marked by growing awareness among the elite and rulers of the importance of watan ( homeland ) and one's duty towards his or her native soil. In order to succeed to establish a watan , the land must be independent and sovereign , a far-cry from a Dutch-controlled sultanate. Moreover, it

990-423: A nuclear spin of 1/2. It is thought that tin has such a great multitude of stable isotopes because of tin's atomic number being 50, which is a " magic number " in nuclear physics. Tin is one of the easiest elements to detect and analyze by NMR spectroscopy , which relies on molecular weight and its chemical shifts are referenced against tetramethyltin ( SnMe 4 ). Of the stable isotopes, tin-115 has

1100-829: A position held by the Bugis ruling elite, served as the Head of Government . (Following the partition of Johor-Riau, the position of Yang Dipertuan Muda was retained only in the Riau-Lingga Sultanate and not in Johor). The sultan's royal palace was located in Penyengat Inderasakti and the Yang Dipertuan Muda resided in Daik, Lingga. The Sultan was dominant in Lingga and its dependencies, while

1210-582: A regional trade centre attracting traders from China , Celebes , Borneo , the Malay Peninsula , Sumatra , Pagaruyung , Java , Siak and Pahang . This caused the Dutch concern, as they feared that the sultanate might gather enough supplies and forces to defeat them. Due to this fear, the Dutch appointed an assistant resident to be stationed in Tanjung Buton, a port close to Mepar Island, 6 kilometres from

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1320-795: A secondary role. The council, created following the decree of the Governor General of the East Indies on 12 July 1947, was inaugurated on 4 August 1947, and represented a major step forward in the revival of the monarchy system. Several key members of the PMRS were elected to the Riau Council alongside their BKRI rivals, the Chinese kapitans from Tanjung Pinang and Pulau Tujuh, local Malay leaders of Lingga and Dutch officials in Tanjung Pinang. On 23 January 1948,

1430-412: A similarly lowborn mother, Cik Halimah. The only unquestionably royal wife and consort of Mahmud Shah was Engku Puteri Hamidah, whose only child had died an hour after birth. In the following chaos, Engku Puteri was expected to install Tengku Hussein as the next sultan, because he had been preferred by the late Mahmud Shah. Based on the royal adat (customary observance), the consent of Engku Puteri

1540-504: A supporter of Dutch rule, to act against the colonial power's wishes. The bold resolution shown by the sultan and fellow officials was not welcomed by the Dutch. According to the journal kept by the Syahbandar ( Harbourmaster ), the decision of the sultan was deplored by the Dutch Resident, G.F Bruijn Kops who stated "they molded the sultan to retaliate (against the Dutch), so a retaliation (by

1650-469: A thin passivation layer of stannic oxide ( SnO 2 ) that inhibits further oxidation. Tin has ten stable isotopes , the greatest number of any element. Their mass numbers are 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, and 124. Tin-120 makes up almost a third of all tin. Tin-118 and tin-116 are also common. Tin-115 is the least common stable isotope. The isotopes with even mass numbers have no nuclear spin , while those with odd mass numbers have

1760-608: A tin or tin-lead coolant, the tin would first have to go through isotopic separation to remove the isotopes with odd mass number. Combined, these three isotopes make up about 17% of natural tin but represent nearly all of the capture cross section. Of the remaining seven isotopes tin-112 has a capture cross section of 1 barn. The other six isotopes forming 82.7% of natural tin have capture cross sections of 0.3 barns or less, making them effectively transparent to neutrons. Tin has 31 unstable isotopes, ranging in mass number from 99 to 139. The unstable tin isotopes have half-lives of less than

1870-502: A viceroy, despite the Dutch travel prohibition. The Dutch therefore deposed him on 7 October 1857 while he was in Singapore. He then remained in Singapore and sought mediation with the Dutch, but the British decided not to interfere in the issue. In Riau, the Dutch and Yang Dipertuan Muda then enthroned Mahmud IV's uncle, Sultan Badrul Alam Syah II as the fourth Sultan of Riau (1857–1883). He

1980-448: A year except for tin-126 , which has a half-life of about 230,000 years. Tin-100 and tin-132 are two of the very few nuclides with a " doubly magic " nucleus which despite being unstable, as they have very uneven neutron–proton ratios , are the endpoints beyond which tin isotopes lighter than tin-100 and heavier than tin-132 are much less stable. Another 30 metastable isomers have been identified for tin isotopes between 111 and 131,

2090-410: Is corrosion -resistant tin plating of steel . Because of the low toxicity of inorganic tin, tin-plated steel is widely used for food packaging as " tin cans ". Some organotin compounds can be extremely toxic. Tin is a soft, malleable , ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white metal . When a bar of tin is bent a crackling sound known as the " tin cry " can be heard from the twinning of

2200-417: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol Sn (from Latin stannum ) and atomic number 50. A silvery-colored metal, tin is soft enough to be cut with little force, and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent, the so-called " tin cry " can be heard as a result of twinning in tin crystals. Tin is a post-transition metal in group 14 of the periodic table of elements. It

