Misplaced Pages

#454545

58-475: The word is originally a Roman title, corrector , derived from the Latin verb corrigere , meaning "to make straight, set right, bring into order." Apart from the general sense of anyone who corrects mistakes, it has been used as, or part of (some commonly shortened again to Corrector), various specific titles and offices, sometimes quite distant from the original meaning. The office of corrector first appears during

116-488: A rotation government . During the term, the government's roles and duties were divided between the two prime ministers, each one of them entitled to remove ministers without the other's interference. However, this system did not survive even until the first planned rotation and was abolished again after Benyamin Netanyahu 's victory at the end of 2022. Shared power arrangements within a modern bureaucracy may also be known as

174-455: A veto over the other's actions. The historical duumviri were not rulers but magistrates, performing various judicial, religious, or public functions. According to Conversion of Kartli , Leonti Mroveli , Vakhushti Bagrationi , Teimuraz Bagrationi and Pavle Ingorokva , there existed a dual power (Diarchy) in Kartli at the time of the kings mentioned below. According to Cyril Toumanoff ,

232-956: A "diarchy" or "duumvirate". Examples include the joint authority of the Chief of the Defence Force and the Secretary of the Department of Defence over the Australian Defence Organisation . The status of monarchs is sometimes impugned by accusations of corule when an advisor, family member, lover, or friend appears to have taken too great a hand in government. Lü Buwei in Chinese history and François Leclerc du Tremblay in France are famous examples of " éminences grises " who controlled much of their countries' policies. In British history, George VI 's reign

290-562: A Byzantine 7th-century source attests for thirteen cities in the Egyptian province Augustamnica Prima . Furthermore, the word Corrector was used as the title of several publications, some of which are quite famous, such as the 19th book, also known as Medicus , of the Ancient canons . The derived term correctorium has been used for revisions of the text of the Vulgate Bible, begun in 1236 by

348-620: A given force) and certain religious functions, as well as having ex-officio seats in the Gerousia (Senate). Actual day-to-day public administration in Sparta was managed by the ephors . Following the overthrow of the Roman monarchy , the Romans established an oligarchic Roman Republic which divided supreme executive power ( Latin : imperium ) between two consuls , both elected each year and each holding

406-479: A paternalistic ideology , presenting the princeps as the very incarnation of all virtues attributed to the ideal ruler (much like a Greek tyrannos earlier), such as clemency and justice, and military leadership, obliging the princeps to play this designated role within Roman society, as his political insurance as well as a moral duty. What specifically was expected of the princeps seems to have varied according to

464-449: A republic thereafter. Following a coup d'état in 1964 , former Vice President René Barrientos rose to power as president of the military junta. The following year, faced with discontent from loyalists of General Alfredo Ovando Candía , Barrientos promulgated the co-presidency between himself and Ovando Candía. The pair ruled as dual presidents until 1966 when Barrientos resigned in order to run in that year's general election . After

522-584: Is a form of government characterized by co-rule , with two people ruling a polity together either lawfully or de facto , by collusion and force. The leaders of such a system are usually known as corulers . Historically, diarchy particularly referred to the system of shared rule in British India established by the Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935 , which devolved some powers to local councils, which had included native Indian representation under

580-526: Is etymologically derived from the Latin word princeps , meaning chief or first , and therefore represents the political regime dominated by such a political leader, whether or not he is formally head of state or head of government . This reflects the principate emperors' assertion that they were merely " first among equals " among the citizens of Rome. Under the Republic, the princeps senatus , traditionally

638-554: Is one of the oldest forms of government. Historical examples include the Pandyan dynasty of Tamilakam , Sparta 's joint kingship , the Roman Republic 's consuls , Carthage 's Judges , and several ancient Polynesian societies. Systems of inheritance that often led to corule in Germanic and Dacian monarchies may be included as well, as may the dual occupants of the imperial title of

SECTION 10

#1732856075455

696-534: The 2019–2021 Israeli political crisis , the Israel's Basic Law: The Government underwent a major change. A system of two prime ministers, appointed at the same time by the Knesset , was established. According to the new method, there was an Alternate Prime Minister of Israel in addition to the standard Prime Minister of Israel . After a half of the government's term, the two prime ministers would change positions as part of

754-594: The Antonine dynasty , it was standard for the Emperor to appoint a successful and politically promising individual as his successor. In modern historical analysis, this is treated by many authors as an "ideal" situation: the individual who was most capable was promoted to the position of princeps. Of the Antonine dynasty, Edward Gibbon famously wrote that this was the happiest and most productive period in human history , and credited

