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65-607: Crimson (NR4) is produced using the dried bodies of a scale insect , Kermes , which were gathered commercially in Mediterranean countries, where they live on the kermes oak , and sold throughout Europe. Kermes dyes have been found in burial wrappings in Anglo-Scandinavian York . They fell out of use with the introduction of cochineal , also made from scale insects, because although the dyes were comparable in quality and color intensity, ten to twelve times as much kermes

130-445: A tripartite symbiosis . Some ants and scale insects have a mutualistic relationship; the ants feed on the honeydew and in return protect the scales. On a tulip tree , ants have been observed building a papery tent over the scales. In other instances, scale insects are carried inside the ant's nest; the ant Acropyga exsanguis takes this to an extreme by transporting a fertilised female mealybug with it on its nuptial flight, so that

195-449: A combined ovotestis instead of separate ovaries and testes. Males, in the species where they occur, have legs and sometimes wings, and resemble small flies. Scale insects are herbivores , piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts and remaining in one place, feeding on sap . The excess fluid they imbibe is secreted as honeydew on which sooty mold tends to grow. The insects often have a mutualistic relationship with ants , which feed on

260-549: A contributing factor to the rise in chronic inflammatory diseases in industrialized populations. A subset of food additives, micronutrients added in food fortification processes preserve nutrient value by providing vitamins and minerals to foods such as flour, cereal, margarine and milk which normally would not retain such high levels. Added ingredients, such as air, bacteria, fungi, and yeast, also contribute manufacturing and flavor qualities, and reduce spoilage. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines

325-492: A crawler can crawl before it needs to shed its skin and start feeding. There are various strategies for dealing with deciduous trees. On these, males often feed on the leaves, usually beside the veins, while females select the twigs. Where there are several generations in the year, there may be a general retreat onto the twigs as fall approaches. On branches, the underside is usually preferred as giving protection against predation and adverse weather. The solenopsis mealybug feeds on

390-448: A food additive as "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result directly or indirectly in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food". In order for a novel food additive to be approved in the U.S., a food additive approval petition (FAP) must be submitted to the FDA. The identity of the ingredient, the proposed use in

455-482: A herd of scale insects inside the hollow stems of a Barteria tree; the scale insects feed on the sap and the ants, while benefiting from the honeydew, drive away other herbivorous insects from the tree as well as preventing vines from smothering it. Scale insects have various natural enemies, and research in this field is largely directed at the species that are crop pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can attack suitable scales and completely overgrow them. The identity of

520-457: A wide geographic range and a diversity of plant hosts are more likely to be asexual. Large population size is hypothesized to protect an asexual population from becoming extinct, but nevertheless, parthenogenesis is uncommon among scale insects, with the most widespread generalist feeders reproducing sexually, the majority of these being pest species. Many species have the XX-XO system where the female

585-420: Is diploid and homogametic while the male is heterogametic and missing a sex chromosome. In some Diaspididae and Pseudococcidae , both sexes are produced from fertilized eggs but during development males eliminate the paternal genome and this system called paternal genome elimination (PGE) is found in nearly 14 scale insect families. This elimination is achieved with several variations. The commonest (known as

650-499: Is also true haplodiploidy with females born from fertilized eggs and males from unfertilized eggs. This is seen in the genus Icerya . In Parthenolecanium , males are born from unfertilized eggs but diploidy is briefly restored by fusion of haploid cleave nuclei and then one sex chromosome is lost through heterochromatinization. Females can reproduce parthenogenetically with six different variants based on whether males are entirely absent or not (obligate v. facultative parthenogenesis);

715-563: Is an aluminium or aluminium-tin lake of cochineal extract, and crimson lake is prepared by striking down an infusion of cochineal with a 5 percent solution of alum and cream of tartar . Purple lake is prepared like carmine lake with the addition of lime to produce the deep purple tone. Carmine dyes tend to fade quickly. Carmine dyes were once widely prized in both the Americas and in Europe. They were used in paints by Michelangelo and for

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780-639: Is assigned a unique number called an " E number ", which is used in Europe for all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission as the International Numbering System for Food Additives (INS) to internationally identify all additives (INS number), regardless of whether they are approved for use. E numbers are all prefixed by "E", but countries outside Europe use only

