59-506: See text Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera , suborder Sternorrhyncha . Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism , they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the superfamily Coccoidea due to taxonomic uncertainties. Adult females typically have soft bodies and no limbs, and are concealed underneath domed scales, extruding quantities of wax for protection. Some species are hermaphroditic, with
118-500: A brain and a ventral nerve cord . Most insects reproduce by laying eggs . Insects breathe air through a system of paired openings along their sides, connected to small tubes that take air directly to the tissues. The blood therefore does not carry oxygen; it is only partly contained in vessels, and some circulates in an open hemocoel . Insect vision is mainly through their compound eyes , with additional small ocelli . Many insects can hear, using tympanal organs , which may be on
177-444: A tripartite symbiosis . Some ants and scale insects have a mutualistic relationship; the ants feed on the honeydew and in return protect the scales. On a tulip tree , ants have been observed building a papery tent over the scales. In other instances, scale insects are carried inside the ant's nest; the ant Acropyga exsanguis takes this to an extreme by transporting a fertilised female mealybug with it on its nuptial flight, so that
236-449: A combined ovotestis instead of separate ovaries and testes. Males, in the species where they occur, have legs and sometimes wings, and resemble small flies. Scale insects are herbivores , piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts and remaining in one place, feeding on sap . The excess fluid they imbibe is secreted as honeydew on which sooty mold tends to grow. The insects often have a mutualistic relationship with ants , which feed on
295-492: A crawler can crawl before it needs to shed its skin and start feeding. There are various strategies for dealing with deciduous trees. On these, males often feed on the leaves, usually beside the veins, while females select the twigs. Where there are several generations in the year, there may be a general retreat onto the twigs as fall approaches. On branches, the underside is usually preferred as giving protection against predation and adverse weather. The solenopsis mealybug feeds on
354-481: A herd of scale insects inside the hollow stems of a Barteria tree; the scale insects feed on the sap and the ants, while benefiting from the honeydew, drive away other herbivorous insects from the tree as well as preventing vines from smothering it. Scale insects have various natural enemies, and research in this field is largely directed at the species that are crop pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can attack suitable scales and completely overgrow them. The identity of
413-552: A hundred species, are marine. Insects such as snow scorpionflies flourish in cold habitats including the Arctic and at high altitude. Insects such as desert locusts , ants, beetles, and termites are adapted to some of the hottest and driest environments on earth, such as the Sonoran Desert . Insects form a clade , a natural group with a common ancestor, among the arthropods . A phylogenetic analysis by Kjer et al. (2016) places
472-618: A nearly immobile pupa . Insects that undergo three-stage metamorphosis lack a pupa, developing through a series of increasingly adult-like nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the insects is unclear. Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonfly-like insects with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm (22 to 28 in). The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants . Adult insects typically move about by walking and flying; some can swim. Insects are
531-525: A variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances. Other species communicate with sounds: crickets stridulate , or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyrid beetles communicate with light. Humans regard many insects as pests , especially those that damage crops, and attempt to control them using insecticides and other techniques. Others are parasitic , and may act as vectors of diseases . Insect pollinators are essential to
590-456: A wide geographic range and a diversity of plant hosts are more likely to be asexual. Large population size is hypothesized to protect an asexual population from becoming extinct, but nevertheless, parthenogenesis is uncommon among scale insects, with the most widespread generalist feeders reproducing sexually, the majority of these being pest species. Many species have the XX-XO system where the female
649-420: Is diploid and homogametic while the male is heterogametic and missing a sex chromosome. In some Diaspididae and Pseudococcidae , both sexes are produced from fertilized eggs but during development males eliminate the paternal genome and this system called paternal genome elimination (PGE) is found in nearly 14 scale insect families. This elimination is achieved with several variations. The commonest (known as