2310-467: Is evidence that Cornwall in the first centuries AD was the main source of tin. Tin extraction and use can be dated to the beginnings of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC, when it was observed that copper objects formed of polymetallic ores with different metal contents had different physical properties. The earliest bronze objects had a tin or arsenic content of less than 2% and are believed to be

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2420-563: Is generated via the long s -process in low-to-medium mass stars (with masses of 0.6 to 10 times that of the Sun ), and finally by beta decay of the heavy isotopes of indium . Tin is the 49th most abundant element in Earth's crust , representing 2  ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc, 50 ppm for copper, and 14 ppm for lead. Tin does not occur as the native element but must be extracted from various ores. Cassiterite ( SnO 2 )

2530-430: Is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite , which contains stannic oxide , SnO 2 . Tin shows a chemical similarity to both of its neighbors in group 14, germanium and lead , and has two main oxidation states , +2 and the slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element on Earth, making up 0.00022% of its crust, and with 10 stable isotopes, it has the largest number of stable isotopes in

2640-438: Is the allotrope (structural form) of elemental tin that is stable at and above room temperature. It is metallic and malleable, and has body-centered tetragonal crystal structure. α-tin, or gray tin , is the nonmetallic form. It is stable below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F) and is brittle . α-tin has a diamond cubic crystal structure, as do diamond and silicon . α-tin does not have metallic properties because its atoms form

2750-443: Is the only commercially important source of tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite , cylindrite , franckeite , canfieldite , and teallite . Minerals with tin are almost always associated with granite rock, usually at a level of 1% tin oxide content. Because of the higher specific gravity of tin dioxide, about 80% of mined tin is from secondary deposits found downstream from

2860-628: Is tin's principal trading site. Other tin contract markets are Kuala Lumpur Tin Market (KLTM) and Indonesia Tin Exchange (INATIN). Due to factors involved in the 2021 global supply chain crisis , tin prices almost doubled during 2020–21 and have had their largest annual rise in over 30 years. Global refined tin consumption dropped 1.6 percent in 2020 as the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted global manufacturing industries. In 2018, just under half of all tin produced

2970-505: The r -process (rapid neutron capture) in supernovae and neutron star mergers . Tin isotopes 115, 117 through 120, and 122 are produced via both the s -process and the r -process, The two lightest stable isotopes, tin-112 and tin-114, cannot be made in significant amounts in the s - or r -processes and are among the p-nuclei whose origins are not well understood. Some theories about their formation include proton capture and photodisintegration . Tin-115 might be partially produced in

3080-541: The Indonesian Independence Day celebration on 17 August 1947 in Singapore. This led republicans to call the royalists 'pro-Dutch'. The royalists however, maintained that Riau was a Dutch territory and that only the Dutch could support it. The Dutch countered the claims of the BKRI by granting autonomous rule to the Riau Council, in which links with the Dutch would be maintained while a restored sultanate would play

3190-588: The Lingga-Riau Sultanate , Riau Sultanate or Lingga Sultanate was a Malay sultanate that existed from 1824 to 1911, before being dissolved following Dutch intervention. The sultanate came into existence as a result of the partition of the Johor-Riau Sultanate that separated Johor on the Malay Peninsula and the island of Singapore , from the Riau Archipelago . This partition followed

3300-535: The Strait of Malacca . Ulu Riau became the capital of Johor during the reign of Sultan Ibrahim when he relocated the capital from Batu Sawar, Kota Tinggi in Peninsular Johor after the old capital was sacked by Jambi forces on 4 October 1722. Riau Lama then became the capital of the empire for 65 years, from 1722 to 1787. The importance of Lingga began during the reign of Mahmud Shah III . In 1788, he relocated

3410-670: The bendahara (high advisor) went to Pahang with 1000 people while others headed to Terengganu . When the Dutch arrived in Riau, there were only a few Chinese planters left, who persuaded the Dutch not to chase the Malays. The Sultan then developed Lingga and welcomed new settlers to the island. Dato Kaya Megat was appointed as the new Bendahara of Lingga. New dwellings were constructed, roads were built and buildings were improved. He found unprecedented new wealth when tin mines were organised in Singkep. Both

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3520-542: The republican group led by Dr. Iljas Datuk Batuah that sent delegates to Singapore to counter the propaganda of sultanate supporters. Based on Indonesian archive records, Dr. Iljas gained approvals from non-Malay newcomers to Riau, including Minang , Javanese , Palembang , and Batak people . He later formed a group known as the Badan Kedaulatan Indonesia Riouw (BKRI) (Indonesian Riau Sovereignty Bureau) on 8 October 1945. The organisation sought to absorb

3630-608: The s -process, both directly and as the daughter of long-lived indium-115 , and also from the decay of indium-115 produced via the r -process. The word tin is shared among Germanic languages and can be traced back to reconstructed Proto-Germanic * tin-om ; cognates include German Zinn , Swedish tenn and Dutch tin . It is not found in other branches of Indo-European , except by borrowing from Germanic (e.g., Irish tinne from English). The Latin name for tin, stannum , originally meant an alloy of silver and lead, and came to mean 'tin' in

