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40-502: The spellings adviser and advisor have both been in use since the 16th century. Adviser has always been the more usual spelling, though advisor has gained frequency in recent years and is a common alternative, especially in North America. The use of adviser is of English origin, with "er" as a noun ending, and advisor of Latin origin. The words are etymological twin cognates and are considered interchangeable. Usage of

80-711: A Romance language. In English this is most common with words which can be traced back to Indo-European languages , which in many cases share the same proto-Indo-European root, such as Romance beef and Germanic cow . However, in some cases the branching is more recent, dating only to proto-Germanic, not to PIE; many words of Germanic origin occur in French and other Latinate languages, and hence in some cases were both inherited by English (from proto-Germanic) and borrowed from French or another source – see List of English Latinates of Germanic origin . The forward linguistic path also reflects cultural and historical transactions; often

120-617: A common origin, but which in fact do not. For example, Latin habēre and German haben both mean 'to have' and are phonetically similar. However, the words evolved from different Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots: haben , like English have , comes from PIE *kh₂pyé- 'to grasp', and has the Latin cognate capere 'to seize, grasp, capture'. Habēre , on the other hand, is from PIE *gʰabʰ 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English give and German geben . Likewise, English much and Spanish mucho look similar and have

160-472: A dialect group. For a given Chinese variety , colloquial readings typically reflect native vernacular phonology. Literary readings are used in some formal settings ( recitation , some loanwords and names) and originate from other, typically more prestigious varieties. Sometimes literary and colloquial readings of the same character have different meanings. For example, in Cantonese , the character 平 can have

200-479: A learned borrowing, such as scandal and slander , both from σκάνδαλον. Many words of French origin were borrowed twice or more. There were at least three periods of borrowing: one that occurred shortly after the Norman Conquest and came from Norman French , one in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries from standard (Parisian) French at the time when English nobles were switching from French to English, and

240-476: A native word may be borrowed into a foreign language, then reborrowed back into the original language, existing alongside the original term. An English example is animation and anime "Japanese animation", which was reborrowed from Japanese アニメ anime . Such a word is sometimes called a Rückwanderer (German for "one who wanders back"). In case of twins of foreign origin, which consist of two borrowings (of related terms), one can distinguish if

280-412: A similar meaning, but are not cognates: much is from Proto-Germanic *mikilaz < PIE *meǵ- and mucho is from Latin multum < PIE *mel- . A true cognate of much is the archaic Spanish maño 'big'. Cognates are distinguished from other kinds of relationships. An etymon , or ancestor word, is the ultimate source word from which one or more cognates derive. In other words, it

320-422: A single language, as with English too which split from to . Alternatively, a word may be inherited from a parent language, and a cognate borrowed from a separate sister language. In other words, one route was direct inheritance, while the other route was inheritance followed by borrowing. In English this means one word inherited from a Germanic source, with, e.g., a Latinate cognate term borrowed from Latin or

360-470: A third one during the sixteenth to nineteenth century, when France was at the height of its power and international influence. Examples of doublets from the first and second periods are catch vs. chase , cattle vs. chattel , and warden vs. guardian . More recent borrowings are often distinguished by maintaining the French spelling and pronunciation, e.g. chef (vs. chief ), pâté (vs. paste ), fête (vs. feast ). There are multiple doublets caused by

400-527: Is cuid . In Japanese , doublets are most significant in borrowings from Chinese, and are visible as different on'yomi (Sino-Japanese readings) of kanji characters. There have been three major periods of borrowing from Chinese, together with some modern borrowings. These borrowings are from different regions (hence different Chinese varieties) and different periods, and thus the pronunciations have varied, sometimes widely. However, due to consistent Chinese writing, with cognate morphemes represented by

440-491: Is borrowing from both a language and its daughter language. In English this is usually Latin and some other Romance language, particularly French – see Latin influence in English . The distinction between this and the previous is whether the source language has changed to a different language or not. Less directly, a term may be borrowed both directly from a source language and indirectly via an intermediate language. In English this