812-564: The Druk Desi and Druk Gyalpo in 1907. In contrast to Tibet, the dynasty eventually consolidated its power and now rules as the kings of Bhutan. From 1619-1633, Tsar Michael of Russia ruled along with his father, Patriarch Filaret of Moscow . Both were addressed as Velikiy Gosudar (Great Sovereign), held court together, and when they did not the ceremony was the same. While both were equal in theory, in practice Patriarch Filaret ruled, with Michael supporting whatever his father ordered. Between

870-818: The February Revolution in March 1917 and the October Revolution in November, political power in Russia was divided between the Russian Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet , a condition described by Vladimir Lenin as "Dual Power". He elaborated the situation into a dual-power doctrine , whereby Communists collaborated with and then supplanted existing bourgeois forms of government. Although

928-668: The Inca Empire , or its system of succession. Modern examples of diarchies are Andorra , whose princes are the President of France and the Bishop of Urgell in Catalonia ; and San Marino , whose republic is led by two Captains Regent . Andorra is a parliamentary co- principality . Its princes are ( ex officio ) the French president and the bishop of Urgell in Catalonia , Spain . Since 1962,

986-480: The Indian Councils Act 1892 . 'Duumvirate' principally referred to the offices of the various duumviri established by the Roman Republic . Both, along with less common synonyms such as biarchy and tandemocracy , are now used more generally to refer to any system of joint rule or office. A monarchy temporarily controlled by two or more people is, however, usually distinguished as a coregency . Corule

1044-507: The Principate in the reign of Trajan (r. 98–117), for extraordinary officials of senatorial rank, who were tasked with investigating and reforming the administration in the provinces . To this end, they were entrusted with full imperium maius , which extended also to territories normally exempt from the authority of the Emperor's provincial governors: the free cities of the Greek East ,

1102-681: The Roman Empire from the beginning of the reign of Augustus in 27 BC to the end of the Crisis of the Third Century in AD 284, after which it evolved into the Dominate . The principate was characterized by the reign of a single emperor ( princeps ) and an effort on the part of the early emperors, at least, to preserve the illusion of the formal continuance, in some aspects, of the Roman Republic . 'Principate'

1160-436: The emperor was notionally a supreme spiritual and temporal lord who delegated authority for joint rule to the shōgun . In practice, the shōguns ' power was so complete that they are usually considered de facto monarchs rather than viceroys or corulers. A paréage was a feudal treaty recognizing the " equal footing " ( Latin : pari passu ) of two sovereigns over a territory. The most famous such arrangement

1218-448: The senatorial provinces , as well as Italy herself. The full title of these officials, from their institution to the end of the 3rd century, was in Latin legatus Augusti pro praetore [missus] ad corrigendum [ordinandum] statum , in Greek rendered as πρεσβευτὴς καἰ ἀντιστράτηγος Σεβαστοῦ διορθωτὴς [or ἐπανορθωτὴς] ( presbeutes kai antistrategos Sebastou diorthotes/epanorthotes ). From

SECTION 20

#1732856075455

1276-459: The "ordinary" provinces, a process completed with the reforms of Diocletian (r. 284–305). Thus, at the start of the 4th century, all Italian districts (and Sicily ) had a corrector as governor, although by the middle of the century most were replaced by governors with the rank of consularis . In the administrative division as preserved in the Notitia Dignitatum , the correctores held

1334-515: The Dominicans under the French Cardinal Hugh of St. Cher . In the publishing of literature or other information, editors assume the correctional roles of proofreaders and copy editors in the editing cycle. The term is used for various devices used to correct another, as with a ship's compass or artillery. Principate The Principate was the form of imperial government of

1392-749: The French president has been elected by universal suffrage within France . The bishop of the diocese of Urgell is appointed by the Roman Catholic pope . The 2008 Constitution affirms Bhutan 's commitment to a traditional dual government sharing power between the Druk Gyalpo ("King") and the Buddhist religious authorities led by the Je Khenpo . In practice, however, the religious leaders function more as advisors to

1450-553: The Governor General and his executive council. The members of the Executive Council were to be appointed by the Secretary of State and were responsible to him in all matters. There were certain matters that he was to administer at his own discretion, in which he was responsible to the Secretary of State. Each councillor was to remain in office for a period of four years. Their salaries and service conditions were not subject to

1508-549: The Kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland were monarchies, they became de facto diarchies in personal union during the co-rule of William II and III and Mary II . After the Glorious Revolution deposed James VII and II , his kingships were succeeded in 1689 by his daughter Mary and his son-in-law and nephew William, who jointly ruled England, Scotland and Ireland until Mary died in 1694, succeeded by William as

