Misplaced Pages

#926073

106-430: One part of the exhibition was concerned with algorithms and devices for generating music. Some exhibits were pamphlets describing the algorithms, whilst others showed musical notation produced by computers. Devices made musical effects and played tapes of sounds made by computers. Peter Zinovieff lent part of his studio equipment - visitors could sing or whistle a tune into a microphone and his equipment would improvise

212-595: A binary search algorithm (with cost ⁠ O ( log ⁡ n ) {\displaystyle O(\log n)} ⁠ ) outperforms a sequential search (cost ⁠ O ( n ) {\displaystyle O(n)} ⁠ ) when used for table lookups on sorted lists or arrays. The analysis, and study of algorithms is a discipline of computer science . Algorithms are often studied abstractly, without referencing any specific programming language or implementation. Algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines as it focuses on

318-468: A flowchart offers a way to describe and document an algorithm (and a computer program corresponding to it). It has four primary symbols: arrows showing program flow, rectangles (SEQUENCE, GOTO), diamonds (IF-THEN-ELSE), and dots (OR-tie). Sub-structures can "nest" in rectangles, but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure. It is often important to know how much time, storage, or other cost an algorithm may require. Methods have been developed for

424-741: A function . Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps empty ), the instructions describe a computation that, when executed , proceeds through a finite number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing "output" and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic ; some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms , incorporate random input. Around 825 AD, Persian scientist and polymath Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("Book of Indian computation") and kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("Addition and subtraction in Indian arithmetic"). In

530-435: A heuristic is an approach to solving problems that do not have well-defined correct or optimal results. For example, although social media recommender systems are commonly called "algorithms", they actually rely on heuristics as there is no truly "correct" recommendation. As an effective method , an algorithm can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time and in a well-defined formal language for calculating

636-566: A clockface on the hour); and Rolling Through The Bay (a sculpture made by artist Scott Weaver over the course of 37 years, utilizing over 100,000 toothpicks and depicting many of the Bay Area’s iconic landmarks, through which a ping-pong ball can roll on one of several different "tours"). Gallery 3, previously known as the Central Gallery houses many of the "classic" Exploratorium exhibits, including many of those that have been on display since

742-506: A computer, Babbage's analytical engine, which is the first device considered a real Turing-complete computer instead of just a calculator . Although a full implementation of Babbage's second device was not realized for decades after her lifetime, Lovelace has been called "history's first programmer". Bell and Newell (1971) write that the Jacquard loom , a precursor to Hollerith cards (punch cards), and "telephone switching technologies" led to

848-680: A computer-executable form, but are also used to define or document algorithms. There are many possible representations and Turing machine programs can be expressed as a sequence of machine tables (see finite-state machine , state-transition table , and control table for more), as flowcharts and drakon-charts (see state diagram for more), as a form of rudimentary machine code or assembly code called "sets of quadruples", and more. Algorithm representations can also be classified into three accepted levels of Turing machine description: high-level description, implementation description, and formal description. A high-level description describes qualities of

954-713: A computing machine or a human who could only carry out specific elementary operations on symbols . Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs . However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network (for example, the human brain performing arithmetic or an insect looking for food), in an electrical circuit , or a mechanical device. Step-by-step procedures for solving mathematical problems have been recorded since antiquity. This includes in Babylonian mathematics (around 2500 BC), Egyptian mathematics (around 1550 BC), Indian mathematics (around 800 BC and later),

1060-519: A decade. Oppenheimer also began assisting local high school students with their science projects, eventually becoming the only science teacher at the high school in Pagosa Springs , Colorado . The field trips and experiments he did with his high school students would become a blueprint for the hands-on methods of teaching and learning he would later bring to the Exploratorium. When Oppenheimer

1166-644: A much-expanded selection of life sciences exhibits. Many exhibits relate directly to the immediate local environment, such as the Glass Settling Plate (barnacles and other creatures are grown on a plate in the Bay, then put live under a mobile microscope to be observed from both above and below) and the Algae Chandelier (visitors can pump air to nourish overhead tanks of colorful phytoplankton). Other exhibits explore different biological systems and processes, such as

SECTION 10

#1732858319927

1272-446: A net-zero energy goal as part of its overall sustainability efforts. Setting this net-zero goal means that, while in operation, the Exploratorium will produce more energy on-site than it will consume on an annual basis. The museum highlights its sustainability efforts in visible ways throughout the museum as part of a stated intention to lead by example. The Exploratorium, in order to reach its net-zero energy goal, produces energy with

1378-602: A number of interactive displays that impressed the Oppenheimers. Back in the United States, Oppenheimer was invited to do the initial planning for a new branch of the Smithsonian , but he eventually turned it down to work instead on what he called his "San Francisco project". In 1967, the Oppenheimers moved to San Francisco with a view towards opening an independent museum of their own. Oppenheimer sought funding and support for