3740-573: The 1849 Johor Annals, on 27 September 1673 the Laksamana (admiral) of Johor, Tun Abdul Jamil, was ordered by Abdul Jalil Shah III to found a settlement in Sungai Carang, Ulu Riau, on Bintan Island . The settlement in Sungai Carang was later known as Riau Lama. Initially a fortress to protect the Johor Empire, Riau Lama then prospered and became an increasingly prominent entrepôt for regional trade in

3850-615: The BKRI delegation in the council, which was the opposition. The appeal of revival began to subside following the dissolution of the Bangka Belitung and Riau Federation on 4 April 1950. After the official withdrawal by the Dutch in 1950, the Riau Archipelago became Keresidenan Riau under Central Sumatra Province following official merger by the United States of Indonesia. Being one of the last territories merged into Indonesia, Riau

3960-580: The British and Dutch then restored his claim on the Riau island. He began to revive maritime trade discreetly with the British as a major source of commodities, especially valuable tin , gambier and spices . In 1812, the Johor-Riau Sultanate experienced a succession crisis. The death of the Mahmud Shah III in Lingga left no heir apparent . Royal custom required that the succeeding sultan must be present at his predecessor's deathbed . However at

4070-476: The British domination over the region, the Dutch entered into an agreement with the Johor-Riau Sultanate on 27 November 1818. The agreement stipulated that the Dutch were to be the paramount leaders of the Johor-Riau Sultanate and that only Dutch people could engage in trade with the kingdom. A Dutch garrison was then stationed in Riau. The Dutch also secured an agreement that Dutch consent was required for all future appointments of Johor-Riau Sultans. This agreement

4180-525: The British were reluctant to interfere. Diplomatic missions were sent to the Empire of Japan by Raja Khalid Hitam in 1911 and to the Ottoman Empire by Raja Ali Kelana in 1913 to call for the restoration of the sultanate. At one point the sultan even wanted to abdicate in favour of his son, Tengku Besar, as these diplomatic initiatives seemed to be in vain. The sultan died in Singapore in 1930. Several members of

4290-469: The Bugis Yang Dipertuan Muda controlled Riau (consisting of Bintan, Penyengat and the surrounding islands), with each of them having no claim on the revenues of the other. These spheres of control would only begin to erode during the time of Yang Dipertuan Muda Yusuf Ahmadi. Riau later became the heart of Bugis political influence in the western Malay World . However, the power division between

4400-476: The Dutch Colonial Resident in the sultanate's administration, which led to Dutch outrage. The movement was an early form of Malay nationalism . Non-violence and passive resistance measures were adopted by the association. The main method of the movement was to hold symbolic boycotts. The Dutch then branded the movement as leidelek verset (Dutch: Passive resistance), and passive acts such as ignoring

4510-517: The Dutch East Indies Council agreed on the proposal put forward by Hurgronje and authorised action against the nationalist association. Nonetheless, advice to the Sultan was to be first to put forward a military action towards the kingdom and association. The council also advised the Dutch Resident in Riau to avoid entering contractual agreement before achieving consensus with the ruling elite of

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4620-494: The Dutch Government. The agreement was drawn up due to the fact that the appointment of Sultan Abdul Rahman II (1885–1911) had not been made with the consent of the Dutch and he was also clearly against colonial rule. The Dutch insisted that the sultan sign the agreement, but after consulting the fellow rulers of the state, Engku Kelana, Raja Ali, Raja Hitam and other members of the ruling elite, he refused, and decided to form

4730-703: The Dutch Governor in Batavia, about this issue. With the royal regalia in Dutch hands, Abdul Rahman was invited from Terengganu and proclaimed as the Sultan of Johor, Riau-Lingga and Pahang on 27 November 1822. Hence, the legitimate ruler of the Johor-Riau Empire was now Abdul Rahman, rather than the British-backed Hussein. This led to the partition of Johor-Riau under the Anglo-Dutch treaty of 1824, by which

4840-578: The Dutch now came into play. The British had earlier gained Malacca from the Dutch under the Treaty of The Hague in 1795 and saw an opportunity to increase their regional influence. They crowned Tengku Hussein in Singapore, and he took the title Hussein Shah of Johor . The British were actively involved in the Johor-Riau administration between 1812 and 1818, and their intervention further strengthened their dominance in

4950-571: The Dutch) shall be administered". On the morning of 11 February 1911, when the sultan and the court officials were in Daik to perform the Mandi Safar (a ritual purifying bath), Dutch Naval ships of Java, Tromp and Koetai Torpedo Boat anchored in Penyengat Island and deployed hundreds of pribumi soldiers (Dutch: marechausse ) to lay siege to the royal court. This was followed by the arrival of Dutch official K.M Voematra from Tanjung Pinang at

5060-523: The Johor-Riau Empire, feared losing momentum because of the absence of mere regalia. They therefore ordered Timmerman Tyssen, the Dutch Governor of Malacca, to seize Penyengat in October 1822 and remove the royal regalia from Tengku Hamidah by force. The regalia was then stored in the Kroonprins (Dutch: Crown Prince's) Fort in Tanjung Pinang. Engku Puteri was reported to have written a letter to Van Der Capellen ,

