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143-489: Cubans legally migrate to the U.S. through various migration programs that include immigrant visa issuance, asylum, and the diversity lottery. Immigrant visas are issued to the parents, spouses, and unmarried children who are under 21 years of age, of U.S. citizens as soon as the immigrant visa petition is approved by the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services . Immigrant visas are also available to

286-486: A Residence Permit after they have arrived in the country. In the United Kingdom, applications can be made to UK Visas and Immigration . In certain circumstances, it is impossible for the holder of the visa to do this, either because the country does not have a mechanism to prolong visas or, most likely, because the holder of the visa is using a short stay visa to live in a country. Some foreign visitors engage in what

429-413: A negative economic and social impact on the travel industry . Slow travel increased in popularity during the pandemic, with tourists visiting fewer destinations during their trips. Biosecurity measures such as restrictions on cross-border travel, the introduction of mandatory vaccination for international travellers, and the adoption of quarantine or mandatory testing measures have helped to contain

572-448: A common aspect of border security measures across the world. Border walls generally seek to limit unauthorised travel across an international border and are frequently implemented as a populist response to refugees and economic migrants. The India-Bangladesh barrier is a 3,406 kilometres (2,116 miles) long fence of barbed wire and concrete just under 3 metres (9 feet 10 inches) high currently under construction. Its stated aim

715-503: A consul's handbook from 1879: A bill of health is a document issued by the consul or the public authorities of the port which a ship sails from, descriptive of the health of the port at the time of the vessel's clearance. A clean bill of health certifies that at the date of its issue no infectious disease was known to exist either in the port or its neighbourhood. A suspected or touched bill of health reports that rumours were in circulation that an infectious disease had appeared but that

858-419: A consulate, embassy, or other diplomatic mission. Also known as visas on arrival (VOA), they are granted at a port of entry. This is distinct from visa-free entry, where no visa is required, as the visitor must still obtain the visa on arrival before proceeding to immigration control. An electronic visa (e-Visa or eVisa) is stored in a computer and is linked to the passport number so no label, sticker, or stamp

1001-423: A country that limits the visa-free regime negatively by only listing nationals who require a visa, thus the number represents the number of UN member states reduced by the number of nationals who require a visa and "+" stands for all possible non-UN member state nationals that might also not require a visa. "N/A" indicates countries that have contradictory information on its official websites or information supplied by

1144-493: A country's airspace may be grounded and their crews may be detained. No country has sovereignty over international waters , including the associated airspace. All states have the freedom of fishing, navigation, overflight, laying cables and pipelines, as well as research. Oceans, seas, and waters outside national jurisdiction are also referred to as the high seas or, in Latin , mare liberum (meaning free sea ). The 1958 Convention on

1287-485: A country's territory to give the country more time to respond to possibly hostile aircraft. The concept of an ADIZ is not defined in any international treaty and is not regulated by any international body, but is nevertheless a well-established aerial border control measure. Usually such zones only cover undisputed territory, do not apply to foreign aircraft not intending to enter territorial airspace, and do not overlap. Biosecurity refers to measures aimed at preventing

1430-795: A decline of business travel and international conferencing, and the rise of their virtual, online equivalents. Concerns have been raised over the effectiveness of travel restrictions to contain the spread of COVID-19 . Contemporary border control policies are complex and address a variety of distinct phenomena depending on the circumstances and political priorities of the state(s) implementing them. Consequently, there are several aspects of border control which vary in nature and importance from region to region. In addition to land borders, countries also apply border control measures to airspace and waters under their jurisdiction . Such measures control access to air and maritime territory as well as extractible resources (e.g. fish , minerals, fossil fuels). Under

1573-529: A diverse group of Cubans, including those who might not have close relatives in the United States. The last registration period was held from June 15 to July 15, 1998. The original Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966 allowed Cubans to become permanent residents if they had been present in the United States for at least 2 years. The Refugee Act of 1980 ( Pub. L. 96-212 ) reduced this time to one year. Cubans are exempt from any immigration quotas, and are also exempt from

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1716-469: A jurisdiction is known as a port of entry. International airports are usually ports of entry, as are road and rail crossings on a land border . Seaports can be used as ports of entry only if a dedicated customs presence is posted there. The choice of whether to become a port of entry is up to the civil authority controlling the port. An airport of entry is an airport that provides customs and immigration services for incoming flights. These services allow

1859-550: A limited number of checkpoints where they can be crossed without legal sanctions. Arrangements or treaties may be formed to allow or mandate less restrained crossings (e.g. the Schengen Agreement ). Land border checkpoints (land ports of entry) can be contrasted with the customs and immigration facilities at seaports , international airports , and other ports of entry . Checkpoints generally serve two purposes: A border checkpoint at which travellers are permitted to enter

2002-533: A long-stay visa for those who intend to apply for a residence permit . For example, the EU does not require a visa of citizens of many countries for stays under 90 days, but its member states require a long-stay visa of such citizens for longer stays. Many countries have a mechanism to allow the holder of a visa to apply to extend a visa. In Denmark, a visa holder can apply to the Danish Immigration Service for

2145-541: A mass exodus of the (largely Gujarati ) Asian community of Uganda. Such ethnically driven border control policies took forms ranging from anti-Asian sentiment in East Africa to Apartheid policies in South Africa and Namibia (then known as Southwest Africa under South African rule) which created bantustans and pass laws to segregate and impose border controls against non-whites, and encouraged immigration of whites at

2288-405: A means of preventing the spread of the disease. Prior to the emergence of COVID-19 , Yellow Fever was the primary human disease subjected to de facto vaccine passport measures by border control authorities around the world. Similar measures are in place with regard to Polio and meningococcal meningitis in regions where those diseases are endemic and countries bordering those regions. Prior to

2431-528: A modest reduction in the total number of people infected These strict border controls economic harm to the tourism industry through lost income and social harm to people who were unable to travel for family matters or other reasons. When the travel bans are lifted, many people are expected to resume traveling. However, some travel, especially business travel , may be decreased long-term as lower cost alternatives, such as teleconferencing and virtual events , are preferred. A possible long-term impact has been

2574-677: A person could enter or leave the countryside. Passports resembling those issued today were an important part of the Chinese bureaucracy as early as the Western Han (202 BCE-220 CE), if not in the Qin dynasty . They required such details as age, height, and bodily features. These passports ( zhuan ) determined a person's ability to move throughout imperial counties and through points of control. Even children needed passports, but those of one year or less who were in their mother's care may not have needed them. In