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480-573: Is most common in borrowings from Latin, and borrowings from French that are themselves from Latin; less commonly from Greek directly and through Latin. In case of borrowing cognate terms, rather than descendants, most simply an existing doublet can be borrowed: two contemporary twin terms can be borrowed. More remotely, cognate terms from different languages can be borrowed, such as sauce (Old French) and salsa (Spanish), both ultimately from Latin, or tea (Dutch thee ) and chai (Hindi), both ultimately from Chinese . This last pair reflects

520-492: Is regular. Paradigms of conjugations or declensions, the correspondence of which cannot be generally due to chance, have often been used in cognacy assessment. However, beyond paradigms, morphosyntax is often excluded in the assessment of cognacy between words, mainly because structures are usually seen as more subject to borrowing. Still, very complex, non-trivial morphosyntactic structures can rarely take precedence over phonetic shapes to indicate cognates. For instance, Tangut ,

560-525: Is the doublet 考 and 老 . At one time they were pronounced similarly and meant "old (person)." 老 ( /lɑʊ̯˨˩˦/ in Standard Mandarin ) has retained this meaning, but 考 /kʰɑʊ̯˨˩˦/ now mainly means "examine". Differing literary and colloquial readings of certain Chinese characters are common doublets in many Chinese varieties , and the reading distinctions for certain phonetic features often typify

600-477: Is the source of related words in different languages. For example, the etymon of both Welsh ceffyl and Irish capall is the Proto-Celtic * kaballos (all meaning horse ). Descendants are words inherited across a language barrier, coming from a particular etymon in an ancestor language. For example, Russian мо́ре and Polish morze are both descendants of Proto-Slavic * moře (meaning sea ). A root

640-444: Is the source of related words within a single language (no language barrier is crossed). Similar to the distinction between etymon and root , a nuanced distinction can sometimes be made between a descendant and a derivative . A derivative is one of the words which have their source in a root word, and were at some time created from the root word using morphological constructs such as suffixes, prefixes, and slight changes to

680-510: Is ultimately derived from Sanskrit but underwent changes through time, or tatsama ('same as that'), which is borrowed directly from literary Sanskrit. For example, Hindi [[[wikt:बाघ|bāgh]]] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) 'tiger' is derived by historical stages ( tadbhava ) from Sanskrit [[[wikt:व्याघ्र|vyāghra]]] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) 'tiger'. Meanwhile, Hindi has also directly borrowed ( tatsama )

720-466: Is usually reserved for words that have diverged significantly in meaning: for example, the English doublets pyre and fire are distinct terms with related meanings that both ultimately descend from the Proto-Indo-European word * péh₂ur . Words with similar meanings but subtle differences contribute to the richness of modern English, and many of these are doublets. A good example consists of

760-789: The Paraguayan Guarani panambi , the Eastern Bolivian Guarani panapana , the Cocama and Omagua panama , and the Sirionó ana ana are cognates, derived from the Old Tupi panapana , 'butterfly', maintaining their original meaning in these Tupi languages . Cognates need not have the same meaning, as they may have undergone semantic change as the languages developed independently. For example English starve and Dutch sterven 'to die' or German sterben 'to die' all descend from

800-1106: The UK has Special advisers , as well as the Scottish Government , and the United Nations uses Special Advisers . The US government uses both: Council of Economic Advisers , Office of the Legal Adviser , Deputy National Security Advisor (deputy to the President's NSA), Legal "Advisor" ( Office for the Administrative Review of the Detention of Enemy Combatants ), that was part of the team tasked to conduct Combatant Status Review Tribunals of captives detained in Guantanamo Bay, and laws Investment Advisers Act of 1940 . The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs 's Fulbright Program has "advisers". Use of "advisor" appeared in print in

840-449: The w → g and ca → cha sound changes, which happened in standard French but not Norman French. Several of these examples also reflect changes that occurred after Old French which caused the possible environments of [s] to be greatly reduced. Derivative cognates are a classification of Chinese characters which have similar meanings and often the same etymological root, but which have diverged in pronunciation and meaning. An example