5170-513: The Malay and the Bugis was not met without any major dispute between the two houses. The adat istiadat (custom) called for a separation of powers and a pledge of allegiance called Persetiaan Sungai Baru (The Oath of Sungai Baru) sworn between the Bugis and the Malays and renewed for five times between 1722 and 1858. Under the adat, only Malays could be Sultan and the position of the Yang Dipertuan Muda

5280-459: The Near East where arsenic is commonly found with copper ore, but the health risks were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the Bronze Age. This created the demand for rare tin metal and formed a trade network that linked the distant sources of tin to the markets of Bronze Age cultures. Cassiterite ( SnO 2 ), the oxide form of tin,

5390-548: The Riau Archipelago into the then- newly independent Indonesia , as the archipelago was still retained by the Dutch. BKRI hoped that the new republican administration under Sukarno would give the pribumis a fair chance to run the local government. The royalist association would not give any public support to the Indonesian movement, as is evident in its refusal to display the Bendera Merah-Putih ( Indonesian Flag ) during

5500-501: The Riau administrative centre. The globalisation of the 19th century opened new opportunities for the Riau-Lingga Sultanate. Proximity to cosmopolitan Singapore, just 40 miles away, shaped the political climate of the kingdom, giving Riau Malays an opportunity to familiarise themselves with new ideas from the Middle East . The opening of Suez Canal meant a journey to Mecca via Port Said , Egypt and Singapore could take no more than

5610-477: The Riau-Lingga Sultanate. On 18 May 1905, the Dutch demanded a new agreement with the sultan, stipulating further limits on the powers of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate, requiring that the Dutch flag must be raised higher than the flag of Riau, and specifying that Dutch officials should be given supreme honour in the land. The agreement further stipulated that the Riau-Lingga Sultanate was a mere achazat (Dutch: loan) from

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5720-528: The Roesidijah Club headquarters to announce the deposition of Abdul Rahman II. Once the letter of deposition had been read by the Dutch official, he described the crown prince and other members of the Roesidijah Klub as "individuals who harbour animosity against his excellency the Governor of Netherlands Indies" ( orang berniat bermusuhan dengan Sri Padoeka Gouvenrnement Hindia Nederland ). The Dutch then seized

5830-560: The Strait of Malacca. The British recognised Johor-Riau as a sovereign state and offered to pay Engku Puteri 50,000 Ringgits ( Spanish Coins ) for the royal regalia, which she refused. Seeing the diplomatic advantage gained in the region by the British, the Dutch responded by crowning Tengku Abdul Rahman as sultan instead. They also obtained, at the Congress of Vienna , a withdrawal of British recognition of Johor-Riau sovereignty. To further curtail

5940-581: The United States has neither mined (since 1993) nor smelted (since 1989) tin, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006. New deposits are reported in Mongolia , and in 2009, new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia. Tin is produced by carbothermic reduction of the oxide ore with carbon or coke. Both reverberatory furnace and electric furnace can be used: The ten largest tin-producing companies produced most of

6050-440: The capital from Riau Lama, Ulu Riau, Bintan to Daik , Lingga. The Sultan did this as he believed that he was being reduced to a mere figurehead under the Dutch. He then requested aid from his distant relative, Raja Ismail, a local ruler of Tempasuk to organise a successful campaign against the Dutch. Out of fear of retaliation by the Dutch, he organised a mass transfer of the populace: the Sultan left for Lingga with 2000 people,

6160-588: The complex agreements between producer countries and consumer countries dating back to 1921. Earlier agreements tended to be somewhat informal and led to the "First International Tin Agreement" in 1956, the first of a series that effectively collapsed in 1985. Through these agreements, the International Tin Council (ITC) had a considerable effect on tin prices. ITC supported the price of tin during periods of low prices by buying tin for its buffer stockpile and

6270-402: The crystals. This trait is shared by indium , cadmium , zinc , and mercury in its solid state. Tin melts at about 232 °C (450 °F), the lowest in group 14, and boils at 2,602 °C (4,716 °F), the second lowest (ahead of lead ) in its group. The melting point is further lowered to 177.3 °C (351.1 °F) for 11 nm particles. β-tin, also called white tin ,

6380-555: The death of Badrul Alam Syah II, the Bugis-Malay elites voted for Tengku Fatimah as his successor, making her the first queen regnant in the history of the empire since the Malaccan period. Nearly a month later, on 13 October, another gathering was convened, and on this occasion Abdul Rahman II, was crowned as the new sultan after Tengku Fatimah voluntarily abdicated in favour of her son. Unusually, because of his parentage, Abdul Rahman II

6490-425: The death of the Yang Dipertuan Muda, the Sultan delayed in naming his successor. This was due to the fact that the Sultan do not approve of any of the candidates offered by the Yang Dipertuan Muda's family. The Sultan then tried to name a candidate from Singapore and claimed that the revenues gained by the Yang Dipertuan Muda ought to be paid to him. The final blow came when he decided to sail to Singapore without naming

6600-530: The dissolution of the sultanate, but started to gain momentum following the post-world war confusion and politics. From the ashes of political uncertainty and fragility in the East Indies following the World War II , a royalist faction known as Persatoean Melayu Riouw Sedjati (PMRS) (Association of the Indigenous Riau Malays) emerged to call for the restoration of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate. The council