2717-436: A private visa service specialist who is specialized in the issuance of international travel documents. These agencies are authorized by the foreign authority, embassy, or consulate to represent international travellers who are unable or unwilling to travel to the embassy and apply in person. Private visa and passport services collect an additional fee for verifying customer applications, supporting documents, and submitting them to

2860-594: A range of persons who can qualify for family or employment-based visas under the preference system that controls numerically limited immigration to the United States. The preference system allows U.S. citizens to bring their siblings and their adult married children to the United States. Lawful permanent residents of the United States can petition for their spouses, minor children, and unmarried adult children. The waiting period for preference visas varies by category. Those who have been persecuted in Cuba, or who fear persecution (on

3003-547: A relatively rare phenomenon until the early 20th century, prior to which many states had open international borders either in practice or due to a lack of any legal restriction. John Maynard Keynes identified World War I in particular as the point when such controls became commonplace. Decolonisation during the twentieth century saw the emergence of mass emigration from nations in the Global South , thus leading former colonial occupiers to introduce stricter border controls. In

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3146-551: A rigorous quarantine clause was introduced into an act regulating trade with the Levant , and various arbitrary orders were issued during the next twenty years to meet the supposed danger of infection from the Baltic states. Although no plague cases ever came to England during that period, the restrictions on traffic became more stringent, and in 1788 a very strict Quarantine Act was passed, with provisions affecting cargoes in particular. The act

3289-475: A ship to enter port on assurance from the captain that the vessel is free from contagious disease . The clearance granted is commonly referred to as 'free pratique'. A ship can signal a request for 'pratique' by flying a solid yellow square-shaped flag. This yellow flag is the Q flag in the set of international maritime signal flags . In the event that 'free pratique' is not granted, a vessel will be held in quarantine according to biosecurity rules prevailing at

3432-441: A specific duration include: Granted for those intending to settle permanently in the issuing country (obtain the status of a permanent resident with a prospect of possible naturalization in the future): These are granted to officials doing jobs for their governments, or otherwise representing their countries in the host country, such as the personnel of diplomatic missions. Normally visa applications are made at and collected from

3575-562: A temporary measure. In effect, this retroactively granted BN(O)s a path to right of abode in the United Kingdom. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic , about 7,000 people had entered the UK under this scheme between July 2020 and January 2021. Ethnic tensions created during colonial occupation also resulted in discriminatory policies being adopted in newly independent African nations, such as Uganda under Idi Amin which banned Asians from Uganda , thus creating

3718-702: A territory and thus are, in most countries, distinct from actual formal permission for an alien to enter and remain in the country. In each instance, a visa is subject to entry permission by an immigration official at the time of actual entry and can be revoked at any time. Visa evidence most commonly takes the form of a sticker endorsed in the applicant's passport or other travel document but may also exist electronically. Some countries no longer issue physical visa evidence, instead recording details only in immigration databases. Some countries, such as Turkey , require that their citizens, and sometimes foreign travelers, obtain an exit visa in order to be allowed to leave

3861-630: A test approved by a medical authority to enter Chilean territory. The issuing authority may also require applicants to attest that they have no criminal convictions, or that they do not participate in certain activities (like prostitution or drug trafficking). Some countries will deny visas if passports show evidence of citizenship of, or travel to, a country that is considered hostile by that country. For example, some Arabic-oriented countries will not issue visas to nationals of Israel and those whose passports bear evidence of visiting Israel. Many countries frequently demand strong evidence of intent to return to

4004-420: A variety of issues, ranging from customs violations and trade in unlawful goods to the suppression of unauthorised migration or travel. The specific border security measures taken by a jurisdiction vary depending on the priorities of local authorities and are affected by social, economic, and geographical factors. In India, which maintains free movement with Nepal and Bhutan, border security focuses primarily on

4147-504: A visa in advance are usually advised to obtain them at a diplomatic mission of their destination country. Several countries allow nationals of countries that require a visa to obtain them online. The following table lists visa policies of all countries by the number of foreign nationalities that may enter that country for tourism without a visa or by obtaining a visa on arrival with normal passport. It also notes countries that issue electronic visas to certain nationalities. Symbol "+" indicates

4290-435: A visa is not needed under certain conditions, e.g., when the visit is for tourism and for a relatively short period. Such reciprocal agreements may stem from common membership in international organizations or a shared heritage: Other countries may unilaterally grant visa-free entry to nationals of certain countries to facilitate tourism, promote business, or even to cut expenses on maintaining consular posts abroad. Some of

4433-435: A visa run is necessary to activate new visas or change the immigration status of a person. An example would be leaving a country and then returning immediately to activate a newly issued work visa before a person can legally work. In general, an applicant may be refused a visa if they do not meet the requirements for admission or entry under that country's immigration laws. More specifically, a visa may be denied or refused when

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4576-546: A whole were yet to become mainstream. The first act was called for due to fears that the plague might be imported from Poland and the Baltic states . The second act of 1721 was due to the prevalence of the plague at Marseille and other places in Provence , France. It was renewed in 1733 after a new outbreak in continental Europe , and again in 1743, due to an epidemic in Messina . In 1752

4719-483: Is 1 July (if the traveller entered on 30 March). This interpretation of visas is common in the Americas. With other countries, a person may not stay beyond the period of validity of their visa, which is usually set within the period of validity of their passport. The visa may also limit the total number of days the visitor may spend in the applicable territory within the period of validity. This interpretation of visa periods

4862-408: Is a central principle of the EU's common visa policy. The EU aims to achieve full visa reciprocity with non-EU countries whose citizens can travel to the EU without a visa. For example, when in 2009, Canada reintroduced visa requirements for Czech nationals, arguing it was necessary due to a surge in asylum applications, it raised concerns within the EU about the implications for the common visa policy,

5005-424: Is a conditional authorization granted by a polity to a foreigner that allows them to enter, remain within, or leave its territory. Visas typically include limits on the duration of the foreigner's stay, areas within the country they may enter, the dates they may enter, the number of permitted visits, or if the individual can work in the country in question. Visas are associated with the request for permission to enter