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#1732852104099708-471: Is a family of scale insects commonly known as beesoniids . They typically cause galls on their plant hosts . Members of this family mostly come from southern Asia. The family name comes from the type genus Beesonia which is named after the entomologist C.F.C. Beeson who obtained the specimens from which they were described and named. In the Old World, this members of this family are found on oaks in
767-499: Is also true haplodiploidy with females born from fertilized eggs and males from unfertilized eggs. This is seen in the genus Icerya . In Parthenolecanium , males are born from unfertilized eggs but diploidy is briefly restored by fusion of haploid cleave nuclei and then one sex chromosome is lost through heterochromatinization. Females can reproduce parthenogenetically with six different variants based on whether males are entirely absent or not (obligate v. facultative parthenogenesis);
826-525: Is attractive to ants as well as acting as a substrate on which sooty mould can grow. The mould can reduce photosynthesis by the leaves and detracts from the appearance of ornamental plants. The scale's activities can result in stress for the plant, causing reduced growth and giving it a greater susceptibility to plant diseases. Scale insects in the genus Cryptostigma live inside the nests of neotropical ant species. Many tropical plants need ants to survive which in turn cultivate scale insects thus forming
885-504: Is known as the "mealybug destroyer" because both adults and larvae feed on mealybugs and some soft scales. Ants looking after their providers of honeydew tend to drive off predators, but the mealybug destroyer has outwitted the ants by developing cryptic camouflage, with their larvae mimicking scale larvae. Many scale species are serious crop pests and are particularly problematic for their ability to evade quarantine measures. In 1990, they caused around $ 5 billion of damage to crops in
944-466: Is very rare in insects, but several species of Icerya exhibit an unusual form. The adult possesses an ovotestis, consisting of both female and male reproductive tissue, and sperm is transmitted to the young for their future use. The fact that a new population can be founded by a single individual may have contributed to the success of the cottony cushion scale which has spread around the world. Female scale insects in more advanced families develop from
1003-530: The Cretaceous , the period in which angiosperms came to dominance among plants, with only a few groups species found on gymnosperms . They feed on a wide variety of plants but are unable to survive long away from their hosts. While some specialise on a single plant species (monophagous), and some on a single genus or plant family (oligophagous), others are less specialised and feed on several plant groups (polyphagous). The parasite biologist Robert Poulin notes that
1062-830: The Latin word insectum from in , "cut up", as insects appear to be cut into three parts. The Latin word was introduced by Pliny the Elder who calqued the Ancient Greek word ἔντομον éntomon "insect" (as in entomology ) from ἔντομος éntomos "cut in pieces"; this was Aristotle 's term for this class of life in his biology , also in reference to their notched bodies. The English word insect first appears in 1601 in Philemon Holland 's translation of Pliny. In common speech, insects and other terrestrial arthropods are often called bugs . Entomologists to some extent reserve
1121-2216: The Paraneoptera , and Kjer et al. 2016 for the Holometabola . The numbers of described extant species (boldface for groups with over 100,000 species) are from Stork 2018. Archaeognatha (hump-backed/jumping bristletails, 513 spp) [REDACTED] Zygentoma (silverfish, firebrats, fishmoths, 560 spp) [REDACTED] Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies, 5,899 spp) [REDACTED] Ephemeroptera (mayflies, 3,240 spp) [REDACTED] Zoraptera (angel insects, 37 spp) [REDACTED] Dermaptera (earwigs, 1,978 spp) [REDACTED] Plecoptera (stoneflies, 3,743 spp) [REDACTED] Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, katydids, 23,855 spp) [REDACTED] Grylloblattodea (ice crawlers, 34 spp) [REDACTED] Mantophasmatodea (gladiators, 15 spp) [REDACTED] Phasmatodea (stick insects, 3,014 spp) [REDACTED] Embioptera (webspinners, 463 spp) [REDACTED] Mantodea (mantises, 2,400 spp) [REDACTED] Blattodea (cockroaches and termites, 7,314 spp) [REDACTED] Psocodea (book lice, barklice and sucking lice, 11,000 spp) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Hemiptera (true bugs, 103,590 spp) [REDACTED] Thysanoptera (thrips, 5,864 spp) [REDACTED] Hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, bees, ants, 116,861 spp) [REDACTED] Strepsiptera (twisted-wing flies, 609 spp) [REDACTED] Coleoptera (beetles, 386,500 spp) [REDACTED] Raphidioptera (snakeflies, 254 spp) [REDACTED] Neuroptera (lacewings, 5,868 spp) [REDACTED] Megaloptera (alderflies and dobsonflies, 354 spp) [REDACTED] Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths, 157,338 spp) [REDACTED] Trichoptera (caddisflies, 14,391 spp) [REDACTED] Diptera (true flies, 155,477 spp) [REDACTED] Mecoptera (scorpionflies, 757 spp) [REDACTED] Siphonaptera (fleas, 2,075 spp) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Beesoniidae See text Beesoniidae