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880-415: The President". Examples of the use of adviser and advisor in the media on a particular subject: Doublet (linguistics) In etymology , doublets (alternatively etymological twins or twinlings ) are words in a given language that share the same etymological root. Doublets are often the result of loanwords being borrowed from other languages. While doublets may be synonyms, the characterization

920-706: The Proto-Indo-European *nókʷts 'night'. The Indo-European languages have hundreds of such cognate sets, though few of them are as neat as this. The Arabic سلام salām , the Hebrew שלום ‎ shalom , the Assyrian Neo-Aramaic shlama and the Amharic selam 'peace' are cognates, derived from the Proto-Semitic *šalām- 'peace'. The Brazilian Portuguese panapanã , (flock of butterflies in flight),

960-606: The Sanskrit word vyāghra , meaning 'tiger' in a more literary register. Triplets: As with many languages in Europe, a great deal of borrowing from written Latin – latinismos ( Latinisms ), or cultismos (learned words) – occurred during the Renaissance and the early modern era. Because Spanish is itself a Romance language already with many native words of Latin ancestry (transmitted orally, so with natural sound changes),

1000-603: The United States in 1889, with The Tennessee Justice and Legal Advisor by William C. Kain and Horace N. Hawkins. The Department of Justice of the United States, Issue 15 , printed in 1927 by the Institute For Government Research, uses both spellings: "1. Political adviser and assistant to the President" and "Legal Advisor. Like all the other cabinet officers, the Attorney General is a political advisor of

1040-458: The borrowing is of a term and a descendant, or of two cognate terms (siblings). Etymological twins are often a result of chronologically separate borrowing from a source language. In the case of English, this usually means once from French during the Norman invasion , and again later, after the word had evolved separately in French. An example of this is warranty and guarantee . Another possibility

1080-463: The centuries, particularly from Latin and English. This has led to many more doublets in the language, including many from Latin that entered Welsh via English borrowings. Examples include: Cognate In historical linguistics , cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language . Because language change can have radical effects on both

1120-648: The colloquial pronunciation /pʰɛŋ˨˩/ ("inexpensive"), and the literary pronunciation /pʰɪŋ˨˩/ ("flat"). The words píosa and cuid (both meaning "part" or "portion") form an Irish doublet, both from the Proto-Celtic root * kʷesdis . This root became in Gaulish * pettyā‎ , then was borrowed into Late Latin as pettia , Anglo-Norman piece , then Middle English pece , before being borrowed into Middle Irish as pissa , which became modern píosa . In Old Irish , * kʷesdis became cuit , which in modern Irish

1160-521: The doublets frail and fragile . (These are both ultimately from the Latin adjective fragilis , but frail evolved naturally through its slowly changing forms in Old French and Middle English, whereas fragile is a learned borrowing directly from Latin in the 15th century.) Another example of nearly synonymous doublets is aperture and overture (the commonality behind the meanings is "opening"). Doublets may also develop contrasting meanings, such as

1200-401: The history of how tea has entered English via different trade routes. Many thousands of English examples can be found, grouped according to their earliest deducible Indo-European ancestor. In some cases over a hundred English words can be traced to a single root. Some examples in English include: There are many more doublets from Greek , where one form is a vernacular borrowing and the other

1240-521: The language of the Xixia Empire, and one Horpa language spoken today in Sichuan , Geshiza, both display a verbal alternation indicating tense, obeying the same morphosyntactic collocational restrictions. Even without regular phonetic correspondences between the stems of the two languages, the cognatic structures indicate secondary cognacy for the stems. False cognates are pairs of words that appear to have

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1280-635: The later written borrowing created a number of doublets. Adding to this was Spain's conquest by the Moors in the Middle Ages, leading to another vector for creating doublets (Latin to Arabic to Spanish). List of doublets in Welsh  [ cy ] Welsh contains many doublets of native origin, where a single Indo-European root has developed along different paths in the language. Examples of this are: In addition to native doublets, Welsh has borrowed extensively over