5148-510: Is also sometimes used to define an area (usually composed of several countries) which form a customs union , a customs territory , or to describe the area at airports and ports where travellers are checked through customs. Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures are customs measures to protect humans, animals, and plants from diseases, pests, or contaminants. The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures , concluded at

5291-440: Is an area designated for storage of commercial goods that have not cleared border controls. Commercial goods not yet cleared through customs are often stored in a type of customs area known as a bonded warehouse , until processed or re-exported. Ports authorised to handle international cargo generally include recognised bonded warehouses. For the purpose of customs duties , goods within the customs area are treated as being outside

5434-536: Is common in Europe. Once in the country, the validity period of a visa or authorized stay can often be extended for a fee at the discretion of immigration authorities. Overstaying a period of authorized stay given by the immigration officers is considered illegal immigration even if the visa validity period is not over (i.e., for multiple entry visas) and a form of being "out of status" and the offender may be fined , prosecuted, deported , or even blacklisted from entering

5577-455: Is considered more likely that people from these countries will seek to illegally immigrate. Visa restrictions may also be imposed when nationals of another country are perceived as likelier to be terrorists or criminals, or by autocratic regimes that perceive foreign influence to be a threat to their rule. According to Professor Eric Neumayer of the London School of Economics : The poorer,

5720-579: Is especially restrictive. Members of the Schengen Agreement are required to apply strict checks on travellers entering and exiting the area. These checks are co-ordinated by the European Union's Frontex agency, and subject to common rules. The details of border controls, surveillance and the conditions under which permission to enter into the Schengen Area may be granted are exhaustively detailed in

5863-479: Is estimated that the indirect economic cost of border controls, particularly migration restrictions, cost many trillions of dollars and the size of the global economy could double if migration restrictions were lifted. States and rulers have always regarded the ability to determine who enters or remains in their territories as a key test of their sovereignty, but prior to World War I , border controls were only sporadically implemented. In medieval Europe, for example,

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6006-442: Is known as a visa run : leaving a country—usually to a neighboring country—for a short period just before the permitted length of stay expires, then returning to the first country to get a new entry stamp in order to extend their stay ("reset the clock"). Despite the name, a visa run is usually done with a passport that can be used for entry without a visa. Visa runs are frowned upon by immigration authorities as they may signify that

6149-499: Is not a violation of a visa, despite the common misuse of the phrase, but a violation of status – hence the term "out of status". Even having a visa does not guarantee entry to the host country. The border crossing authorities make the final determination to allow entry, and may even cancel a visa at the border if the alien cannot demonstrate to their satisfaction that they will abide by the status their visa grants them. Some countries that do not require visas for short stays may require

6292-512: Is not usually granted under most open skies agreements. Air cabotage policies in the European Union are uniquely liberal insofar as carriers licensed by one member state are permitted to engage in cabotage in any EU member state, with few limitations. Chile has the most liberal air cabotage rules in the world, enacted in 1979, which allow foreign airlines to operate domestic flights, conditional upon reciprocal treatment for Chilean carriers in

6435-402: Is permitted into the country. For example, if a visa has been issued to begin on 1 January and to expire on 30 March, and the typical authorized period of stay in a country is 90 days, then the 90-day authorized stay starts on the day the passenger enters the country (entrance has to be between 1 January and 30 March). Thus, the latest day the traveller could conceivably stay in the issuing country

6578-468: Is placed in the passport before travel. The application is done over the internet, and the receipt acts as a visa, which can be printed or stored on a mobile device. Visas can also be single-entry , which means the visa is cancelled as soon as the holder enters the country; double-entry ; or multiple-entry , which permits double or multiple entries into the country with the same visa. Countries may also issue re-entry permits that allow temporarily leaving

6721-562: Is porous and the 2021 military coup in Myanmar saw an influx of refugees seeking asylum in border states including Mizoram . The refoulement of Rohingya refugees is a contentious aspect of India's border control policy vis à vis Myanmar. Meanwhile, American border security policy is largely centred on the country's border with Mexico . Security along this border is composed of many distinct elements; including physical barriers, patrol routes, lighting, and border patrol personnel. In contrast,

6864-427: Is to limit unauthorised migration. The project has run into several delays and there is no clear completion date for the project yet. Similar to India's barrier with Bangladesh and the proposed wall between America and Mexico, Iran has constructed a wall on its frontier with Pakistan . The wall aims to reduce unauthorised border crossings and stem the flow of drugs, and is also a response to terrorist attacks, notably

7007-464: Is used for different purposes in different contexts. The most common category of biosecurity policies are quarantine measures adopted to counteract the spread of disease and, when applied as a component of border control, focus primarily on mitigating the entry of infected individuals, plants, or animals into a country. Other aspects of biosecurity related to border control include mandatory vaccination policies for inbound travellers and measures to curtail

7150-572: The Gulf Cooperation Council , whose economies are more similar. In 2006 Saudi Arabia proposed constructing a security fence along the entire length of its 900 kilometre long desert border with Iraq. As of July 2009 it was reported that Saudis will pay $ 3.5 billion for a security fence. The combined wall and ditch will be 965 kilometres (600 miles) long and include five layers of fencing, watch towers, night-vision cameras, and radar cameras and manned by 30,000 troops. Elsewhere in Europe,

7293-558: The Han Dynasty in China , documents were required at checkpoints to verify travelers' identities. In medieval Europe , rulers issued "safe conduct" letters that protected travelers. In 1414, during the reign of King Henry V of England , passports became more formalized, allowing foreigners and citizens to travel safely within England. The 19th century saw an increase in international travel due to

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7436-728: The Industrial Revolution , which led to the widespread adoption of passports, particularly for managing the movement of migrant workers. In Western Europe in the late 19th century and early 20th century, passports and visas were not generally necessary for moving from one country to another. The relatively high speed and large movements of people travelling by train would have caused bottlenecks if regular passport controls had been used. Passports and visas became usually necessary as travel documents only after World War I . After World War I , passports became essential for international travel. The League of Nations convened conferences in

7579-484: The Ottoman army would be deployed to enforce border control and monitor disease . One of the earliest systematic attempts of modern nation states to implement border controls to restrict entry of particular groups were policies adopted by Canada, Australia, and America to curtail immigration of Asians in white settler states in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first anti-East Asian policy implemented in this era