1484-402: A particular ingredient — an everyday item such as a plastic bag, milk carton, or nail. Contestants are currently or formerly part of the Exploratorium's Teacher Institute and compete before a live audience for the title of "Iron Science Teacher". Shows are also archived on the Exploratorium's website. Two out of three teachers applying were being turned away due to space limitations, by the time

1590-581: A physicist, educator, and friend of Oppenheimer who had died just a year before the opening of the Exploratorium. "Here Is Being Created the Exploratorium a Community Museum Dedicated to Awareness" the inscription said. (Today, a copy of this motto is inscribed above the main entrance to the new Exploratorium at Pier 15.) Oppenheimer served as the museum’s director until his death in 1985. Dr. Robert L. White served as director from 1987 to 1990. Dr. Goéry Delacôte served as executive director from 1991 until 2005. Dr. Dennis Bartels served as executive director of

1696-436: A piece of music based on the tune. Another part described computer projects such as Gustav Metzger 's self-destructive Five Screens With Computer , a design for a new hospital, a computer programmed structure, and dance choreography. The machines and installations were a very noticeable part of the exhibition. Gordon Pask produced a collection of large mobiles ( Colloquy of Mobiles (1968)) with interacting parts that let

1802-525: A programmer can write structured programs using only these instructions; on the other hand "it is also possible, and not too hard, to write badly structured programs in a structured language". Tausworthe augments the three Böhm-Jacopini canonical structures : SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE-DO, with two more: DO-WHILE and CASE. An additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to proofs of correctness using mathematical induction . By themselves, algorithms are not usually patentable. In

1908-425: A rain machine that duplicates the frequency, size, and velocity of the raindrops, giving a tangible experience of NOAA research data on storms. Along the publicly accessible bridge connecting Piers 15 and 17, artist Fujiko Nakaya created an installation called Fog Bridge #72494 that creates bursts of fog for six minutes every half-hour as the first in a series of large-scale temporary installations called Over

2014-502: A range of subject areas, including human perception (such as vision, hearing, learning and cognition), the life sciences, physical phenomena (such as light, motion, electricity, waves and resonance, and magnetism), local environment (water, wind, fog, rain, sun, and other elements, as well as cityscape, landscape, and the flora and fauna of the Bay) and human behavior (such as cooperation, competition, and sharing). Gallery 1, previously known as

2120-432: A roof-mounted array of photovoltaics . There are 5,874 PV modules on the roof, totaling 78,712 square feet (7,312.6 m ), with a projected year-1 yield of 1.3 MW-AC/square foot (13.9 MW-AC/m ), or a total year-1 yield of 2,113,715 kWh. Any surplus energy generated is intended to be fed back into the utility grid, as the projected annual energy use for the building totals at 1,275,936 kWh. In addition to solar power,

2226-477: A sequence of operations", which would include all computer programs (including programs that do not perform numeric calculations), and any prescribed bureaucratic procedure or cook-book recipe . In general, a program is an algorithm only if it stops eventually —even though infinite loops may sometimes prove desirable. Boolos, Jeffrey & 1974, 1999 define an algorithm to be an explicit set of instructions for determining an output, that can be followed by

SECTION 20

#1732858319927

2332-411: A titanium heat exchanger , of which the building has two, where it is either used to heat or cool water that is cycled through a system of thermally activated radiant slabs. There are 27 miles (43 km) of plastic tubing in the radiant heating system in the floor, creating 82 different heating and cooling zones with distinct control systems. After the bay water passes through the heat exchangers, it

2438-420: A wall between the workshop where exhibits were being developed and the main visitor areas. Instead, Oppenheimer insisted that the workshop be placed without a wall, right next to the main entrance so that visitors could experience "the way a shop smells when you burn the wood in a saw, or smell the oil from a lathe". Above the workshop was a sign made by Barbara Perkins Gamow , who was the wife of George Gamow ,

2544-422: A year by eliminating the need for traditional evaporative cooling towers. The Exploratorium at Pier 15 also makes use of natural light in the effort to reduce energy loads. The existing building had many clerestory windows and an overhead skylight that runs the length of the interior space. In compliance with historic preservation requirements, the building’s façade was left mostly unchanged, allowing for much of

2650-607: A “think with your hands” approach. It is housed within the museum in a dedicated space in the South Gallery, where it runs free do-it-yourself activities for museum visitors; it also shares its work with a larger audience of educators in afterschool programs, schools, museums and other learning environments. It is being cited as a prototype for similar programs across the globe, including South Korea, Canada, India, and Saudi Arabia. The Exploratorium also operates as afterschool tinkering program in partnership with San Francisco chapters of

2756-535: Is a collaboration between the Exploratorium, the University of California Santa Cruz , and King's College London . CILS studies the intersection between museums and schools as centers of informal learning with the intention of understanding how informal science learning occurs and how informal educational centers such as the Exploratorium can contribute to science education reform. The Tinkering Studio began in 2008 as an in-house program geared towards maker culture and