845-527: Is attractive to ants as well as acting as a substrate on which sooty mould can grow. The mould can reduce photosynthesis by the leaves and detracts from the appearance of ornamental plants. The scale's activities can result in stress for the plant, causing reduced growth and giving it a greater susceptibility to plant diseases. Scale insects in the genus Cryptostigma live inside the nests of neotropical ant species. Many tropical plants need ants to survive which in turn cultivate scale insects thus forming

910-425: Is based on four dimensions: toxicokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion); genotoxicity ; subchronic (at least 90 data) and chronic toxicity and carcinogenity ; reproductive and developmental toxicity. Recent work has demonstrated that certain food additives such as carboxymethylcellulose may cause encroachment of microbes from the gastrointestinal tract into the protective mucus layer that lines

975-409: Is both a preservative as well as a flavor. With the increasing use of processed foods since the 19th century, food additives are more widely used. Many countries regulate their use. For example, boric acid was widely used as a food preservative from the 1870s to the 1920s, but was banned after World War I due to its toxicity, as demonstrated in animal and human studies. During World War II ,

1040-508: Is known as the "mealybug destroyer" because both adults and larvae feed on mealybugs and some soft scales. Ants looking after their providers of honeydew tend to drive off predators, but the mealybug destroyer has outwitted the ants by developing cryptic camouflage, with their larvae mimicking scale larvae. Many scale species are serious crop pests and are particularly problematic for their ability to evade quarantine measures. In 1990, they caused around $ 5 billion of damage to crops in

1105-568: Is needed to produce the same effect as cochineal. Carmine is the name given to the dye made from the dried bodies of the female cochineal, although the name crimson is sometimes applied to these dyes too. Cochineal appears to have been brought to Europe by the Spaniard Hernán Cortés during the conquest of the Aztec Empire and the name 'carmine' is derived from the French carmin . It

1170-905: Is not totally colorfast. The word crimson has been recorded in English since 1400, and its earlier forms include cremesin , crymysyn and cramoysin (cf. cramoisy, a crimson cloth). These were adapted via Old Spanish from the Medieval Latin cremesinus (also kermesinus or carmesinus ), the dye produced from Kermes scale insects, and can be traced back to Arabic qirmizi (قرمزي) ("red") [qrmzj] ( listen ), also borrowed in Turkic languages kırmız' and many other languages, e.g. German Karmesin , Italian cremisi , French cramoisi , Portuguese carmesim , Dutch “karmozijn”, etc. (via Latin). The ultimate source may be Sanskrit कृमिज kṛmi-jā meaning "worm-made". A shortened form of carmesinus also gave

1235-467: Is very rare in insects, but several species of Icerya exhibit an unusual form. The adult possesses an ovotestis, consisting of both female and male reproductive tissue, and sperm is transmitted to the young for their future use. The fact that a new population can be founded by a single individual may have contributed to the success of the cottony cushion scale which has spread around the world. Female scale insects in more advanced families develop from

1300-531: The Cretaceous , the period in which angiosperms came to dominance among plants, with only a few groups species found on gymnosperms . They feed on a wide variety of plants but are unable to survive long away from their hosts. While some specialise on a single plant species (monophagous), and some on a single genus or plant family (oligophagous), others are less specialised and feed on several plant groups (polyphagous). The parasite biologist Robert Poulin notes that

1365-549: The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, stating that no carcinogenic substances may be used as food additives. However, after the banning of cyclamates in the United States and Britain in 1969, saccharin , the only remaining legal artificial sweetener at the time, was found to cause cancer in rats. Widespread public outcry in the United States, partly communicated to Congress by postage-paid postcards supplied in

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1430-496: The boreal ensign scale ( Newsteadia floccosa ) inhabits plant litter . A Hawaiian mealybug Clavicoccus erinaceus that fed solely on the now critically endangered Abutilon sandwicense has gone extinct as has another species Phyllococcus oahuensis . Several other monophagous scale insects, especially those on islands, are threatened by coextinction due to threats faced by their host plants. Most scale insects are herbivores , feeding on phloem sap drawn directly from