1180-493: The boreal ensign scale ( Newsteadia floccosa ) inhabits plant litter . A Hawaiian mealybug Clavicoccus erinaceus that fed solely on the now critically endangered Abutilon sandwicense has gone extinct as has another species Phyllococcus oahuensis . Several other monophagous scale insects, especially those on islands, are threatened by coextinction due to threats faced by their host plants. Most scale insects are herbivores , feeding on phloem sap drawn directly from
1239-439: The class Insecta . They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum . Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton , a three-part body ( head , thorax and abdomen ), three pairs of jointed legs , compound eyes , and a pair of antennae . Insects are the most diverse group of animals, with more than a million described species ; they represent more than half of all animal species. The insect nervous system consists of
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#17328521040991298-665: The "Neococcoids". A cladogram showing the major families using this methodology is shown below. † Burmacoccidae † Kozariidae Matsucoccidae (pine bast scales) Ortheziidae (ensign scales) Margarodidae (ground pearls) Kuwaniidae Xylococcidae Coelostomidiidae Monophlebidae (cottony cushion scales) Pityococcidae Steingeliidae Phenacoleachiidae Putoidae (giant mealybugs) Pseudococcidae (mealybugs) Coccidae (soft scales) Kermesidae (kermes dye scales) Asterolecaniidae (pit scales) Kerriidae (lac scales) Insect Insects (from Latin insectum ) are hexapod invertebrates of
1357-529: The Coccomorpha was estimated in a 2016 study based on molecular clock divergence time estimates, along with fossils being used for calibration. They suggested that the main scale insect lineages diverged before their angiosperm hosts, and suggested that the insects switched from feeding on gymnosperms once the angiosperms became common and widespread in the Cretaceous. They estimated that the Coccomorpha appeared at
1416-618: The Hemiptera (true bugs), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Diptera (true flies), Hymenoptera (wasps, ants, and bees), and Coleoptera (beetles), each with more than 100,000 described species. Insects are distributed over every continent and almost every terrestrial habitat. There are many more species in the tropics , especially in rainforests , than in temperate zones. The world's regions have received widely differing amounts of attention from entomologists. The British Isles have been thoroughly surveyed, so that Gullan and Cranston 2014 state that
1475-567: The United States. The waxy covering of many species of scale protects their adults effectively from contact insecticides , which are only effective against the first-instar nymph stage known as the crawler . However, scales can often be controlled using horticultural oils that suffocate them, systemic pesticides that poison the sap of the host plants, or by biological control agents such as tiny parasitoid wasps and ladybirds. Insecticidal soap may also be used against scales. One species,
1534-479: The colour and the insect. The colour name " scarlet " is similarly derived from Arabic siklāt , denoting extremely expensive luxury silks dyed red using kermes. Some waxy scale species in the genera Ceroplastes and Ericerus produce materials such as Chinese wax , and several genera of lac scales produce shellac . The containing group of the scale insects was formerly treated as the superfamily Coccoidea but taxonomic uncertainties have led workers to prefer
1593-537: The cottony cushion scale, is a serious commercial pest on 65 families of woody plants, including Citrus fruits. It has spread worldwide from Australia. At the same time, some kinds of scale insects are themselves useful as biological control agents for pest plants, such as various species of cochineal insects that attack invasive species of prickly pear , which spread widely especially in Australia and Africa. Some types of scale insect are economically valuable for
1652-401: The egg through a first instar (crawler) stage and a second instar stage before becoming adult. In more primitive families there is an additional instar stage. Males pass through a first and second instar stage, a pre-pupal and a pupal stage before adulthood (actually a pseudopupa, as only holometabolous insects have a true pupa). The first instars of most species of scale insects emerge from