2862-472: Is a finite sequence of mathematically rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation . Algorithms are used as specifications for performing calculations and data processing . More advanced algorithms can use conditionals to divert the code execution through various routes (referred to as automated decision-making ) and deduce valid inferences (referred to as automated reasoning ). In contrast,

2968-416: Is a method or mathematical process for problem-solving and engineering algorithms. The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories, such as divide-and-conquer or dynamic programming within operation research . Techniques for designing and implementing algorithm designs are also called algorithm design patterns, with examples including the template method pattern and the decorator pattern. One of

3074-576: Is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the following: One of the simplest algorithms finds the largest number in a list of numbers of random order. Finding the solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be described in plain English as: High-level description: (Quasi-)formal description: Written in prose but much closer to

3180-471: Is a professional development program of the Exploratorium geared towards educators, scientists, administrators, and policymakers. The institute is a recipient of National Science Foundation funding and designs programs, materials and tools to help leaders in the science education community further the role of inquiry in elementary science education and strengthen reform efforts. It consists of workshops and an online library of resources available to participants in

3286-653: Is also open to their view. Oppenheimer wanted visitors to be able to “smell the oil” and insisted that the usually hidden exhibit-building activities be on display as an exhibit in its own right. Exhibits in the Gallery 2 highlight a DIY aesthetic, and include Animation Stations where visitors can make their own stop-motion films . Artworks on display include the Tinkerer’s Clock (a 22-foot-high clock constructed by artist Tim Hunkin , with figurines in his noted cartoon style that can be manipulated by visitors and unfold into

Cybernetic Serendipity - Misplaced Pages Continue

3392-529: Is based on the Prisoner’s dilemma , a classic scenario centering on negotiation and trust), and the Tactile Dome , a pitch-black single-path maze environment visitors explore by touch, which was originally designed by Carl Day, August Coppola , producer . Gallery 1 also included the temporary exhibition The Changing Face of What is Normal: Mental Health , which showcased the personal artifacts of patients from

3498-580: Is returned to the San Francisco Bay as allowed by a permit issued by the California Regional Water Quality Control Board. Most of the energy savings are expected to come from using the bay water as a heat sink for the building’s cooling needs. When the temperature of the bay water is below that of the chilled water return from the radiant pipes, which is the case for most of the year in the Bay Area’s temperate climate,

3604-584: Is the only new building constructed on the Exploratorium’s campus. It holds the Seaglass restaurant on its lower level and exhibits on the upper level relating to the waterfront and the cityscape. The gallery focuses on what visitors can see in real time, including the movement of clouds and tides, the changing waterfront, the movement of ships, and interpretation of oceanographic data. The Observatory has glass walls on all four sides to facilitate observation. Many of

3710-453: Is useful for uncovering unexpected interactions that affect performance. Benchmarks may be used to compare before/after potential improvements to an algorithm after program optimization. Empirical tests cannot replace formal analysis, though, and are non-trivial to perform fairly. To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well-established algorithms, a recent significant innovation, relating to FFT algorithms (used heavily in

3816-1094: The Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem) posed by David Hilbert . Later formalizations were framed as attempts to define " effective calculability " or "effective method". Those formalizations included the Gödel – Herbrand – Kleene recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935, Alonzo Church 's lambda calculus of 1936, Emil Post 's Formulation 1 of 1936, and Alan Turing 's Turing machines of 1936–37 and 1939. Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including natural languages , pseudocode , flowcharts , drakon-charts , programming languages or control tables (processed by interpreters ). Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode, flowcharts, drakon-charts, and control tables are structured expressions of algorithms that avoid common ambiguities of natural language. Programming languages are primarily for expressing algorithms in

3922-533: The Australian National University's School of Cybernetics launched the school by presenting an exhibition Australian Cybernetic: a point through time . The exhibition included works from Cybernetic Serendipity (1968), Australia ‘75: Festival of Creative Arts and Science (1975), and contemporary pieces curated by the School of Cybernetics. In describing Reichardt's Cybernetic Serendipity exhibition

4028-843: The Bay Windows (visitors spin disks filled with samples of Bay mud, sand, and gravel gathered from five distinct regions of the Bay itself). The lower level of the Bay Observatory Building houses the Seaglass Restaurant, which, like the Seismic Joint Cafe, is open to unticketed members of the public. Both the Seismic Joint and Seaglass are run by Loretta Keller , chef-owner at Coco500, in partnership with Bon Appetit Management Company. The Exploratorium seeks to bring hands-on inquiry to education, including training teachers in

4134-471: The Hammurabi dynasty c.  1800  – c.  1600 BC , Babylonian clay tablets described algorithms for computing formulas. Algorithms were also used in Babylonian astronomy . Babylonian clay tablets describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events. Algorithms for arithmetic are also found in ancient Egyptian mathematics , dating back to