6710-627: The expansion by Tun Perak in the 15th century, following the decline of the Srivijaya Empire . After the fall of Malacca at the hands of the Portuguese , the axis of regional power was inherited by the Johor Sultanate . During the golden age of Johor, the kingdom stretched across half of the Malay Peninsula , eastern Sumatra , Singapore , Bangka , Jambi and the Riau Islands. According to

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6820-499: The former sultanate, became a separate province, Riau Islands , with its own provincial authorities and legislative, the latter a modern incarnation of the Riau Council. The leader of Riau forces, Major Raja Muhammad Yunus, who led the bid to reestablish the sultanate apart from Indonesia fled into exile in Johor after his ill attempt. The geopolitical roots of the Riau Archipelago had molded her nationalist position to be sandwiched between

6930-586: The fourth century —the earlier Latin word for it was plumbum candidum , or "white lead". Stannum apparently came from an earlier stāgnum (meaning the same substance), the origin of the Romance and Celtic terms for tin , such as French étain , Spanish estaño , Italian stagno , and Irish stán . The origin of stannum / stāgnum is unknown; it may be pre- Indo-European . The Meyers Konversations-Lexikon suggests instead that stannum came from Cornish stean , and

7040-439: The great majority of its compounds, tin has the oxidation state II or IV. Compounds containing bivalent tin are called stannous while those containing tetravalent tin are termed stannic . Halide compounds are known for both oxidation states. For Sn(IV), all four halides are well known: SnF 4 , SnCl 4 , SnBr 4 , and SnI 4 . The three heavier members are volatile molecular compounds, whereas

7150-452: The guidance of the colonial powers. During the reign of Mahmud IV, increasing tensions developed with Dutch administrators. The Sultan felt that his kingdom was being heavily manipulated by the Dutch and the Yang Dipertuan Muda, and wanted to throw off their yoke. He frequently traveled to Singapore, Terengganu and Pahang to gain recognition for his rule by the British, and support from his circle of kin in other Malay Royal Houses against

7260-517: The inhibiting effect of small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead, and silver present as impurities. Alloying elements such as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, and silver increase the hardness of tin. Tin easily forms hard, brittle intermetallic phases that are typically undesirable. It does not mix into a solution with most metals and elements so tin does not have much solid solubility. Tin mixes well with bismuth , gallium , lead , thallium and zinc , forming simple eutectic systems. Tin becomes

7370-410: The kindred monarchist Peninsular Malay Nationalism observed across the border in British Malaya with the pro-republic and pan-ethnic Indonesian Nationalism manifested in her own Dutch East Indies domain. The Riau Sultanate had an unusual division of authority at its heart. The Sultan, who was a Malay, acted as Head of State while the Dipertuan Muda/Yamtuan Muda (deputy ruler or Viceroy),

7480-451: The late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. reduced its strategic tin stockpile, partly to take advantage of historically high tin prices. The 1981–82 recession damaged the tin industry. Tin consumption declined dramatically. ITC was able to avoid truly steep declines through accelerated buying for its buffer stockpile; this activity required extensive borrowing. ITC continued to borrow until late 1985 when it reached its credit limit. Immediately,

7590-444: The liberation of the kingdom by Raja Ali Kelana, accompanied by a renowned Pattani -born Ulema , Syeikh Wan Ahmad Fatani. The Dutch Colonial Office in Tanjung Pinang labelled the organisation as a versetpartai (Dutch: Left-leaning party). The organisation also won momentous support from the Mohakamah (Malay Judiciary) and the Dewan Kerajaan (Sultanate Administrative Board). It critically monitored and researched every step taken by

7700-403: The market and mining technology. It is estimated that, at current consumption rates and technologies, the Earth will run out of mine-able tin in 40 years. In 2006 Lester Brown suggested tin could run out within 20 years based on conservative estimates of 2% annual growth. Scrap tin is an important source of the metal. Recovery of tin through recycling is increasing rapidly as of 2019. Whereas

7810-408: The members of the Roesidijah Klub would gather around the royal court and refuse to raise the Dutch flag on government vessels. The Dutch Colonial Resident in Riau, A.L. Van Hasselt advised the Governor of Netherlands East Indies that the Sultan was an opponent to the Dutch and immersed with a group of hardcore verzetparty . Later, on 1 January 1903, the Dutch Colonial Resident found that the Dutch flag

7920-412: The most stable being tin-121m, with a half-life of 43.9 years. The relative differences in the abundances of tin's stable isotopes can be explained by how they are formed during stellar nucleosynthesis . Tin-116 through tin-120, along with tin-122, are formed in the s -process (slow neutron capture) in most stars which leads to them being the most common tin isotopes, while tin-124 is only formed in

8030-574: The official coronation regalia, and to prevent their seizure by the Dutch, many official buildings were deliberately razed by members of the court themselves. A mass exodus of civilians and officials to Johor and Singapore then took place. To avoid violence and the death of civilians in Pulau Penyengat, the sultan and his officials decided not to fight the Dutch troops. The sultan and Tengku Ampuan (the Queen) left Pulau Penyengat and sailed to Singapore in