1711-480: The egg with functional legs, and are informally called "crawlers". They immediately crawl around in search of a suitable spot to settle down and feed. In some species they delay settling down either until they are starving, or until they have been blown away by wind onto what presumably is another plant, where they may establish a new colony. There are many variations on such themes, such as scale insects that are associated with species of ants that act as herders and carry
1770-434: The families Margarodidae, Ortheziidae and Pseudococcidae are mobile and can move to other parts of the host plant or even adjoining plants, but the mobile period is limited to a short period between moults. Some of these overwinter in crevices in the bark or among plant litter, moving in spring to tender young growth. However, the majority of female scale insects are sedentary as adults. Their dispersal ability depends on how far
1829-460: The families were monophyletic except for the Eriococcidae . The Coccomorpha are division into two clades the "Archaeococcoids" and "Neococcoids". The archaeococcoid families have adult males with either compound eyes or a row of unicorneal eyes and have abdominal spiracles in the females. In neoccoids, the females have no abdominal spiracles. In the cladogram below the genus Pityococcus is moved to
Scale insect - Misplaced Pages Continue
1888-581: The feeding behaviour of scale insects closely resembles that of ectoparasites , living on the outside of their host and feeding only on them, even if they have not traditionally been so described; in his view, those species that remain immobile on a single host and feed only on it behave as obligate ectoparasites. For example, cochineal species are restricted to cactus hosts, and the gall-inducing Apiomorpha are restricted to Eucalyptus . Some species have certain habitat requirements; some Ortheziidae occur in damp meadows, among mosses and in woodland soil, and
1947-514: The foliage of its host in summer and the roots in winter, and large numbers of scale species feed invisibly, year-round on roots. Scale insects show a very wide range of variations in the genetics of sex determination and the modes of reproduction. Besides sexual reproduction , a number of different forms of reproductive systems are employed, including asexual reproduction by parthenogenesis . In some species, sexual and asexual populations are found in different locations, and in general, species with
2006-467: The forewings are fully functional. This is unusual among insects; it most closely resembles the situation in the true flies , the Diptera. However, the Diptera and Hemiptera are not closely related, and do not closely resemble each other in morphology ; for example, the tail filaments of the Coccomorpha do not resemble anything in the morphology of flies. The hind ( metathoracic ) wings are reduced, commonly to
2065-433: The genus Quercus and trees in the genera Shorea and Dipterocarpus in the family Dipterocarpaceae . The New World species target palms (Arecaceae). The Australian Beesonia ferrugineus forms galls on branches of Melaleuca ( Myrtaceae ). However, the genus and family placement of B. ferrugineus has been questioned. Most scales in this family have four female instars and five male instars. Members of
2124-694: The honeydew and protect them from predators . There are about 8,000 described species. The oldest fossils of the group date to the Late Jurassic , preserved in amber . They were already substantially diversified by the Early Cretaceous suggesting an earlier origin during the Triassic or Jurassic . Their closest relatives are the jumping plant lice , whiteflies , phylloxera bugs and aphids . The majority of female scale insects remain in one place as adults, with newly hatched nymphs, known as "crawlers", being
2183-455: The host is not always apparent as many fungi are host-specific, and may destroy all the scales of one species present on a leaf while not affecting another species. Fungi in the genus Septobasidium have a more complex, mutualistic relationship with scale insects. The fungus lives on trees where it forms a mat which overgrows the scales, reducing the growth of the individual parasitised scales and sometimes rendering them infertile, but protecting
2242-849: The immature external morphology even when sexually mature, a condition known as neoteny . Adult females are pear-shaped, elliptical or circular, with no wings, and usually no constriction separating the head from the body. Segmentation of the body is indistinct, but may be indicated by the presence of marginal bristles. Legs are absent in the females of some families, and when present vary from single segment stubs to five-segmented limbs. Female scale insects have no compound eyes, but ocelli (simple eyes) are sometimes present in Margarodidae , Ortheziidae and Phenacoleachiidae . The family Beesoniidae lacks antennae , but other families possess antennae with from one to thirteen segments. The mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking. Adult males in contrast have