4240-567: The Kerala School , and the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta . The first cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code was developed by Al-Kindi , a 9th-century Arab mathematician, in A Manuscript On Deciphering Cryptographic Messages . He gave the first description of cryptanalysis by frequency analysis , the earliest codebreaking algorithm. Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven clock as "the key invention [of Europe in

4346-539: The Manhattan Project with his brother J. Robert Oppenheimer , was diverted from an academic career when he was forced to resign from his position at the University of Minnesota in 1949 as a result of an inquiry by the House Un-American Activities Committee . He was blacklisted from academic positions across the country and withdrew with his family to run a Colorado cattle ranch for almost

Cybernetic Serendipity - Misplaced Pages Continue

4452-740: The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus c.  1550 BC . Algorithms were later used in ancient Hellenistic mathematics . Two examples are the Sieve of Eratosthenes , which was described in the Introduction to Arithmetic by Nicomachus , and the Euclidean algorithm , which was first described in Euclid's Elements ( c.  300 BC ). Examples of ancient Indian mathematics included the Shulba Sutras ,

4558-523: The 50th anniversary with an exhibition in 2018 entitled "Chance and Control: Art in the Age of Computers". The V&A exhibition included many works by artists who featured in the original ICA show, plus related ephemera. "Chance and Control" subsequently toured to Chester Visual Arts and Firstsite , Colchester. In 2020, The Centre Pompidou exhibited the replica of Gordon Pask's 1968 Colloquy of Mobiles , reproduced by Paul Pangaro and TJ McLeish in 2018. In 2022

4664-507: The Bay Observatory from the Pier 15 shed and the other separating the entire pier from the land. This second joint ensures that the entire pier will move independently from the land mass in the event of an earthquake, significantly reducing the potential torsional stress. The café at the west end of the Exploratorium is named the Seismic Joint in honor of the joint that cuts through the area of

4770-523: The Bay environment, which can be seen in exhibits such as Color of Water (an installation of 32 distinct color swatches suspended below the rail surrounding the pier so that visitors can investigate the changing colors of the Bay’s water). Another notable exhibit is Remote Rains , which allows visitors to choose a past rainstorm as profiled by the Hydrometeorology Testbed, which is then recreated by

4876-569: The Bay. The Exploratorium at Pier 15 was designed by architectural firm EHDD . The General Contractor was Nibbi Brothers, and the Glazing Contractor was AGA (Architectural Glass and Aluminum) . The piers had been neglected for decades prior to the Exploratorium’s move, and extensive renovation and repair were required. Nearly two thirds of the pilings under Pier 15 were repaired, including almost every piling needed to provide structural integrity, and new pilings were sunk. The removal of

4982-863: The Boys and Girls Club. In 2012 the Exploratorium was awarded a grant to create the California Tinkering Network, in collaboration with the Community Science Workshops, Techbridge, the Discovery Science Center , the California Afterschool Network, and the California STEM Learning Network. These organizations partner with over 20 local afterschool or summer programs to provide STEM-enriched activities for children in underserved communities. The initiative

5088-694: The Exploratorium closed at its former location; following the move to the Piers, the Exploratorium has been expanding its professional development for teachers through the Teacher Institute. As of 2013 , two MOOC courses were also being made available through MOOC provider Coursera . One course integrates engineering into middle and high school STEM classrooms, and the other integrates making and tinkering activities into elementary and middle school classrooms. The Exploratorium operates several programs centering on informal learning. The Institute for Inquiry (IFI)

5194-479: The Exploratorium from 2006 to 2016. Chris Flink served as director from June 2016 through February 2022, when he was replaced by the former Chancellor of the University of North Carolina School of the Arts (UNCSA) and PBS executive, Lindsay Bierman. The museum has expanded greatly since the 1980s, increasing outreach, expanding programs for educators, creating an expanded Web presence, and forming museum partnerships around

5300-449: The Exploratorium opened with little fanfare at the Palace of Fine Arts . Oppenheimer "simply opened the doors". Although the building needed many improvements, Oppenheimer couldn't afford to make the changes, and decided to allow the public to come and watch exhibits being built and changes being made as part of the participatory ethos of the institution. An early proposal would have erected

5406-750: The Homeschool Science series (in-house classes geared specifically towards homeschooled students), the Girl’s Science Institute (multi-day workshops geared towards girls 9–11), and excursions for adults. The Exploratorium has also published a number of books, and many of the 50,000 pages on its website are hands-on activity ideas or science experiments in the museums’ signature open-ended style. The Exploratorium operates several educational outreach programs. The Community Outreach Program works with community organizations to provide exhibit-based educational activities for underserved children and families in

SECTION 50

#1732858319927

5512-564: The ICA did not accurately count visitors. The exhibition provided the energy for the formation of British Computer Arts Society which continued to explore the interaction between science, technology and art, and put on exhibitions (for example Event One at the Royal College of Art ). Several pieces were purchased by the Exploratorium in 1971, some of which are on display to this day. In 2014