8140-550: The periodic table, due to its magic number of protons. It has two main allotropes : at room temperature, the stable allotrope is β-tin, a silvery-white, malleable metal; at low temperatures it is less dense grey α-tin, which has the diamond cubic structure. Metallic tin does not easily oxidize in air and water. The first tin alloy used on a large scale was bronze , made of 1 ⁄ 8  tin and 7 ⁄ 8   copper (12.5% and 87.5% respectively), from as early as 3000 BC. After 600 BC, pure metallic tin

8250-609: The primary lodes. Tin is often recovered from granules washed downstream in the past and deposited in valleys or the sea. The most economical ways of mining tin are by dredging , hydraulicking , or open pits . Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits, which can contain as little as 0.015% tin. About 253,000 tonnes of tin were mined in 2011, mostly in China (110,000 t), Indonesia (51,000 t), Peru (34,600 t), Bolivia (20,700 t) and Brazil (12,000 t). Estimates of tin production have historically varied with

8360-503: The province was administered as Residentie Riouw en Onderhoorigheden (Dutch: Residence of Riau and Dependencies). The Dutch Residence comprised Tanjung Pinang, Lingga, Riau and Indragiri, while the Tudjuh Archipelago was administered separately as "Afdeeling Poelau-Toedjoeh" (Dutch: The Division of Pulau Tudjuh). The sultan appealed to the British administration for aid, but although he was given refuge and protection in Singapore,

8470-575: The raising of the Dutch flag were met with anger by the Batavia -based Raad van Indie (Dutch East Indies Council) and the Advisor on Native Affairs, Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje . In a geheim (Dutch: secret) letter 660/G, dated 7 May 1904 to the Dutch East Indies Council, Hurgronje advocated that the sultanate and association be crushed as resistance in the earlier Aceh War had been. Hurgronje justified this with several arguments, among which were that since 1902

8580-472: The reaction of hydrochloric acid and tin produces SnCl 2 and hydrogen gas. Alternatively SnCl 4 and Sn combine to stannous chloride by a process called comproportionation : Tin can form many oxides, sulfides, and other chalcogenide derivatives. The dioxide SnO 2 (cassiterite) forms when tin is heated in the presence of air . SnO 2 is amphoteric , which means that it dissolves in both acidic and basic solutions. Stannates with

8690-477: The region north of the Singapore Strait including the island of Singapore and Johor were to be under British influence, while the south of the strait along with Riau and Lingga were to be controlled by the Dutch. By installing two sultans from the same kingdom, both the British and the Dutch effectively destroyed the Johor-Riau polity and satisfied their colonial ambitions. Under the treaty, Tengku Abdul Rahman

8800-418: The restoration of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate after the status of Indonesia became official. The leader of the council, Raja Abdullah, claimed that Riau Malays were neglected at the expense of the non-Riau Indonesians who dominated the upper ranks of the Riau civil administration. By restoring the monarch, they believed the position of Riau Malays would be guarded. The royalist association met with resistance from

8910-456: The result of unintentional alloying due to trace metal content in the copper ore. The addition of a second metal to copper increases its hardness, lowers the melting temperature, and improves the casting process by producing a more fluid melt that cools to a denser, less spongy metal. This was an important innovation that allowed for the much more complex shapes cast in closed molds of the Bronze Age. Arsenical bronze objects appear first in

9020-527: The royal family later asserted their claim to be recognised as the sultan. When World War II broke out, the Dutch were beset with manpower issues within their territories in the East Indies . This led the British to consider creating a buffer state in Riau. They discussed prospects for a restoration with Tengku Omar and Tengku Besar, descendants of the sultans, who were then based in Terengganu . However, as

9130-457: The royal vessel Sri Daik , while Crown Prince Raja Ali Kelana, Khalid Hitam and the resistance movement in Bukit Bahjah followed a couple of days later. The deposed Abdul Rahman II was forced to live in exile in Singapore. The Dutch officially annexed the sultanate to avoid future claims from the monarchy. Rechtstreeks bestuur (Dutch: Direct rule) over the Riau Archipelago began in 1913, and

9240-412: The rules of royal protocol, as he had been present at the late Sultan's deathbed. Unwilling and furious, the outspoken Queen is then reported to have said, "Who elected Abdul Rahman as sovereign of Johor? Was it my brother Raja Jaafar or by what law of succession has it happened? It is owing to this act of injustice that the ancient empire of Johor is fast falling to decay". Rivalry between the British and

9350-580: The states of the Bangka Council, the Belitung Council, and the Riau Council merged to form the Bangka Belitung and Riau Federation , which in the following year was admitted as part of the United States of Indonesia . The call for revival of the sultanate continued throughout the period of autonomous rule under the Riau Council, although the influence of republicanism also continued to strengthen thru