1495-455: The order Hemiptera , suborder Sternorrhyncha . Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism , they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the superfamily Coccoidea due to taxonomic uncertainties. Adult females typically have soft bodies and no limbs, and are concealed underneath domed scales, extruding quantities of wax for protection. Some species are hermaphroditic, with

1560-997: The "Neococcoids". A cladogram showing the major families using this methodology is shown below. † Burmacoccidae † Kozariidae Matsucoccidae (pine bast scales) Ortheziidae (ensign scales) Margarodidae (ground pearls) Kuwaniidae Xylococcidae Coelostomidiidae Monophlebidae (cottony cushion scales) Pityococcidae Steingeliidae Phenacoleachiidae Putoidae (giant mealybugs) Pseudococcidae (mealybugs) Coccidae (soft scales) Kermesidae (kermes dye scales) Asterolecaniidae (pit scales) Kerriidae (lac scales) Food additive Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar ( pickling ), salt ( salting ), smoke ( smoking ), sugar ( crystallization ), etc. This allows for longer-lasting foods such as bacon , sweets or wines . With

1625-529: The Coccomorpha was estimated in a 2016 study based on molecular clock divergence time estimates, along with fossils being used for calibration. They suggested that the main scale insect lineages diverged before their angiosperm hosts, and suggested that the insects switched from feeding on gymnosperms once the angiosperms became common and widespread in the Cretaceous. They estimated that the Coccomorpha appeared at

1690-679: The EU it can take 10 years or more to obtain approval for a new food additive. This includes five years of safety testing, followed by two years for evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and another three years before the additive receives an EU-wide approval for use in every country in the European Union . Apart from testing and analyzing food products during the whole production process to ensure safety and compliance with regulatory standards, Trading Standards officers (in

1755-572: The Latin carminus , from which comes carmine . Other cognates include the Persian ghermez "red" derived from "kermest" the red worm, Old Church Slavonic чрьвл҄ѥнъ ( črьvl'enъ ), archaic Russian чермный ( čermnyj ), Bulgarian червен ( cherven ), and Serbo-Croatian crven "red". Cf. also vermilion . Carmine dyes , which give crimson and related red and purple colors, are based on an aluminium and calcium salt of carminic acid . Carmine lake

1820-459: The UK) protect the public from any illegal use or potentially dangerous mis-use of food additives by performing random testing of food products. There has been significant controversy associated with the risks and benefits of food additives. Natural additives may be similarly harmful or be the cause of allergic reactions in certain individuals. For example, safrole was used to flavor root beer until it

1885-513: The United States. The waxy covering of many species of scale protects their adults effectively from contact insecticides , which are only effective against the first-instar nymph stage known as the crawler . However, scales can often be controlled using horticultural oils that suffocate them, systemic pesticides that poison the sap of the host plants, or by biological control agents such as tiny parasitoid wasps and ladybirds. Insecticidal soap may also be used against scales. One species,

1950-420: The advent of ultra-processed foods in the second half of the twentieth century, many additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin. Food additives also include substances that may be introduced to food indirectly (called "indirect additives") in the manufacturing process, through packaging , or during storage or transport. To regulate these additives and inform consumers, each additive

2015-402: The colour and the insect. The colour name " scarlet " is similarly derived from Arabic siklāt , denoting extremely expensive luxury silks dyed red using kermes. Some waxy scale species in the genera Ceroplastes and Ericerus produce materials such as Chinese wax , and several genera of lac scales produce shellac . The containing group of the scale insects was formerly treated as

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2080-541: The cottony cushion scale, is a serious commercial pest on 65 families of woody plants, including Citrus fruits. It has spread worldwide from Australia. At the same time, some kinds of scale insects are themselves useful as biological control agents for pest plants, such as various species of cochineal insects that attack invasive species of prickly pear , which spread widely especially in Australia and Africa. Some types of scale insect are economically valuable for

2145-776: The crimson fabrics of the Hussars , the Turks , the British Redcoats , and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . Nowadays carmine dyes are used for coloring foodstuffs, medicines and cosmetics. As a food additive in the European Union, carmine dyes are designated E120 , and are also called cochineal and Natural Red 4 . Carmine dyes are also used in some oil paints and watercolors used by artists. Scale insect See text Scale insects are small insects of