5618-411: The ICA held a retrospective exhibition Cybernetic Serendipity: A Documentation which included documents, installation photographs, press reviews and publications and a series of discussions in one of which Peter Zinovieff took part. To coincide with the exhibition, Cybernetic Serendipity Music was re-released as a limited-edition vinyl LP by The Vinyl Factory . The Victoria and Albert Museum marked

5724-504: The Ifa Oracle (around 500 BC), Greek mathematics (around 240 BC), Chinese mathematics (around 200 BC and later) , and Arabic mathematics (around 800 AD). The earliest evidence of algorithms is found in ancient Mesopotamian mathematics. A Sumerian clay tablet found in Shuruppak near Baghdad and dated to c.  2500 BC describes the earliest division algorithm . During

5830-470: The Middle Ages ]," specifically the verge escapement mechanism producing the tick and tock of a mechanical clock. "The accurate automatic machine" led immediately to "mechanical automata " in the 13th century and "computational machines"—the difference and analytical engines of Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace in the mid-19th century. Lovelace designed the first algorithm intended for processing on

5936-522: The United States, a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals does not constitute "processes" (USPTO 2006), so algorithms are not patentable (as in Gottschalk v. Benson ). However practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in Diamond v. Diehr , the application of a simple feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber

6042-496: The Water . The Fog Bridge is 150 feet (46 m) long and makes use of 800 nozzles to create the fog, which Nakaya hopes will inspire visitors to pay attention to the nature of one of San Francisco’s best-known weather patterns. Although originally slated to be temporary, it is now on permanent display. A desalination system, located in Pier 17, conditions bay water for use in the artwork. The Bay Observatory building housing Gallery 6

6148-522: The West Gallery, focuses on human behavior. Its signage and exhibits encourage visitors to play with perception; investigate memory, emotion, and judgment; and experiment with how people cooperate, compete, and share. It holds exhibits such as Poker Face (partners try to assess when someone is bluffing), Trust Fountain (an experimental exhibit from the museum’s National Science Foundation -funded Science of Sharing project, this two-person drinking fountain

6254-450: The algorithm itself, ignoring how it is implemented on the Turing machine. An implementation description describes the general manner in which the machine moves its head and stores data in order to carry out the algorithm, but does not give exact states. In the most detail, a formal description gives the exact state table and list of transitions of the Turing machine. The graphical aid called

6360-588: The algorithm's properties, not implementation. Pseudocode is typical for analysis as it is a simple and general representation. Most algorithms are implemented on particular hardware/software platforms and their algorithmic efficiency is tested using real code. The efficiency of a particular algorithm may be insignificant for many "one-off" problems but it may be critical for algorithms designed for fast interactive, commercial or long life scientific usage. Scaling from small n to large n frequently exposes inefficient algorithms that are otherwise benign. Empirical testing

6466-403: The analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers (estimates); for example, an algorithm that adds up the elements of a list of n numbers would have a time requirement of ⁠ O ( n ) {\displaystyle O(n)} ⁠ , using big O notation . The algorithm only needs to remember two values: the sum of all the elements so far, and its current position in

SECTION 60

#1732858319927

6572-459: The building where the café is situated. The aesthetic of the project was defined as "industrial naval chic" in keeping with the pier’s history. The design aesthetic for both the Seismic Joint and Seaglass Restaurant was created by designer Olle Lundberg and based on the exhibit Color of Water . The bar at Seaglass features a specially designed version of Exploratorium artist Shawn Lani’s exhibit Icy Bodies . The Exploratorium at Pier 15 has

6678-461: The building. By integrating radiant heating and cooling and displacement ventilation, the Exploratorium has greatly reduced the portion of its HVAC system that relies on forced air. Reducing the size of a building’s forced air system has the associated benefits of both lower energy loads as well as reduced ductwork, both of which are cost-saving. The Exploratorium has multiple features designed to reduce its water consumption. Two large cisterns under

6784-487: The core of the Exploratorium's exhibit collection and was the forerunner of the Exploratorium Cookbook , a manual explaining how to build these basic science exhibits. Convinced of the need for public museums to supplement science curricula at all levels, he toured Europe and studied museums on a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1965. Three European museums, encountered during that year, served as important influences on

6890-703: The course of days or years), and the Map Table (an assortment of historic and contemporary maps and atlases displaying different views and perspectives on the landscape). The Bay Observatory also houses the Wired Pier project, which consists of more than a dozen sensors on and around the Bay Observatory that stream real-time data about the surrounding environment, such as quality of air and bay water, weather, tides and pollution, and compile it into interactive visualizations. The Exploratorium campus includes 1.5 acres (0.61 ha) of publicly accessible open space. This includes

6996-459: The development of the first computers. By the mid-19th century, the telegraph , the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world. By the late 19th century, the ticker tape ( c.  1870s ) was in use, as were Hollerith cards (c. 1890). Then came the teleprinter ( c.  1910 ) with its punched-paper use of Baudot code on tape. Telephone-switching networks of electromechanical relays were invented in 1835. These led to