1566-640: The Sammarinese parliament, the Grand and General Council . They serve as joint heads of state, and are normally chosen from opposing parties. The office of king in ancient Sparta was divided between two kings from separate dynasties, each holding a veto over the other's actions. However, the Spartan kings' powers and duties consisted mainly of leading the Spartan army on campaign (during which only one king would usually lead

1624-509: The administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions". Montagu and Viscount Chelmsford , the Governor-General of India , then made an extensive tour of the subcontinent in 1917 and 1918. The Montague–Chelmsford Report 's recommendations formed the basis for the Government of India Act 1919 that established "diarchy" in British India . Under that act, the executive

1682-515: The diarchs of Kartli in 370-378 were Sauromaces II and Mihrdat III . The Hungarians originally possessed a system of dual kingship, with religious authority vested in the kende and military authority vested in the war-chief ( gyula ). It is believed that when the kende Kurszán was killed c.  904 a little after the arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia , his role was usurped by

1740-470: The division by the Augustan Principate of the provinces between imperial provinces and senatorial provinces . Lawyers developed a theory of the total delegation of authority into the hands of the emperor. Duumvir Philosophers Works List of forms of government Diarchy (from Greek δι- , di- , "double", and -αρχία , -arkhía , "ruled"), duarchy , or duumvirate

1798-431: The exhausting civil wars by a de facto dictatorial regime within the constitutional framework of the Roman Republic – what Gibbon called "an absolute monarchy disguised by the forms of a commonwealth" – as a more acceptable alternative to, for example, the early Roman Kingdom . Although dynastic pretenses crept in from the start, formalizing this in a monarchic style remained politically perilous; and Octavian

Corrector - Misplaced Pages Continue

1856-626: The great soft power of a religious leader such as the Pope of the Catholic Church over a devout country can sometimes be described as a form of diarchy or corule. The Kingdom of Eswatini is a diarchy in which the King ( Ngwenyama ) rules in conjunction with his mother, the queen mother ( Ndlovukati ) in their capacity as traditional rulers. Constitutionally, however, the King is the sole head of state, though it

1914-548: The great influence of Vladimir Putin over his successor Dmitry Medvedev was considered a duumvirate, or tandemocracy (see also Medvedev–Putin tandemocracy ), until Putin's resumption of the office of president established him as the greater figure. Within electoral politics, governments, coalitions and parties may sometimes have two fairly equal leaders, as with: In addition to actual sharing of political power between religious and military leaders, as occurred in Tibet and Bhutan,

1972-722: The kings than as corulers. Both arms of the traditional dual government are in practice less important than the Parliament and (single) Prime Minister . Under the terms of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement intended to end conflict in Northern Ireland , the First Minister and deputy First Minister serve as joint heads of the area's executive . Both positions exercise identical executive powers; however they are not heads of state . The captains regent ( Italian : Capitani Reggenti ) of San Marino are elected every six months by

2030-473: The late 3rd century on, the title was increasingly, and afterwards exclusively, simplified as corrector in Latin and διορθωτὴς (or ἐπανορθωτὴς) in Greek. The sending of correctores to the Greek free cities, as well as to Italy, which as a metropolitan territory formally enjoyed a status different from the provinces, began a process of slow degradation of their distinct legal status and their gradual assimilation to

2088-451: The oldest or most honored member of the Senate , had the right to be heard first on any debate. Scipio Aemilianus and his circle had fostered the (quasi-Platonic) idea that authority should be invested in the worthiest citizen ( princeps ), who would beneficently guide his peers, an ideal of the patriot statesman later taken up by Cicero . In a more limited and precise chronological sense,

2146-426: The political period of the 'uncrowned' Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) under the motto Senatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and people of Rome") or SPQR . Initially, the theory implied the 'first citizen' had to earn his extraordinary position ( de facto evolving to nearly absolute monarchy) by merit in the style that Augustus himself had gained the position of auctoritas . Imperial propaganda developed

2204-554: The public and charitable institutions also served as popularity boosters, while the construction of public works provided paid employment for the poor. With the fall of the Julio-Claudian dynasty in AD 68, the principate became more formalized under the Emperor Vespasian from AD 69 onwards. The position of princeps became a distinct entity within the broader – formally still republican – Roman constitution . While many of