9460-678: The structure [ Sn(OH) 6 ] , like K 2 [ Sn(OH) 6 ], are also known, though the free stannic acid H 2 [ Sn(OH) 6 ] is unknown. Sulfides of tin exist in both the +2 and +4 oxidation states: tin(II) sulfide and tin(IV) sulfide ( mosaic gold ). Stannane ( SnH 4 ), with tin in the +4 oxidation state, is unstable. Organotin hydrides are however well known, e.g. tributyltin hydride (Sn(C 4 H 9 ) 3 H). These compounds release transient tributyl tin radicals, which are rare examples of compounds of tin(III). Organotin compounds, sometimes called stannanes, are chemical compounds with tin–carbon bonds. Of

9570-595: The succession dispute following the death of Mahmud III of Johor , when Abdul Rahman was crowned as the first Sultan of Riau-Lingga. The maritime kingdom was recognised by both the British and the Dutch following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 . Its historical territory is almost parallel to the present-day Riau Islands Province , Indonesia. The Riau Archipelago became a part of the Malaccan Sultanate after

9680-572: The temperatures became so cold that the tin buttons on the soldiers' uniforms disintegrated over time, contributing to the defeat of the Grande Armée , a persistent legend. The α-β transformation temperature is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F), but impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.) lower it well below 0 °C (32 °F). With the addition of antimony or bismuth the transformation might not occur at all, increasing durability. Commercial grades of tin (99.8% tin content) resist transformation because of

9790-420: The tetrafluoride is polymeric. All four halides are known for Sn(II) also: SnF 2 , SnCl 2 , SnBr 2 , and SnI 2 . All are polymeric solids. Of these eight compounds, only the iodides are colored. Tin(II) chloride (also known as stannous chloride) is the most important commercial tin halide. Illustrating the routes to such compounds, chlorine reacts with tin metal to give SnCl 4 whereas

9900-523: The tetraorgano derivatives, are prepared by redistribution reactions : Divalent organotin compounds are uncommon, although more common than related divalent organogermanium and organosilicon compounds. The greater stabilization enjoyed by Sn(II) is attributed to the " inert pair effect ". Organotin(II) compounds include both stannylenes (formula: R 2 Sn, as seen for singlet carbenes ) and distannylenes (R 4 Sn 2 ), which are roughly equivalent to alkenes . Both classes exhibit unusual reactions. Tin

10010-537: The time Mahmud Shah III died, the eldest prince, Tengku Hussein, was in Pahang to celebrate his marriage to the daughter of the Bendahara (governor). The other candidate was Tengku Hussein's half-brother, Tengku Abdul Rahman. To complicate matters, neither of the candidates was of full royal blood. The mother of Tengku Hussein, Cik Mariam, owed her origin to a Balinese slave lady and a Bugis commoner. Tengku Abdul Rahman had

10120-588: The tin compounds, the organic derivatives are commercially the most useful. Some organotin compounds are highly toxic and have been used as biocides . The first organotin compound to be reported was diethyltin diiodide ((C 2 H 5 ) 2 SnI 2 ), reported by Edward Frankland in 1849. Most organotin compounds are colorless liquids or solids that are stable to air and water. They adopt tetrahedral geometry. Tetraalkyl- and tetraaryltin compounds can be prepared using Grignard reagents : The mixed halide-alkyls, which are more common and more important commercially than

10230-589: The viceregal house of Riau, who came from Bugis stock. He also asserted his claim to be the rightful heir of the preceding Johor-Riau throne, rather than Hussein Shah of Johor. The sultan's actions were met with suspicion by the British, who warned the Dutch that as their vassal , he was in breach of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Angered and embarrassed by the Sultan, the Dutch then prohibited him from travelling without their consent. He ignored this prohibition. The crisis reached its peak in 1857 when, following

10340-496: The war approached Southeast Asia , the Dutch actively engaged in the defensive system alongside the British, and the British decided to shelve the restoration plan. In the aftermath of the war and the struggle against Dutch rule, several exile associations collectively known as the Gerakan Kesultanan Riau (Riau Sultanate Movement) emerged in Singapore, planning for a restoration. Some of the groups dated from as early as

10450-586: The world's tin in 2007. Most of the world's tin is traded on LME, from 8 countries, under 17 brands. The International Tin Council was established in 1947 to control the price of tin. It collapsed in 1985. In 1984, the Association of Tin Producing Countries was created, with Australia, Bolivia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand, and Zaire as members. Tin is unique among mineral commodities because of

10560-458: Was able to restrain the price during periods of high prices by selling from the stockpile. This was an anti-free-market approach, designed to assure a sufficient flow of tin to consumer countries and a profit for producer countries. However, the buffer stockpile was not sufficiently large, and during most of those 29 years tin prices rose, sometimes sharply, especially from 1973 through 1980 when rampant inflation plagued many world economies. During

10670-463: Was also viewed that the penetration of the west in the state was slowly tearing apart the fabric of the Malay-Muslim identity. By the dawn of the 20th century, the association had become a political tool for rising against the colonial power, with Raja Muhammad Thahir and Raja Ali Kelana acting as its backbone. Diplomatic missions were sent to the Ottoman Empire in 1883, 1895 and in 1905 to secure