1320-431: The name of an animal comes from Germanic while the name of its cooked meat comes from Romance. Since English is unusual in that it borrowed heavily from two distinct branches of the same language family tree – Germanic and Latinate/Romance – it has a relatively high number of this latter type of etymological twin. See list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English for further examples and discussion. Less commonly,

1360-983: The same Indo-European root are: night ( English ), Nacht ( German ), nacht ( Dutch , Frisian ), nag ( Afrikaans ), Naach ( Colognian ), natt ( Swedish , Norwegian ), nat ( Danish ), nátt ( Faroese ), nótt ( Icelandic ), noc ( Czech , Slovak , Polish ), ночь, noch ( Russian ), ноќ, noć ( Macedonian ), нощ, nosht ( Bulgarian ), ніч , nich ( Ukrainian ), ноч , noch / noč ( Belarusian ), noč ( Slovene ), noć ( Serbo-Croatian ), nakts ( Latvian ), naktis ( Lithuanian ), nos ( Welsh/Cymraeg ), νύξ, nyx ( Ancient Greek ), νύχτα / nychta ( Modern Greek ), nakt- ( Sanskrit ), natë ( Albanian ), nox , gen. sg. noctis ( Latin ), nuit ( French ), noche ( Spanish ), nochi ( Extremaduran ), nueche ( Asturian ), noite ( Portuguese and Galician ), notte ( Italian ), nit ( Catalan ), nuet/nit/nueit ( Aragonese ), nuèch / nuèit ( Occitan ) and noapte ( Romanian ). These all mean 'night' and derive from

1400-452: The same Proto-Germanic verb, *sterbaną 'to die'. Cognates also do not need to look or sound similar: English father , French père , and Armenian հայր ( hayr ) all descend directly from Proto-Indo-European *ph₂tḗr . An extreme case is Armenian երկու ( erku ) and English two , which descend from Proto-Indo-European *dwóh₁ ; the sound change *dw > erk in Armenian

1440-562: The same character, the etymological relation is clear. This is most significant at the level of morphemes, where a given character is pronounced differently in different words, but in some cases the same word was borrowed twice. These have been very valuable to scholars for reconstructing the sounds of Middle Chinese , and understanding how the pronunciations differed between Chinese regions and varied over time. In Hindi and other New Indo-Aryan languages, members of native doublets are identified as either tadbhava ('became that'), which

1480-442: The sound and the meaning of a word, cognates may not be obvious, and it often takes rigorous study of historical sources and the application of the comparative method to establish whether lexemes are cognate. Cognates are distinguished from loanwords , where a word has been borrowed from another language. The English term cognate derives from Latin cognatus , meaning "blood relative". An example of cognates from

1520-467: The terms host and guest , which come from the same PIE word * gʰóstis and already existed as a doublet in Latin, and then Old French , before being borrowed into English. Doublets also vary with respect to how far their forms have diverged. For example, the connection between levy and levee is easy to guess, whereas the connection between sovereign and soprano is harder to guess. Doublets can develop in various ways, according to which route

1560-453: The two forms took from the origin to their current form. Complex, multi-step paths are possible, though in many cases groups of terms follow the same path. Simple paths are discussed below, with the simplest distinction being that doublets in a given language can have their root in the same language (or an ancestor), or may originate in a separate language. Most simply, a native word can at some point split into two distinct forms, staying within

1600-528: The two words is normally a matter of choice, but they should not be used together in the same document. The Associated Press prefers ( AP Stylebook ) the use of "adviser", but Virginia Tech (style guide) gives preference to "advisor", stating that it "is used more commonly in academe" and that "adviser is acceptable in releases going to organizations that follow AP style". Purdue University Office of Marketing and Media's Editorial Style Guide gives preference to "advisor". The European Commission uses "adviser(s)",

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