2301-592: The insects among the Hexapoda , six-legged animals with segmented bodies; their closest relatives are the Diplura (bristletails). Collembola (springtails) [REDACTED] Protura (coneheads) [REDACTED] Diplura (two-pronged bristletails) [REDACTED] Insecta (=Ectognatha) [REDACTED] The internal phylogeny is based on the works of Wipfler et al. 2019 for the Polyneoptera , Johnson et al. 2018 for
2360-665: The lecanoid system) involved deactivation of the paternal genome and elimination at the time of sperm production in males, this is seen in Pseudococcidae, Kerriidae and some Eriococcidae . In the other variant or Comstockiella system, the somatic cells have the paternal genome untouched. A third variant found in Diaspididae involves the paternal genome being completely removed at an early stage making males haploid both in somatic and germ cells even though they are formed from diploids, i.e., from fertilized eggs. In addition to this there
2419-406: The legs or other parts of the body. Their sense of smell is via receptors, usually on the antennae and the mouthparts. Nearly all insects hatch from eggs . Insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton, so development involves a series of molts . The immature stages often differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat. Groups that undergo four-stage metamorphosis often have
Scale insect - Misplaced Pages Continue
2478-402: The name "bugs" for a narrow category of " true bugs ", insects of the order Hemiptera , such as cicadas and shield bugs . Other terrestrial arthropods, such as centipedes , millipedes , woodlice , spiders , mites and scorpions , are sometimes confused with insects, since they have a jointed exoskeleton. Adult insects are the only arthropods that ever have wings, with up to two pairs on
2537-473: The nest it founds can be provisioned. This provides a means for the mealybug to be dispersed widely. Species of Hippeococcus have long clinging legs with claws to grip the Dolichoderus ants which tend them; they allow themselves to be carried into the ant colony. Here the mealybugs are safe from predation and environmental hazards, while the ants have a source of nourishment. Another species of ant maintains
2596-554: The only invertebrates that can achieve sustained powered flight; insect flight evolved just once. Many insects are at least partly aquatic , and have larvae with gills; in some species, the adults too are aquatic. Some species, such as water striders , can walk on the surface of water. Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as bees , ants and termites , are social and live in large, well-organized colonies . Others, such as earwigs , provide maternal care, guarding their eggs and young. Insects can communicate with each other in
2655-499: The only mobile life stage, apart from the short-lived males. The reproductive strategies of many species include at least some amount of asexual reproduction by parthenogenesis . Some scale insects are serious commercial pests, notably the cottony cushion scale ( Icerya purchasi ) on Citrus fruit trees; they are difficult to control as the scale and waxy covering protect them effectively from contact insecticides. Some species are used for biological control of pest plants such as
2714-410: The plant on which they are feeding. They secrete a waxy coating for defence, making them resemble reptilian or fish scales , and giving them their common name. The key character that sets apart the Coccomorpha from all other Hemiptera is the single segmented tarsus on the legs with only one claw at the tip. The group is extremely sexually dimorphic ; female scale insects, unusual for Hemiptera, retain
2773-488: The plant's vascular system, but a few species feed on fungal mats and fungi , such as some species in the genus Newsteadia in the family Ortheziidae. Plant sap provides a liquid diet which is rich in sugar and non-essential amino acids. In order to make up for the shortage of essential amino acids, they depend on endosymbiotic proteobacteria. Scale insects secrete a large quantity of sticky viscid fluid known as " honeydew ". This includes sugars, amino acids and minerals, and
2832-467: The point that they can easily be overlooked. In some species the hind wings have hamuli , hooklets, that couple the hind wings to the main wings, as in the Hymenoptera . The vestigial wings are often reduced to pseudo- halteres , club-like appendages, but these are not homologous with the control organs of Diptera, and it is not clear whether they have any substantial control function. Hermaphroditism
2891-610: The prickly pear, Opuntia . Others produce commercially valuable substances including carmine and kermes dyes, and shellac lacquer. The two red colour-names crimson and scarlet both derive from the names of Kermes products in other languages. Scale insects vary dramatically in appearance, from very small organisms (1–2 mm) that grow beneath wax covers (some shaped like oysters, others like mussel shells), to shiny pearl-like objects (about 5 mm), to animals covered with mealy wax. Adult females are almost always immobile (apart from mealybugs ) and permanently attached to