7722-534: The Republic of Macedonia began erecting a fence on its border with Greece in November 2015. In 2003, Botswana began building a 480 kilometres (300 miles) long electric fence along its border with Zimbabwe . The official reason for the fence is to stop the spread of foot-and-mouth disease among livestock. Zimbabweans argue that the height of the fence is clearly intended to keep out people. Botswana has responded that

7865-489: The Schengen Area ) are open and completely unguarded, others (including the vast majority of borders between countries as well as some internal borders) are subject to some degree of control and may be crossed legally only at designated checkpoints . Border controls in the 21st century are tightly intertwined with intricate systems of travel documents, visas, and increasingly complex policies that vary between countries. It

8008-561: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), states exercise varying degrees of control over different categories of territorial waters: Vessels not complying with a state's maritime policies may be subject to ship arrest and enforcement action by the state's authorities. Maritime border control measures are controversial in the context of international trade disputes, as was

8151-554: The Uruguay Round of the Multilateral Trade Negotiations , establishes the types of SPS measures each jurisdiction is permitted to impose. Examples of SPS are tolerance limits for residues, restricted use of substances, labelling requirements related to food safety, hygienic requirements and quarantine requirements. In certain countries, sanitary and phytosanitary measures focuses extensively on curtailing and regulating

8294-843: The White Australia Policy , while subsequent legislation in America (e.g. the Immigration Act of 1891 , the Naturalisation Act of 1906 , and the Immigration Act of 1917 ) resulted in an even stricter policy targeting immigrants from both Asia and parts of southern and eastern Europe. Even following the adoption of measures such as the White Australia Policy and the Chinese Exclusion Act in English-speaking settler colonies, pervasive control of international borders remained

8437-508: The airspace above its land territory, internal waters, and territorial sea. Consequently, states have the authority to regulate flyover rights and tax foreign aircraft utilising their airspace. Additionally, the International Civil Aviation Organization designates states to administer international airspace, including airspace over waters not forming part of any state's territorial sea. Aircraft unlawfully entering

8580-421: The border with Canada is primarily composed of joint border patrol and security camera programmes, forming the longest undefended border in the world. In remote areas along the border with Canada, where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden sensors on roads, trails, railways, and wooded areas, which are located near crossing points. Border security on the Schengen Area's external borders

8723-439: The eradication of Smallpox , similar Carte Jaune requirements were in force for that disease around the world. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic , biosecurity measures have become a highly visible aspect of border control across the globe. Most notably, quarantine and mandatory COVID-19 vaccination for international travellers. Together with a decreased willingness to travel, the implementation of biosecurity measures has had

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8866-653: The 1920s complained, especially about attached photographs and physical descriptions, which they considered led to a "nasty dehumanisation". Starting in the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire established quarantine stations on many of its borders to control disease. For example, along the Greek-Turkish border, all travellers entering and exiting the Ottoman Empire would be quarantined for 9–15 days. These stations would often be manned by armed guards. If plague appeared,

9009-445: The 1920s to standardise passports, setting the foundation for modern versions. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) took over regulation in 1947, leading to machine-readable passports and, eventually, biometric passports in the late 20th century, offering enhanced security and speed in processing travelers. Some visas can be granted on arrival or by prior application at the country's embassy or consulate , or through

9152-593: The 20th century also saw the standardisation of refugee travel documents under the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1951 and the 1954 Convention travel document for stateless people under the similar 1954 statelessness convention. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 produced a drastic tightening of border controls across the globe. Many countries and regions have imposed quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions for citizens of or recent travellers to

9295-518: The African continent, a significant portion of countries in the region require arriving passengers to present an International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (Carte Jaune) certifying that they have received the Yellow Fever vaccine . A variety of other countries require travellers who have visited areas where Yellow Fever is endemic to present a certificate in order to clear border checkpoints as

9438-527: The American military. Members of both the Democratic and Republican parties who opposed Trump's border control policies regarded the border wall as unnecessary or undesirable, arguing that other measures would be more effective at reducing illegal immigration than building a wall, including tackling the economic issues that lead to immigration being a relevant issue altogether, border surveillance or an increase in

9581-580: The Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and Myanmar borders. India's primary focus with regard to the border with Bangladesh is to deter unlawful immigration and drug trafficking. On the Pakistani border, the Border Security Force aims to prevent the infiltration of Indian territory by terrorists from Pakistan and other countries in the west (Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, etc.). In contrast, India's border with Myanmar

9724-725: The COVID-19 pandemic, many jurisdictions across the globe introduced biosecurity measures on internal borders. This ranged from quarantine measures imposed upon individuals crossing state lines within America to prohibitions on interstate travel in Australia . Each country has its own laws and regulations for the import and export of goods into and out of a country, which its customs authority enforces. The import or export of some goods may be restricted or forbidden, in which case customs controls enforce such policies. Customs enforcement at borders can also entail collecting excise tax and preventing

9867-717: The Government to IATA . Some countries that allow visa on arrival do so only at a limited number of entry points. Some countries such as the European Union member states have a qualitatively different visa regime between each other as it also includes freedom of movement. The following table is current as of 3 October 2019 . Source: Possession of a valid visa is a condition for entry into many countries, and exemption schemes exist. In some cases visa-free entry may be granted to holders of diplomatic passports even as visas are required by normal passport holders ( see: Passport ). Some countries have reciprocal agreements such that

10010-521: The High Seas defined "high seas" to mean "all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State" and where "no State may validly purport to subject any part of them to its sovereignty". Ships sailing the high seas are generally under the jurisdiction of their flag state (if there is one); however, when a ship is involved in certain criminal acts, such as piracy , any nation can exercise jurisdiction under

10153-475: The Hungarian government under right-wing strongman Viktor Orbán. Similarly, Saudi Arabia has begun construction of a border barrier or fence between its territory and Yemen to prevent the unauthorized movement of people and goods. The difference between the countries' economic situations means that many Yemenis head to Saudi Arabia to find work. Saudi Arabia does not have a barrier with its other neighbours in

10296-552: The Office of the Secretary of State . The 1548 Imperial Diet of Augsburg required the public to hold imperial documents for travel, at the risk of permanent exile. During World War I, European governments introduced border passport requirements for security reasons, and to control the emigration of people with useful skills. These controls remained in place after the war, becoming a standard, though controversial, procedure. British tourists of