7102-517: The early 12th century, Latin translations of said al-Khwarizmi texts involving the Hindu–Arabic numeral system and arithmetic appeared, for example Liber Alghoarismi de practica arismetrice , attributed to John of Seville , and Liber Algorismi de numero Indorum , attributed to Adelard of Bath . Hereby, alghoarismi or algorismi is the Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name; the text starts with

7208-482: The endeavor using a grassroots approach, bringing a written proposal and some handmade exhibits with him as he visited scientists, businesses, city and school officials, relatives, and friends. Many prominent scientists and cultural figures endorsed the project, and the offers of support, in conjunction with a $ 50,000 grant from the San Francisco Foundation , made the museum realizable. In late August 1969,

7314-460: The exhibits were developed specifically for the location, such as Oculus (a circular opening in the ceiling that allows the entire gallery to be used as a timepiece, tracking seasons, solstices, and the sun’s movement), Visualizing the Bay (a 3-D topographic map of the Bay Area that allows visitors to see real data mapped over the landscape, such as the movement of fog and the salinity of the Bay over

7420-427: The field of image processing), can decrease processing time up to 1,000 times for applications like medical imaging. In general, speed improvements depend on special properties of the problem, which are very common in practical applications. Speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image processing (like digital cameras and medical equipment) to consume less power. Algorithm design

7526-716: The founding of the Exploratorium: the Palais de la Découverte , which displayed models to teach scientific concepts and employed students as demonstrators, a practice that directly inspired the Exploratorium's much-lauded High School Explainer Program; the South Kensington Museum of Science and Art, which Oppenheimer and his wife visited frequently; and the Deutsches Museum in Munich , the world's largest science museum, which had

7632-446: The glass in the observatory, which would have presented a problem in cooling the building on warm days. This was overcome by adding fritted glass to the windows in thin horizontal lines through the panes to decrease the transparency without affecting the views. The fritting also makes the reflective surfaces of the Bay Observatory safe for birds. Pier 15 incorporated two seismic joints as part of its seismic retrofit , one separating

7738-454: The high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code : Exploratorium The Exploratorium is a museum of science , technology , and arts in San Francisco , California . Founded by physicist and educator Frank Oppenheimer in 1969, the museum was originally located in the Palace of Fine Arts and

7844-506: The historic interior trusswork was mainly restored rather than removed, meaning that the upper-level staff offices had to be built around them. Other challenges to the design of the facilities were presented by the museum’s sustainability initiatives. The use of natural light whenever possible challenged exhibit designers relying on carefully controlled light levels; this was solved by using curtains and glare-reducing paint colors. Other conflicts between construction and energy use included

7950-601: The imaging station with mouse stem cells, the live cow’s eye dissections, and the Live Chicken Embryo (one of the oldest of the Living Systems exhibits, showing live chicken embryos at different stages of development). Gallery 5, previously known as the Outdoor Gallery, comprises the north, south, and east aprons of Pier 15, and extends through both ticketed and un-ticketed space. Focus is on direct interaction with

8056-450: The input list. If the space required to store the input numbers is not counted, it has a space requirement of ⁠ O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle O(1)} ⁠ , otherwise ⁠ O ( n ) {\displaystyle O(n)} ⁠ is required. Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or ' effort ' than others. For example,

8162-570: The institute. The Institute for Inquiry partnered with the Sonoma Valley Unified School District on a program combining science education with English Language Development (ELD). Data from the two-year pilot study showed that a professional development program designed to help teachers integrate ELD strategies into science lessons had a significant, measurable impact on the achievement of students in both ELD and in science. The Center for Informal Learning and Schools (CILS)

8268-467: The interior space to benefit from the existing architecture’s ample daylight. The retrofit did include the addition of high-performance glazing to the existing windows. In January 2014, the Exploratorium was awarded LEED Platinum certification. According to the New York Times , "After a two-year post-opening shakedown period of monitoring and adjusting the systems, the Exploratorium hopes to become

8374-482: The invention of the digital adding device by George Stibitz in 1937. While working in Bell Laboratories, he observed the "burdensome" use of mechanical calculators with gears. "He went home one evening in 1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over, Stibitz had constructed a binary adding device". In 1928, a partial formalization of the modern concept of algorithms began with attempts to solve

8480-535: The largest net-zero-energy-use museum in the United States and possibly the world." The new site contains over 600 exhibits, 25% of which were developed specifically for the Pier 15 site. With the exception of some art installations, all exhibits are developed and made onsite. The indoor and outdoor spaces are divided into six galleries, each highlighting a specific content group. Many exhibits are mobile, however, and move among different galleries; similarly, not all exhibits fall into distinct categories. Exhibits cover