2210-402: The egg through a first instar (crawler) stage and a second instar stage before becoming adult. In more primitive families there is an additional instar stage. Males pass through a first and second instar stage, a pre-pupal and a pupal stage before adulthood (actually a pseudopupa, as only holometabolous insects have a true pupa). The first instars of most species of scale insects emerge from

2275-480: The egg with functional legs, and are informally called "crawlers". They immediately crawl around in search of a suitable spot to settle down and feed. In some species they delay settling down either until they are starving, or until they have been blown away by wind onto what presumably is another plant, where they may establish a new colony. There are many variations on such themes, such as scale insects that are associated with species of ants that act as herders and carry

2340-434: The families Margarodidae, Ortheziidae and Pseudococcidae are mobile and can move to other parts of the host plant or even adjoining plants, but the mobile period is limited to a short period between moults. Some of these overwinter in crevices in the bark or among plant litter, moving in spring to tender young growth. However, the majority of female scale insects are sedentary as adults. Their dispersal ability depends on how far

2405-461: The families were monophyletic except for the Eriococcidae . The Coccomorpha are division into two clades the "Archaeococcoids" and "Neococcoids". The archaeococcoid families have adult males with either compound eyes or a row of unicorneal eyes and have abdominal spiracles in the females. In neoccoids, the females have no abdominal spiracles. In the cladogram below the genus Pityococcus is moved to

2470-582: The feeding behaviour of scale insects closely resembles that of ectoparasites , living on the outside of their host and feeding only on them, even if they have not traditionally been so described; in his view, those species that remain immobile on a single host and feed only on it behave as obligate ectoparasites. For example, cochineal species are restricted to cactus hosts, and the gall-inducing Apiomorpha are restricted to Eucalyptus . Some species have certain habitat requirements; some Ortheziidae occur in damp meadows, among mosses and in woodland soil, and

2535-515: The foliage of its host in summer and the roots in winter, and large numbers of scale species feed invisibly, year-round on roots. Scale insects show a very wide range of variations in the genetics of sex determination and the modes of reproduction. Besides sexual reproduction , a number of different forms of reproductive systems are employed, including asexual reproduction by parthenogenesis . In some species, sexual and asexual populations are found in different locations, and in general, species with

2600-414: The food system, the technical effect of the ingredient, a method of analysis for the ingredient in foods, information on the manufacturing process, and full safety reports must be defined in a FAP. For FDA approval of a FAP, the FDA evaluates the chemical composition of the ingredient, the quantities that would be typically consumed, acute and chronic health impacts, and other safety factors. The FDA reviews

2665-467: The forewings are fully functional. This is unusual among insects; it most closely resembles the situation in the true flies , the Diptera. However, the Diptera and Hemiptera are not closely related, and do not closely resemble each other in morphology ; for example, the tail filaments of the Coccomorpha do not resemble anything in the morphology of flies. The hind ( metathoracic ) wings are reduced, commonly to

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2730-694: The honeydew and protect them from predators . There are about 8,000 described species. The oldest fossils of the group date to the Late Jurassic , preserved in amber . They were already substantially diversified by the Early Cretaceous suggesting an earlier origin during the Triassic or Jurassic . Their closest relatives are the jumping plant lice , whiteflies , phylloxera bugs and aphids . The majority of female scale insects remain in one place as adults, with newly hatched nymphs, known as "crawlers", being

2795-456: The host is not always apparent as many fungi are host-specific, and may destroy all the scales of one species present on a leaf while not affecting another species. Fungi in the genus Septobasidium have a more complex, mutualistic relationship with scale insects. The fungus lives on trees where it forms a mat which overgrows the scales, reducing the growth of the individual parasitised scales and sometimes rendering them infertile, but protecting

2860-850: The immature external morphology even when sexually mature, a condition known as neoteny . Adult females are pear-shaped, elliptical or circular, with no wings, and usually no constriction separating the head from the body. Segmentation of the body is indistinct, but may be indicated by the presence of marginal bristles. Legs are absent in the females of some families, and when present vary from single segment stubs to five-segmented limbs. Female scale insects have no compound eyes, but ocelli (simple eyes) are sometimes present in Margarodidae , Ortheziidae and Phenacoleachiidae . The family Beesoniidae lacks antennae , but other families possess antennae with from one to thirteen segments. The mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking. Adult males in contrast have