10439-655: The Republic of China and are usually off-limits to foreign vessels. In India, foreign vessels engaging in the coasting trade require a licence that is generally only issued when no local vessel is available. Similarly, a foreign vessel may only be issued a licence to engage in cabotage in Brazil if there are no Brazilian flagged vessels available for the intended transport. As with maritime cabotage, most jurisdictions heavily restrict cabotage in passenger aviation, though rules regarding air cargo are typically more lax. Passenger cabotage

10582-685: The Schengen Borders Code. All persons crossing external borders—inbound or outbound—are subject to a check by a border guard . The only exception is for regular cross-border commuters (both those with the right of free movement and third-country nationals) who are well known to the border guards: once an initial check has shown that there is no alert on record relating to them in the Schengen Information System or national databases, they can only be subject to occasional 'random' checks, rather than systematic checks every time they cross

10725-591: The US enabled migration using the parole authority of the Attorney General for any Cuban that reached the US. Prior to 1995, the U.S. government allowed all Cubans who reached U.S. territorial waters to remain in the U.S. In 1996, the U.S. government introduced the so-called " wet feet, dry feet policy " which limited the scope of the Act to only those Cubans who readed "dry land". The policy was abolished by President Barack Obama at

10868-434: The United Kingdom this process took place in stages, with British nationality law eventually shifting from recognising all Commonwealth citizens as British subjects to today's complex British nationality law which distinguishes between British citizens, modern British Subjects , British Overseas Citizens , and overseas nationals , with each non-standard category created as a result of attempts to balance border control and

11011-542: The United States (if valid for at least three months on date of arrival). The ultimate example of such reliance is the microstate of Andorra , which imposes no visa requirements of its own because it has no international airport and is inaccessible by land without passing through the territory of either France or Spain and is thus "protected" by the Schengen visa system. Border control Border control comprises measures taken by governments to monitor and regulate

11154-459: The United States does not give visitors a new period of stay when they come back from visiting Canada, Mexico, or the Caribbean ; instead they are re-admitted to the United States for the remaining days granted on their initial entry. Some other countries, e.g. Thailand, allow visitors who arrive by land from neighboring countries a shorter length of stay than those who arrive by air. In some cases,

11297-574: The ability of refugees and migrants to enter the European Union via the two Spanish cities on the Moroccan coast. Similar measures have been taken on the Schengen area's borders with Turkey in response to the refugee crisis in Syria. The creation of European Union's collective border security organisation, Frontex , is another aspect of the bloc's growing focus on border security. Within the Schengen Area, border security has become an especially prominent priority for

11440-539: The airport to serve as an initial port of entry for foreign visitors arriving in a country. While the terms airport of entry and international airport are generally used interchangeably, not all international airports qualify as airports of entry since international airports without any immigration or customs facilities exist in the Schengen Area whose members have eliminated border controls with each other. Airports of entry are usually larger than domestic airports and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate

11583-466: The applicant can print before entering and produce on entry to the visited polity. Some countries do not require visitors to apply for a visa in advance for short visits. Visa applications in advance of arrival give countries a chance to consider the applicant's circumstances, such as financial security, reason for travel, and details of previous visits to the country. Visitors may also be required to undergo and pass security or health checks upon arrival at

11726-527: The applicant. This may include proof that the applicant is able to support him or herself in the host country (lodging, food), proof that the person hosting the applicant in his or her home really exists and has sufficient room for hosting the applicant, proof that the applicant has obtained health and evacuation insurance, etc. Some countries ask for proof of health status, especially for long-term visas; some countries deny such visas to persons with certain illnesses, such as HIV/AIDS . The exact conditions depend on

11869-525: The applicant: Even if a traveller does not need a visa, the aforementioned criteria can also be used by border control officials to refuse the traveller's entry into the country in question. The main reasons states impose visa restrictions on foreign nationals are to curb illegal immigration, security concerns, and reciprocity for visa restrictions imposed on their own nationals. Typically, nations impose visa restrictions on citizens of poorer countries, along with politically unstable and undemocratic ones, as it

12012-403: The appropriate authority. If there is no embassy or consulate in one's home country, then one would have to travel to a third country (or apply by post) and try to get a visa issued there. Alternatively, in such cases visas may be pre-arranged for collection on arrival at the border. The need or absence of need of a visa generally depends on the citizenship of the applicant, the intended duration of

12155-533: The basis of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion), may apply for U.S. resettlement through its in country refugee processing unit at the United States Embassy in Havana . The diversity visa program is also available in Cuba. There are 55,000 visas available annually to eligible applicants from around the world. For the three years that statistics are available,

12298-416: The border security industry for having a vested interest in increasing border militarisation in order to increase profits. Furthermore, the same companies are also often involved in the arms trade and thus profit twice: first from fuelling the conflicts, repression and human rights abuses that have led refugees to flee their homes and later from intercepting them along their migration routes. Border walls are

12441-515: The border. Additionally, border security in Europe is increasingly being outsourced to private companies, with the border security market growing at a rate of 7% per year. In its Border Wars series, the Transnational Institute showed that the arms and security industry helps shape European border security policy through lobbying, regular interactions with EU's border institutions and its shaping of research policy. The institute criticises

12584-535: The boundaries between rival countries and centres of power were largely symbolic or consisted of amorphous borderlands, 'marches', and 'debatable lands' of indeterminate or contested status and the real 'borders' consisted of the fortified walls that surrounded towns and cities, where the authorities could exclude undesirable or incompatible people at the gates, from vagrants, beggars and the 'wandering poor', to 'masterless women', lepers, Romani, or Jews. The concept of border controls has its origins in antiquity. In Asia,

12727-648: The case following France's detention of British fishermen in October 2021 in the aftermath of Brexit or when the Indonesian navy detained the crew of the Seven Seas Conqueress alleging that the vessel was unlawfully fishing within Indonesian territorial waters while the Singaporean government claimed the vessel was in Singaporean waters near Pedra Branca . Similarly, international law accords each state control over

12870-457: The common policy. Luggage tags for checked luggage travelling within the EU are green-edged so they may be identified. In most EU member states, travellers coming from other EU countries within the Schengen Area can use the green lane, although airports outside the Schengen Area or with frequent flights arriving from jurisdictions within Schengen but outside the European Union may use blue channels for convenience and efficiency. A customs area