10780-517: Was assisted by Yang Dipertuan Muda IX Raja Haji Abdullah (1857–1858). During his reign, Daik found unprecedented prosperity. The Sultan improved the local economy by encouraging rice cultivation and opium preparation. He also possessed a small armada to promote trade relations. He introduced sago from the Moluccas to the local people, which he believed was a better crop than rice as a staple food, as rice can be only harvested once yearly. Daik then become

10890-473: Was both sultan and first in line of succession to the Yang Dipertuan Muda position as well. 1895 was the last occasion the pledge of allegiance was sworn, in this instance between the sultan and his father, the last Yang Dipertuan Muda. His father later renounced his position as the Yang Dipertuan Muda and thereafter both roles were combined, symbolising of unity between the Bugis and the Malay dynasties. Tin Tin

11000-465: Was crowned as the Sultan of Riau-Lingga, bearing the name of Sultan Abdul Rahman, with the royal seat in Daik, Lingga. Tengku Hussein, backed by the British, was installed as the Sultan of Johore and ruled over Singapore and the Peninsular Johor. He later ceded Singapore to the British in return for their support during the dispute. Both sultans of Johor and Riau acted mainly as puppet monarchs under

11110-484: Was crucial as she was the holder of the Cogan ( Royal Regalia ) of Johor-Riau, and the installation of a new sultan was only valid if it took place with the regalia. The regalia was fundamental to the installation of the sultan; it was a symbol of power, legitimacy and the sovereignty of the state. Nonetheless, Yang Dipertuan Muda Jaafar (then- viceroy of the sultanate) supported the reluctant Tengku Abdul Rahman, adhering to

11220-579: Was financially backed by rich Riau Malay émigrés and Chinese merchants who hoped to obtain tin concession. Initially founded in High Street, Singapore, the association moved to Tanjung Pinang, Riau with the unprecedented approval by the Dutch administrators. Based in Tanjung Pinang, the group managed to gain the consent of the Dutch for self-governance in the region with the foundation of the Dewan Riouw (Dutch: Riouw Raad, English: Riouw Council). The Riouw Raad

11330-629: Was known as the daerah-daerah pulihan (recovered regions), and the Riau area became a province in August 1957 - the Dewan Riau recreated by then under the Republic as the Riau Provincial People's Representative Council (DPRD-Provinsi Riau), the provincial legislative assembly, to serve both the islands and the mainland territories. In 2002, the offshore islands of the Riau Archipelago , the territory of

11440-549: Was most likely the original source of tin. Other tin ores are less common sulfides such as stannite that require a more involved smelting process. Cassiterite often accumulates in alluvial channels as placer deposits because it is harder, heavier, and more chemically resistant than the accompanying granite . Cassiterite is usually black or dark in color, and these deposits can be easily seen in river banks . Alluvial ( placer ) deposits may incidentally have been collected and separated by methods similar to gold panning . In

11550-504: Was not being raised during his visit to the royal palace. In his report to the governor he wrote; "it seems that he (Sultan Abdul Rahman II) acted as if he was a sovereign king and he raises his own flag". Based on several records in the Indonesian National Archive, there were some reports that the Sultan then apologised to the governor over the "flag incident". In its reply to the geheim letter numbered 1036/G 9 August 1904,

11660-535: Was produced. Pewter , which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper , antimony , bismuth, and sometimes lead and silver, has been used for flatware since the Bronze Age . In modern times, tin is used in many alloys, most notably tin-lead soft solders , which are typically 60% or more tin, and in the manufacture of transparent, electrically conducting films of indium tin oxide in optoelectronic applications. Another large application

11770-427: Was reserved exclusively to the Bugis. The traditional system was retained until the appointment of Abdul Rahman II, the last sultan of Riau-Lingga. Abdul Rahman's father, Raja Muhammad Yusuf, was a Bugis aristocrat and the 10th and the last Yang Dipertuan Muda of Riau. He was married to Tengku Fatimah, the daughter of Sultan Mahmud and the only full-blooded member of the Malay royalty. On 17 September 1883, in wake of

11880-451: Was signed by Yang Dipertuan Muda Raja Jaafar representing Abdul Rahman, without the sultan's consent or knowledge. Just as the British had done, both the Dutch and Yang Dipertuan Muda then desperately tried to win the royal regalia from Engku Puteri. The reluctant Abdul Rahman, believing he was not the rightful heir, decided to move from Lingga to Terengganu , claiming that he wanted to celebrate his marriage. The Dutch, who desired to control

11990-405: Was the devolved national unicameral legislature of Riau, a position equivalent to a Parliament . After establishing itself in Tanjung Pinang, the group formed a new organisation known as Djawatan Koewasa Pengoeroes Rakjat Riow (The Council of Riau People Administration), with the members hailing from Tudjuh Archipelago , Great Karimun , Lingga and Singkep . This group strongly advocated

12100-415: Was used in solder. The rest was divided between tin plating, tin chemicals, brass and bronze alloys, and niche uses. Pigment Yellow 38, tin(IV) sulfide , is known as mosaic gold . Purple of Cassius , Pigment Red 109, a hydrous double stannate of gold , was mainly, in terms of painting, restricted to miniatures due to its high cost. It was widely used to make cranberry glass . It has also been used in

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