2925-548: The intestines. Additional preclinical work suggests that emulsifiers may disrupt the gut microbiome, cause or exacerbate inflammation, and increase intestinal permeability. Other food additives in processed foods, such as xanthan gum, have also been shown to influence the ecology of human gut microbiomes and may play a role in the divergence of gut microbiomes in industrialized societies as compared to pre-industrialized societies. Although still controversial, some scientists hypothesize that these changes to human gut microbiomes may be

2990-665: The lecanoid system) involved deactivation of the paternal genome and elimination at the time of sperm production in males, this is seen in Pseudococcidae, Kerriidae and some Eriococcidae . In the other variant or Comstockiella system, the somatic cells have the paternal genome untouched. A third variant found in Diaspididae involves the paternal genome being completely removed at an early stage making males haploid both in somatic and germ cells even though they are formed from diploids, i.e., from fertilized eggs. In addition to this there

3055-475: The nest it founds can be provisioned. This provides a means for the mealybug to be dispersed widely. Species of Hippeococcus have long clinging legs with claws to grip the Dolichoderus ants which tend them; they allow themselves to be carried into the ant colony. Here the mealybugs are safe from predation and environmental hazards, while the ants have a source of nourishment. Another species of ant maintains

3120-509: The number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not. For example, acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, alkannin , is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in Australia and New Zealand . Since 1987, Australia has had an approved system of labelling for additives in packaged foods. Each food additive has to be named or numbered. The numbers are

3185-499: The only mobile life stage, apart from the short-lived males. The reproductive strategies of many species include at least some amount of asexual reproduction by parthenogenesis . Some scale insects are serious commercial pests, notably the cottony cushion scale ( Icerya purchasi ) on Citrus fruit trees; they are difficult to control as the scale and waxy covering protect them effectively from contact insecticides. Some species are used for biological control of pest plants such as

3250-452: The packaging of sweetened soft drinks , led to the retention of saccharin, despite its violation of the Delaney clause. However, in 2000, saccharin was found to be carcinogenic in rats due only to their unique urine chemistry. In 2007, Food Standards Australia New Zealand published an official shoppers' guidance with which the concerns of food additives and their labeling are mediated. In

3315-412: The plant on which they are feeding. They secrete a waxy coating for defence, making them resemble reptilian or fish scales , and giving them their common name. The key character that sets apart the Coccomorpha from all other Hemiptera is the single segmented tarsus on the legs with only one claw at the tip. The group is extremely sexually dimorphic ; female scale insects, unusual for Hemiptera, retain

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3380-489: The plant's vascular system, but a few species feed on fungal mats and fungi , such as some species in the genus Newsteadia in the family Ortheziidae. Plant sap provides a liquid diet which is rich in sugar and non-essential amino acids. In order to make up for the shortage of essential amino acids, they depend on endosymbiotic proteobacteria. Scale insects secrete a large quantity of sticky viscid fluid known as " honeydew ". This includes sugars, amino acids and minerals, and

3445-468: The point that they can easily be overlooked. In some species the hind wings have hamuli , hooklets, that couple the hind wings to the main wings, as in the Hymenoptera . The vestigial wings are often reduced to pseudo- halteres , club-like appendages, but these are not homologous with the control organs of Diptera, and it is not clear whether they have any substantial control function. Hermaphroditism

3510-610: The prickly pear, Opuntia . Others produce commercially valuable substances including carmine and kermes dyes, and shellac lacquer. The two red colour-names crimson and scarlet both derive from the names of Kermes products in other languages. Scale insects vary dramatically in appearance, from very small organisms (1–2 mm) that grow beneath wax covers (some shaped like oysters, others like mussel shells), to shiny pearl-like objects (about 5 mm), to animals covered with mealy wax. Adult females are almost always immobile (apart from mealybugs ) and permanently attached to