13013-495: The considerations for a country to grant visa-free entry to another country include (but are not limited to): To have a smaller worldwide diplomatic staff, some countries rely on other country's (or countries') judgments when issuing visas. For example, Mexico allows citizens of all countries to enter without Mexican visas if they possess a valid American visa that has already been used. Costa Rica accepts valid visas of Schengen /EU countries, Canada , Japan , South Korea , and

13156-421: The country again. Entering a country without a valid visa or visa exemption may result in detention and removal (deportation or exclusion) from the country. Undertaking activities that are not authorized by the status of entry (for example, working while possessing a non-worker tourist status) can result in the individual being deemed liable for deportation—commonly referred to as an illegal alien . Such violation

13299-450: The country and category of visa. Notable examples of countries requiring HIV tests of long-term residents are Russia and Uzbekistan. In Uzbekistan, however, the HIV test requirement is sometimes not strictly enforced. Other countries require a medical test that includes an HIV test, even for a short-term tourism visa. For example, Cuban citizens and international exchange students require such

13442-409: The country of issue to a destination outside that country. Validity of transit visas are usually limited by short terms such as several hours to ten days depending on the size of the country or the circumstances of a particular transit itinerary. For short visits to the visited country. Many countries differentiate between different reasons for these visits, such as: Visas valid for long term stays of

13585-407: The country without invalidating the visa. Even a business visa will normally not allow the holder to work in the host country without an additional work permit . Once issued, a visa will typically have to be used within a certain period of time. In some countries, the validity of a visa is not the same as the authorized period of stay. The visa validity then indicates the time period when the entry

13728-451: The country. This allows easy transshipment to a third country without customs authorities being involved. For this reason, customs areas are usually carefully controlled and fenced to prevent smuggling . However, the area is still territorially part of the country, so the goods within the area are subject to other local laws (for example drug laws and biosecurity regulations), and thus may be searched, impounded or turned back. The term

13871-463: The country. Until 2004, foreign students in Russia were issued only an entry visa on being accepted to University there, and had to obtain an exit visa to return home. This policy has since been changed, and foreign students are now issued multiple entry (and exit) visas. Historically, immigration officials were empowered to permit or reject entry of visitors on arrival at the frontiers. If permitted entry,

14014-446: The doctrine of universal jurisdiction regardless of maritime borders. As part of their air and maritime border control policies, most countries restrict or regulate the ability of foreign airlines and vessels to transport of goods or passengers between sea ports and airports in their jurisdiction, known as cabotage . Restrictions on maritime cabotage apply exist in most countries with territorial and internal waters so as to protect

14157-462: The domestic shipping industry from foreign competition, preserve domestically owned shipping infrastructure for national security purposes, and ensure safety in congested territorial waters. For example, in America, the Jones Act provides for extremely strict restrictions on cabotage. Similarly, China does not permit foreign flagged vessels to conduct domestic transport or domestic transhipments without

14300-498: The end of his presidency in January 2017, which further tightened the previous practice, so that all unauthorized Cuban migrants would be repatriated to Cuba, even those reaching dry land. The Cuban Adjustment Act (Ley de Ajuste Cubano) remains in effect for Cubans who meet the above conditions. Visa (document) A visa ( lat. 'something seen', pl. visas from Latin charta visa  'papers that have been seen')

14443-507: The existence of border controls is evidenced in classical texts. The Arthashastra ( c.  3rd century BCE ) makes mention of passes issued at the rate of one masha per pass to enter and exit the country. Chapter 34 of the Second Book of Arthashastra concerns with the duties of the Mudrādhyakṣa ( lit.   ' Superintendent of Seals ' ) who must issue sealed passes before

14586-506: The expense of Blacks as well as Indians and other Asians. Whilst border control in Europe and east of the Pacific have tightened over time, they have largely been liberalised in Africa, from Yoweri Museveni 's reversal of Idi Amin's anti-Asian border controls to the fall of Apartheid (and thus racialised border controls) in South Africa. The development of border control policies over the course of

14729-472: The fence is designed to keep out cattle, and to ensure that entrants have their shoes disinfected at legal border crossings. Botswana also argued that the government continues to encourage legal movement into the country. Zimbabwe was unconvinced, and the barrier remains a source of tension. A Border checkpoint is a place where goods or individuals moving across borders are inspected for compliance with border control measures. Access-controlled borders often have

14872-413: The following requirements which are imposed on most other immigrants: The Cuban Adjustment Act remains in the books with little modification. Migration flow and control has been a long standing pawn in U.S. Cuba relations, and there is not enough domestic clamor in the U.S. for the U.S. government to concede to Cuba's demands to eliminate the law, according to expert Prof. Michael Bustamante. In practice,

15015-435: The foreign airline's country. Countries apply special provisions to the ability of foreign airlines to carry passengers between two domestic destinations through an offshore hub. Many countries implement air defence identification zones (ADIZs) requiring aircraft approaching within a specified distance of its airspace to contact or seek prior authorisation from its military or transport authorities. An ADIZ may extend beyond

15158-419: The foreigner wishes to reside permanently and might also work in that country – purposes that are prohibited and that usually require an immigrant visa or a work visa. Immigration officers may deny re-entry to visitors suspected of engaging in prohibited activities, especially when they have done repeated visa runs and have no evidence of spending reasonable time in their home countries or countries where they have

15301-658: The heavier aircraft commonly used for international and intercontinental travel. International airports often also host domestic flights , which often help feed both passengers and cargo into international ones (and vice versa). Buildings, operations and management have become increasingly sophisticated since the mid-20th century, when international airports began to provide infrastructure for international civilian flights. Detailed technical standards have been developed to ensure safety and common coding systems implemented to provide global consistency. The physical structures that serve millions of individual passengers and flights are among

15444-499: The high output of dangerous and illegal drugs in the Golden Triangle as well as in regions further west such as Afghanistan. A similar problem exists east of the Pacific, and has resulted in countries such as Mexico and the United States tightening border control in response to the northward flow of illegal substances from regions such as Colombia. The Mexican Drug War and similar cartel activity in neighbouring areas has exacerbated

15587-506: The home country, if the visa is for a temporary stay, due to potential unwanted illegal immigration . Proof of ties to the visa applicant's country of residence is often demanded to demonstrate a sufficient incentive to return. This can include things such as documented evidence of employment, bank statements, property ownership, and family ties. Each country typically has a multitude of categories of visas with various names. The most common types and names of visas include: For passing through