2950-535: The reproduction of many flowering plants and so to their ecosystems. Many insects are ecologically beneficial as predators of pest insects, while a few provide direct economic benefit. Two species in particular are economically important and were domesticated many centuries ago: silkworms for silk and honey bees for honey . Insects are consumed as food in 80% of the world's nations, by people in roughly 3000 ethnic groups. Human activities are having serious effects on insect biodiversity . The word insect comes from
3009-499: The scale colony from environmental conditions and predators. The fungus benefits by metabolising the sap extracted from the tree by the insects. Natural enemies include parasitoid wasps , mostly in the families Encyrtidae and Eulophidae , and predatory beetles such as fungus weevils , ladybirds and sap beetles . Ladybirds feed on aphids and scale insects, laying their eggs near their prey to ensure their larvae have immediate access to food. The ladybird Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
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#17328521040993068-421: The sex of fertilized v. unfertilized eggs; and based on how diploidy is restored in unfertilized eggs. The evolution of these systems are thought to be the result of intra- genomic conflict as well as possibly inter-genomic conflict with endosymbionts under varied selection pressures. The diversity of systems has made scale insects ideal models for research. Scale insects are an ancient group, having originated in
3127-576: The start of the Triassic period, around 245 million years ago, and that the neococcoids appeared during the Early Jurassic, some 185 million years ago. Scale insects are very well represented in the fossil record, with the oldest known member of the group reported from the Late Jurassic amber from Lebanon. They are abundantly preserved in amber from the Early Cretaceous, 130 mya, onwards; they were already highly diversified by Cretaceous times. All
3186-474: The substances they can yield under proper husbandry. Some, such as the cochineal , kermes , lac , Armenian cochineal , and Polish cochineal , have been used to produce red dyes for coloring foods and dyeing fabrics. Both the colour name " crimson " and the generic name Kermes are from Italian carmesi or cremesi for the dye used for Italian silk textiles, in turn from the Persian qirmizī (قرمز), meaning both
3245-527: The thorax. Whether winged or not, adult insects can be distinguished by their three-part body plan, with head, thorax, and abdomen; they have three pairs of legs on the thorax. Estimates of the total number of insect species vary considerably, suggesting that there are perhaps some 5.5 million insect species in existence, of which about one million have been described and named. These constitute around half of all eukaryote species, including animals , plants , and fungi . The most diverse insect orders are
3304-518: The total of around 22,500 species is probably within 5% of the actual number there; they comment that Canada's list of 30,000 described species is surely over half of the actual total. They add that the 3000 species of the American Arctic must be broadly accurate. In contrast, a large majority of the insect species of the tropics and the southern hemisphere are probably undescribed. Some 30–40,000 species inhabit freshwater ; very few insects, perhaps
3363-588: The typical head, thorax and abdomen of other insect groups, and are so different from females that pairing them as a species is challenging. They are usually slender insects resembling aphids or small flies . They have antennae with nine or ten segments, compound eyes (Margarodidae and Ortheziidae) or simple eyes (most other families), and legs with five segments. Most species have wings, and in some, generations may alternate between being winged and wingless. Adult males do not feed, and die within two or three days of emergence. In species with winged males, generally only
3422-617: The use of the infraorder Coccomorpha as the preferred name for the group. Scale insects are members of the Sternorrhyncha . The phylogeny of the extant groups, inferred from analysis of small subunit (18S) ribosomal RNA , is shown in the first cladogram . Psylloidea (jumping plant lice, etc) [REDACTED] Aleyrodoidea (whiteflies) [REDACTED] Coccomorpha (scale insects) [REDACTED] Phylloxeroidea (phylloxera bugs) [REDACTED] Aphididae (aphids) [REDACTED] The timing of phylogenetic diversification within
3481-404: The young ones to protected sites to feed. In either case, many such species of crawlers, when they moult, lose the use of their legs if they are female, and stay put for life. Only the males retain legs, and in some species wings, and use them in seeking females. To do this they usually walk, as their ability to fly is limited, but they may get carried to new locations by the wind. Adult females of
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