3575-529: The same as in Europe, but without the prefix "E". The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists these items as " generally recognized as safe " (GRAS); they are listed under both their Chemical Abstracts Service number and FDA regulation under the United States Code of Federal Regulations . Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap because some additives exert more than one effect. For example, salt

3640-501: The scale colony from environmental conditions and predators. The fungus benefits by metabolising the sap extracted from the tree by the insects. Natural enemies include parasitoid wasps , mostly in the families Encyrtidae and Eulophidae , and predatory beetles such as fungus weevils , ladybirds and sap beetles . Ladybirds feed on aphids and scale insects, laying their eggs near their prey to ensure their larvae have immediate access to food. The ladybird Cryptolaemus montrouzieri

3705-422: The sex of fertilized v. unfertilized eggs; and based on how diploidy is restored in unfertilized eggs. The evolution of these systems are thought to be the result of intra- genomic conflict as well as possibly inter-genomic conflict with endosymbionts under varied selection pressures. The diversity of systems has made scale insects ideal models for research. Scale insects are an ancient group, having originated in

3770-578: The start of the Triassic period, around 245 million years ago, and that the neococcoids appeared during the Early Jurassic, some 185 million years ago. Scale insects are very well represented in the fossil record, with the oldest known member of the group reported from the Late Jurassic amber from Lebanon. They are abundantly preserved in amber from the Early Cretaceous, 130 mya, onwards; they were already highly diversified by Cretaceous times. All

3835-428: The substances they can yield under proper husbandry. Some, such as the cochineal , kermes , lac , Armenian cochineal , and Polish cochineal , have been used to produce red dyes for coloring foods and dyeing fabrics. Both the colour name " crimson " and the generic name Kermes are from Italian carmesi or cremesi for the dye used for Italian silk textiles, in turn from the Persian qirmizī (قرمز), meaning both

3900-700: The superfamily Coccoidea but taxonomic uncertainties have led workers to prefer the use of the infraorder Coccomorpha as the preferred name for the group. Scale insects are members of the Sternorrhyncha . The phylogeny of the extant groups, inferred from analysis of small subunit (18S) ribosomal RNA , is shown in the first cladogram . Psylloidea (jumping plant lice, etc) [REDACTED] Aleyrodoidea (whiteflies) [REDACTED] Coccomorpha (scale insects) [REDACTED] Phylloxeroidea (phylloxera bugs) [REDACTED] Aphididae (aphids) [REDACTED] The timing of phylogenetic diversification within

3965-589: The typical head, thorax and abdomen of other insect groups, and are so different from females that pairing them as a species is challenging. They are usually slender insects resembling aphids or small flies . They have antennae with nine or ten segments, compound eyes (Margarodidae and Ortheziidae) or simple eyes (most other families), and legs with five segments. Most species have wings, and in some, generations may alternate between being winged and wingless. Adult males do not feed, and die within two or three days of emergence. In species with winged males, generally only

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4030-464: The urgent need for cheap, available food preservatives led to it being used again, but it was finally banned in the 1950s. Such cases led to a general mistrust of food additives, and an application of the precautionary principle led to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods. In the United States, this led to the adoption of the Delaney clause , an amendment to

4095-405: The young ones to protected sites to feed. In either case, many such species of crawlers, when they moult, lose the use of their legs if they are female, and stay put for life. Only the males retain legs, and in some species wings, and use them in seeking females. To do this they usually walk, as their ability to fly is limited, but they may get carried to new locations by the wind. Adult females of

4160-488: Was first described by Pietro Andrea Mattioli in 1549. The pigment is also called cochineal after the insect from which it is made. Alizarin (PR83) is a pigment that was first synthesized in 1868 by the German chemists Carl Gräbe and Carl Liebermann and replaced the natural pigment madder lake . Alizarin crimson is a dye bonded onto alum which is then used as a pigment and mixed with ochre , sienna and umber . It

4225-476: Was shown to be carcinogenic. Due to the application of the Delaney clause, it may not be added to foods, even though it occurs naturally in sassafras and sweet basil . Periodically, concerns have been expressed about a linkage between additives and hyperactivity , however "no clear evidence of ADHD was provided". In 2012, the EFSA proposed the tier approach to evaluate the potential toxicity of food additives. It

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