15730-652: The import of foreign agricultural products in order to protect domestic ecosystems. For example, Australian border controls restrict most (if not all) food products, certain wooden products and other similar items. Similar restrictions exist in Canada, America and New Zealand. Border control in many countries in Asia and the Americas prioritises enforcing customs laws pertaining to narcotics. For instance, India and Malaysia are focusing resources on eliminating drug smuggling from Myanmar and Thailand respectively. The issue stems largely from

15873-418: The importance of reciprocity in maintaining good relations and ensuring equal treatment for citizens of member states. Government authorities usually impose administrative entry restrictions on foreign citizens in three ways - countries whose nationals may enter without a visa, countries whose nationals may obtain a visa on arrival, and countries whose nationals require a visa in advance. Nationals who require

16016-418: The initial arrival of COVID-19 in a country, but that they produced only modest overall effects unless combined with domestic infection prevention and control measures to considerably reduce transmissions. (This is consistent with prior research on influenza and other communicable diseases. ) Travel bans early in the pandemic were most effective for isolated locations, such as small island nations . During

16159-570: The introduction and/or spread of harmful organisms (e.g. viruses , bacteria , etc.) to animals and plants in order to mitigate the risk of transmission of infectious disease . In agriculture , these measures are aimed at protecting food crops and livestock from pests , invasive species , and other organisms not conducive to the welfare of the human population . The term includes biological threats to people, including those from pandemic diseases and bioterrorism . The definition has sometimes been broadened to embrace other concepts, and it

16302-591: The latter half of the 19th century targeting Asian immigrants arriving as a result of the region's series of gold rushes as well as Kanakas (Pacific Islanders brought into Australia as indentured labourers) who alongside the Asians were perceived by trade unionists and White blue collar workers as a threat to the wages of White settlers. Following the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, these discriminatory border control measures quickly expanded into

16445-556: The less democratic, and the more exposed to armed political conflict the target country is, the more likely that visa restrictions are in place against its passport holders. The same is true for countries whose nationals have been major perpetrators of terrorist acts in the past. Some countries apply the principle of reciprocity in their visa policy. Visa reciprocity is a principle in international relations where two countries agree to give each other's citizens similar treatment when it comes to visa requirements. For example visa reciprocity

16588-458: The medieval Islamic Caliphate , a form of passport was the bara'a , a receipt for taxes paid. Border controls were in place to ensure that only people who paid their zakah (for Muslims ) or jizya (for dhimmis ) taxes could travel freely between different regions of the Caliphate; thus, the bara'a receipt was a "basic passport". In medieval Europe, passports were issued since at least

16731-426: The most affected areas. Other countries and regions have imposed global restrictions that apply to all foreign countries and territories, or prevent their own citizens from travelling overseas. The imposition of border controls has curtailed the spread of the virus, but because they were first implemented after community spread was established in multiple countries in different regions of the world, they produced only

16874-506: The movement of people, animals, and goods across land, air, and maritime borders . While border control is typically associated with international borders, it also encompasses controls imposed on internal borders within a single state. Border control measures serve a variety of purposes, ranging from enforcing customs , sanitary and phytosanitary, or biosecurity regulations to restricting migration . While some borders (including most states' internal borders and international borders within

17017-720: The need to mitigate statelessness . This aspect of the rise of border control in the 20th century has proven controversial. The British Nationality Law 1981 has been criticised by experts, as well as by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination of the United Nations, on the grounds that the different classes of British nationality it created are, in fact, closely related to the ethnic origins of their holders. The creation of British Nationality (Overseas) status, for instance, (with fewer privileges than British citizen status)

17160-529: The number of customs agents. Additionally, in August 2020, the United States constructed 3.8 km of short cable fencing along the border between Abbotsford , British Columbia, and Whatcom County , Washington. Border walls have formed a major component of European border control policy following the European migrant crisis . The walls at Melilla and at Ceuta on Spain's border with Morocco are designed to curtail

17303-459: The number of tourists requiring a visa before travelling was at its lowest level ever. The history of passports dates back several centuries, originating from early travel documents used to ensure safe passage across regions. One of the earliest known references to a passport-like document comes from 445 BC in Persia , where officials were provided letters by the king for safe travel. Similarly, during

17446-457: The official would issue a visa, when required, which would be a stamp in a passport. Today, travellers wishing to enter another country must often apply in advance for what is also called a visa, sometimes in person at a consular office , by post, or over the Internet. The modern visa may be a sticker or a stamp in the passport, an electronic record of the authorization, or a separate document which

17589-641: The one in the Iranian border town of Zahedan on 17 February 2007, which killed thirteen people, including nine Iranian Revolutionary Guard officials. Former president Donald Trump 's proposal to build a new wall along the border formed a major feature of his 2016 presidential campaign and, over the course of his presidency, his administration spent approximately US$ 15 billion on the project, with US$ 5 billion appropriated from US Customs and Border Protection , US$ 6.3 billion appropriated from anti-narcotics initiative funded by congress, and US$ 3.6 billion appropriated from

17732-538: The port of entry until a border control officer inspects the vessel. During the COVID-19 pandemic , a controversy arose as to who granted pratique to the Ruby Princess . A related concept is the 'bill of health', a document issued by officials of a port of departure indicating to the officials of the port of arrival whether it is likely that the ship is carrying a contagious disease , either literally on board as fomites or via its crewmen or passengers. As defined in

17875-477: The port of entry. Some polities which restrict emigration require individuals to possess an exit visa to leave the polity. These exit visas may be required for citizens, foreigners, or both, depending on the policies of the polity concerned. Unlike ordinary visas, exit visas are often seen as an illegitimate intrusion on individuals' right to freedom of movement . The imposition of an exit visa requirement may be seen to violate customary international law , as

18018-563: The prior approval of the Ministry of Transport. While Hong Kong and Macau maintain distinct internal cabotage regimes from the mainland, maritime cabotage between either territory and the mainland is considered domestic carriage and accordingly is off limits to foreign vessels. Similarly, maritime crossings across the Taiwan Strait requires special permits from both the People's Republic of China and