8586-627: The most important aspects of algorithm design is resource (run-time, memory usage) efficiency; the big O notation is used to describe e.g., an algorithm's run-time growth as the size of its input increases. Per the Church–Turing thesis , any algorithm can be computed by any Turing complete model. Turing completeness only requires four instruction types—conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment, HALT. However, Kemeny and Kurtz observe that, while "undisciplined" use of unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in " spaghetti code ",

8692-472: The museum and locations around the world annually, including a live webcast of the Mars Curiosity Rover launch and landing; and Lifelong Learning, which creates educational programming for children, teens, family groups, and adults. Lifelong Learning programs further the Exploratorium’s stated dedication to informal learning and the museum as teaching tool, and include day camps, workshops for families,

8798-409: The museum makes use of an HVAC system that takes advantage of the relatively constant, moderate temperature of the bay water under the piers, which is 50 to 65 °F (10 to 18 °C), to heat and cool the building. The bay water is filtered and sterilized before it is brought into a 4,000 US gallons (15 m ) cistern below the pier, where it is held for use. When needed, the bay water is moved to

8904-481: The museum’s lease of the piers from San Francisco’s competitive bidding process due to its unique nature as a cultural and educational institution. Groundbreaking for the project, which required substantial construction and renovation, occurred on October 19, 2010. The Exploratorium holds a 66-year lease on the piers with the Port of San Francisco. Exhibits are only viewable at the Pier 15 campus; Pier 17 houses some staff, with

9010-487: The now-decommissioned Willard Psychiatric Center, which was on view through April 2014. The Osher Gallery also houses the Kanbar Forum, a cabaret-style theater that hosts music events, science lectures, and other programs. Gallery 2, previously known as the South Gallery, is a workshop area where visitors can engage in hands-on making , located directly across from the Exploratorium's own internal exhibit workshop, which

9116-626: The option for future expansion. Piers 15 and 17 are historic piers that were constructed in 1931 and 1912, respectively. In 1954, the area between the piers was infilled and paved over. This infill was removed as part of the construction phase, restoring the space between the piers to public plazas, a pedestrian bridge, and open water. The Exploratorium campus comprises 330,000 sq ft (31,000 m ) of indoor and outdoor exhibit space and includes 1.5 acres (0.61 ha) of freely accessible public space. The exhibits are housed in and around Pier 15, which extends over 800 ft (240 m) over

9222-428: The parking lot between the piers was done slowly over the two years of construction, and the debris from the removal was captured and recycled. Several pilings were left in the water between the piers, both for aesthetic reasons and to support future exhibits. An effort was made in the construction of the new location to preserve the historic elements of Pier 15. The Bay Observatory was the only new structure added to

9328-552: The phrase Dixit Algorismi , or "Thus spoke Al-Khwarizmi". Around 1230, the English word algorism is attested and then by Chaucer in 1391, English adopted the French term. In the 15th century, under the influence of the Greek word ἀριθμός ( arithmos , "number"; cf. "arithmetic"), the Latin word was altered to algorithmus . One informal definition is "a set of rules that precisely defines

9434-644: The plaza facing on the Embarcadero, the connector bridge between Piers 15 and 17 where Fog Bridge # 72494 is installed, the south apron of Pier 17, and the east and south aprons of Pier 15. This public space overlaps Gallery 5, and includes some notable exhibits, such as the Aeolian Harp (an expanded version of the original installation by Doug Hollis on the roof of the Exploratorium at the Palace of Fine Arts, first created in collaboration with Frank Oppenheimer in 1976) and

9540-593: The profession within five years, the retention rate for teachers who go through the Teacher Institute is 85 to 90 percent. The Teacher Institute is also home to the Iron Science Teacher , a national competition that celebrates innovation and creativity in science teaching, which originated at the Exploratorium in San Francisco. Parodying the cult Japanese TV program, Iron Chef , this competition showcases science teachers as they devise classroom activities using

9646-533: The prominence of music in the show, a ten-track album Cybernetic Serendipity Music was released by the ICA to accompany the show. Artists featured included Iannis Xenakis , John Cage , and Peter Zinovieff, a detail of whose graphic score for 'Four Sacred April Rounds’ (1968) was used as the cover artwork. Time magazine noted that there had been 40,000 visitors to the London exhibition. Other reports suggested visitor numbers were as high as 44,000 to 60,000. However,

9752-437: The school stated that it "represented points of expanding the cybernetic imagination" and was a "ground-breaking" "glimpse of a future in which computers were entangled with people and cultures, and through this she fashioned a blueprint for the future of computing that has since inspired generations". Algorithm In mathematics and computer science , an algorithm ( / ˈ æ l ɡ ə r ɪ ð əm / )

9858-426: The site. The east end of the pier was cleaned of lead paint , revealing historic lettering underneath; designers chose to preserve the lettering rather than paint it over. As a result, the traces of the shipping lines that originally frequented the pier can still be seen. Some of the preservation efforts presented challenges in design, however; historic windows created energy losses that had to be offset elsewhere, and