18161-623: The problem. In certain countries illegal importing, exporting, sale, or possession of drugs constitute capital offences and may result in a death sentence. A 2015 article by The Economist says that the laws of 32 countries provide for capital punishment for drug smuggling, but only in six countries – China , Iran , Saudi Arabia , Vietnam , Malaysia , and Singapore –are drug offenders known to be routinely executed. Additionally, Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia impose mandatory death sentences on individuals caught smuggling restricted substances across their borders. For example, Muhammad Ridzuan Ali

18304-457: The reign of Henry V of England , as a means of helping his subjects prove who they were in foreign lands. The earliest reference to these documents is found in a 1414 Act of Parliament . In 1540, granting travel documents in England became a role of the Privy Council of England , and it was around this time that the term "passport" was used. In 1794, issuing British passports became the job of

18447-681: The right to leave any country is provided for in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Uniquely, the Norwegian special territory of Svalbard is an entirely visa-free zone under the terms of the Svalbard Treaty . Some countries—such as those in the Schengen Area —have agreements with other countries allowing each other's citizens to travel between them without visas. In 2015, the World Tourism Organization announced that

18590-420: The right to reside and work. To combat visa runs, some countries have limits on how long visitors can spend in the country without a visa, as well as how much time they have to stay out before "resetting the clock". For example, Schengen countries impose a maximum of 90 days in any 180-day period. Some countries do not "reset the clock" when a visitor comes back after visiting a neighboring country. For example,

18733-439: The risk posed by bioterrorism or invasive species . Quarantine measures are frequently implemented with regard to the mobility of animals, including both pets and livestock. Notably, in order to reduce the risk of introducing rabies from continental Europe, the United Kingdom used to require that dogs, and most other animals introduced to the country, spend six months in quarantine at an HM Customs and Excise pound. This policy

18876-446: The rumour had not been confirmed by any known cases. A foul bill of health or the absence of a clean bill of health implies that the place the vessel cleared from was infected with a contagious disease. The two latter cases would render the vessel liable to quarantine. Another category of biosecurity measures adopted by border control organisations is mandatory vaccination . As a result of the prevalence of Yellow Fever across much of

19019-615: The smuggling of dangerous or illegal goods. A customs duty is a tariff or tax on the importation (usually) or exportation (unusually) of goods. In many countries, border controls for arriving passengers at many international airports and some road crossings are separated into red and green channels in order to prioritise customs enforcement. Within the European Union's common customs area, airports may operate additional blue channels for passengers arriving from within that area. For such passengers, border control may focus specifically on prohibited items and other goods that are not covered by

19162-522: The spread of COVID-19. While test-based border screening measures may prove effective under certain circumstances, they may fail to detect a significant quantity positive cases if only conducted upon arrival without follow-up. A minimum 10-day quarantine may be beneficial in preventing the spread of COVID-19 and may be more effective if combined with an additional control measure like border screening. A study in Science found that travel restrictions could delay

19305-401: The stay, and the activities that the applicant may wish to undertake in the country he or she visits; these may delineate different formal categories of visas, with different issue conditions. The issuing authority, usually a branch of the country's foreign ministry or department (e.g. U.S. State Department ), and typically consular affairs officers, may request appropriate documentation from

19448-556: The success rate for Cuban applicants is quite high. In 1996 approximately 67% of those registered were issued visas, in 1997 the success rate was 69% and in 1998 a total of 73% of Cuban applicants who applied for the diversity visa program were issued visas. The Special Cuban Migration Program, or "Cuban lottery," was open to all adult Cubans between the ages of 18 and 55 years of age who resided in Cuba regardless of whether they qualified for U.S. immigrant visa or refugee programs. The lottery provided an additional avenue of legal migration to

19591-672: Was abolished in 2000 in favour of a scheme generally known as Pet Passports , where animals can avoid quarantine if they have documentation showing they are up to date on their appropriate vaccinations . In the past, quarantine measures were implemented by European countries in order to curtail the Bubonic Plague and Cholera . In the British Isles, for example, the Quarantine Act 1710 ( 9 Ann. ) established maritime quarantine policies in an era in which strict border control measures as

19734-830: Was executed in Singapore on 19 May 2017 for drug trafficking. According to a 2011 article by the Lawyers Collective , an NGO in India , "32 countries impose capital punishment for offences involving narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances." South Korean law provides for capital punishment for drug offences, but South Korea has a de facto moratorium on capital punishment as there have been no executions since 1997, even though there are still people on death row and new death sentences continue to be handed down. Border security refers to measures taken by one or more governments to enforce their border control policies. Such measures target

19877-525: Was implemented as the eponymously named "British National (Overseas) visa", a residence permit that BN(O)s and their dependent family members have been able to apply for since 31 January 2021. BN(O)s and their dependents who arrived in the UK before the new immigration route became available were granted "Leave Outside the Rules" at the discretion of the Border Force to remain in the country for up to six months as

20020-476: Was made to seal the ports. In 1847 the privy council ordered all arrivals with a clean bill of health from the Black Sea and the Levant to be admitted, provided there had been no case of plague during the voyage and afterwards, the practice of quarantine was discontinued. In modern maritime law , biosecurity measures for arriving vessels centre around 'pratique', a licence from border control officials permitting

20163-637: Was met with criticism from many Hong Kong residents who felt that British citizenship would have been more appropriate in light of the "moral debt" owed to them by the UK. Some British politicians and magazines also criticised the creation of BN(O) status. In 2020, the British government under Boris Johnson announced a programme under which BN(O)s would have leave to remain in the UK with rights to work and study for five years, after which they may apply for settled status . They would then be eligible for full citizenship after holding settled status for 12 months. This

20306-515: Was revised in 1801 and 1805, and in 1823–24 an elaborate inquiry was followed by an act making quarantine only at the discretion of the Privy Council , which recognised yellow fever or other highly infectious diseases as calling for quarantine, along with plague. The threat of cholera in 1831 was the last occasion in England of the use of quarantine restrictions. Cholera affected every country in Europe despite all efforts to keep it out. When cholera returned to England in 1849, 1853 and 1865–66, no attempt

20449-521: Was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 in America, which was followed suit by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 in Canada, which imposed what came to be called the Chinese head tax . These policies were a sign of injustice and unfair treatment to the Chinese workers because the jobs they engaged in were mostly menial jobs. Similar policies were adopted in various British colonies in Australia over

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