9964-427: The structural beams connecting the southeast pilings capture up to 338,000 US gallons (1,280 m ) of rainwater and fog runoff for reuse in the facility. The plumbing is designed for water conservation, with waterless urinals and dual-flush toilets projected to save an annual million gallons of water. Additionally, the bay water heating and cooling system is estimated to save two million gallons of potable water

10070-451: The system works in waterside economizer mode. In this mode, the cooling loads are met either entirely or partially through passive heat exchange between the colder bay water and the warmer return water, greatly reducing the building’s energy needs. The Exploratorium at Pier 15 has a separate system for its ventilation needs, pairing a dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS) with displacement ventilation distribution to bring outdoor air into

10176-544: The teaching of science. Between 1995 and 2012, an estimated 6,400 educators from 48 states and 11 countries directly participated in Exploratorium workshops. The Teacher Institute, founded in 1984, is an Exploratorium-based professional development program geared towards middle and high school science teachers. In addition to providing workshops at the museum that teach hands-on and inquiry-based teaching methods, it provides coaches and support for novice teachers. Studies have shown that while 30 to 50 percent of new teachers leave

10282-472: The very earliest years of the museum. It includes a mix of new and old exhibits that investigate physics and the perception of light, color, and sound, such as Sound Bite (a demonstration of hearing with the jawbone instead of the ears) and Bright Black (a trick of perception convinces viewers that an object is white when it is almost entirely black). Gallery 4, previously known as the East Gallery, houses

10388-714: The viewers join in the conversation. Many machines formed kinetic environments or displayed moving images. Bruce Lacey contributed his radio-controlled robots and a light-sensitive owl. Nam June Paik was represented by Robot K-456 and televisions with distorted images. Jean Tinguely provided two of his painting machines. Edward Ihnatowicz 's biomorphic hydraulic ear ( Sound Activated Mobile ( SAM , 1968)) turned toward sounds and John Billingsley's Albert 1967 turned to face light. Wen-Ying Tsai presented his interactive cybernetic sculptures of vibrating stainless-steel rods, stroboscopic light , and audio feedback control . Several artists exhibited machines that drew patterns that

10494-420: The visitor could take away, or involved visitors in games. Cartoonist Rowland Emett designed the mechanical computer Forget-me-not , which was commissioned by Honeywell . Another section explored the computer's ability to produce text - both essays and poetry . Different programs produced Haiku, children's stories, and essays. One of the first computer-generated poems, by Alison Knowles and James Tenney ,

10600-619: The world. In April 2013, the Exploratorium relocated from the Palace of Fine Arts to Piers 15 and 17, located between the San Francisco Ferry Building and Pier 39 along the San Francisco Embarcadero. In 2004, the Piers location was identified by Goéry Delacôte and then-board chairman Van Kasper as a potential space for relocation. In 2005, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors passed a resolution exempting

10706-418: Was a variety of posters and graphics demonstrating the power of computers to do complex (and apparently random) calculations. Other graphics showed a simulated Mondrian and the iconic decreasing squares spiral that appeared on the exhibition's poster and book. The Boeing Company exhibited their use of wireframe graphics. Keith Albarn & Partners contributed to the design of the exhibition. Reflecting

10812-449: Was deemed patentable. The patenting of software is controversial, and there are criticized patents involving algorithms, especially data compression algorithms, such as Unisys 's LZW patent . Additionally, some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions (see export of cryptography ). Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm . Some common paradigms are: For optimization problems there

10918-530: Was designed to test an adaptable model for providing tinkering activities to promote learning and development in an afterschool setting. The Exploratorium also houses a number of other educational resources. These include the Learning Commons, a library and media resource center that houses a collection of print and digital science teaching resources for use by regional educators; a webcast studio, located in Gallery 3, which produces 75 educational Webcasts from

11024-513: Was included in the exhibition and catalogue. Computer-generated movies were represented by John Whitney 's permutations and a Bell Labs movie on their technology for producing movies. Some samples included images of tesseracts rotating in four dimensions, a satellite orbiting the Earth, and an animated data structure . Computer graphics were also represented, including pictures produced on cathode ray oscilloscopes and digital plotters . There

11130-476: Was invited to join the University of Colorado 's physics department in 1959, he found himself less interested in traditional laboratory research and much more interested in exploring methods of provoking curiosity and inquiry. He received a grant from the National Science Foundation , which he used to build models of nearly a hundred scientific experiments. This "Library of Experiments" would become

11236-467: Was relocated in 2013 to Piers 15 and 17 on San Francisco's waterfront. The museum has over 1,000 participatory exhibits and is divided into several galleries, mainly separated by content. Since its inception, the Exploratorium has expanded into other domains and has inspired an international network of participatory museums. The Exploratorium was conceived by Frank Oppenheimer , an experimental physicist and university professor. Oppenheimer, who worked on

#926073