2262-513: The same cultural and political expectations remained, the civilian aspect of the Augustan ideal of the princeps gradually gave way to the military role of the imperator. Rule was no longer a position (even notionally) extended on the basis of merit, or auctoritas , but on a firmer basis, allowing Vespasian and future emperors to designate their own heir without those heirs having to earn the position through years of success and public favor. Under

2320-406: The same title, but later styled himself Augustus ; Emperor Aurelian marched East to quash this open rebellion, defeating and capturing Vaballathus as well as his mother (and de facto ruler ) Queen Zenobia . In various municipia , corrector became the title of a permanent single chief magistrate (traditionally there had been collegial systems, e.g. two consules or duumviri ), as

2378-879: The senatorial rank of vir clarissimus . Those of the West Roman Empire ranked between the consulares and the ordinary praesides , while in the East Roman Empire , they ranked below the praesides . According to the Notitia Dignitatum , ca. 400 the following provinces were under correctores : The corrector ' s staff ( officium ) is also specified: princeps officii , cornicularius , two tabularii , commentariensis , adiutor , ab actis , subadiuva ; finally unspecified exceptores and 'other' cohortalini , i.e. menial staff. Two famous but extraordinary correctores were Odaenathus and his son Vaballathus , who rose to prominence after Emperor Valerian

Corrector - Misplaced Pages Continue

2436-580: The servant of the Senate, and often of the whole citizen body". Thereafter, however, the role of princeps became more institutionalized: as Dio Cassius puts it, Caligula "took in one day all the honours which Augustus had with difficulty been induced to accept". Nevertheless, under this "Principate stricto sensu ", the political reality of autocratic rule by the Emperor was still scrupulously masked by forms and conventions of oligarchic self-rule inherited from

2494-782: The sole monarch. The colonial Province of Canada was usually governed by two joint premiers from 1841 to 1867. Usually, one was chosen from the English-speaking Canada West and the other one from the French-speaking Canada East . Named as the India Secretary for the Lloyd George ministry , Edwin Samuel Montagu made the " Grand Declaration " on 20 August 1917 that British policy would henceforth be "increasing association of Indians in every branch of

2552-436: The source) up to the rule of Commodus , of Maximinus Thrax , or of Diocletian . The title, in full, of princeps senatus / princeps civitatis ("first amongst the senators" / "first amongst the citizens") was first adopted by Octavian Caesar Augustus (27 BC–AD 14), the first Roman "emperor" who chose not to reintroduce a legal monarchy . Augustus likely intended to establish political stability desperately needed after

2610-598: The system of succession as the key factor. The autocratic elements in the Principate tended to increase over time. It was after the Crisis of the Third Century , which almost resulted in the Roman Empire's political collapse, that Diocletian firmly consolidated the trend to autocracy. He replaced the one-headed principate with the Tetrarchy ( c.  AD 300 , two Augusti ranking above two Caesares ), in which

2668-447: The term Principate is applied either to the entire Empire (in the sense of the post-Republican Roman state), or specifically to the earlier of the two phases of Imperial government in the ancient Roman Empire before Rome's military collapse in the West ( fall of Rome ) in 476 left the Byzantine Empire as sole heir. This early Principate phase began when Augustus claimed auctoritas for himself as princeps , and continued (depending on

2726-548: The times, and the observers: Tiberius , who amassed a huge surplus for the city of Rome , was criticized as a miser, while his successor Caligula was criticized for his lavish spending on games and spectacles. Generally speaking, it was expected of the Emperor to be generous but not frivolous, not just as a good ruler but also with his personal fortune (as in the proverbial "bread and circuses" – panem et circenses ) providing occasional public games, gladiators, chariot races and artistic shows. Large distributions of food for

2784-478: The troops upon their ascension and for special events; limiting senatorial control over the legions by way of controlling military provinces through "extraordinary military commands"; and using oaths to bind the military to the emperor personally. Tiberius , like Augustus , also acquired his powers piecemeal, and was proud to emphasize his place as first citizen: "a good and healthful princeps , whom you have invested with such great discretionary power, ought to be

2842-417: The vestigial pretense of the old republican forms was largely abandoned. The title of princeps disappeared, together with the concept of only one emperor. New forms of pomp and awe were deliberately used in an attempt to insulate the emperor(s) and the civil authority from the unbridled and mutinous soldiery of the mid-century. The political role of the Senate went into final eclipse, no more being heard of

2900-417: The vote of provincial legislature. All decisions in the council were to be taken by a majority of votes, the Governor being able to break ties. During the establishment of the modern state of Samoa in 1962, power was shared between the two chiefs Malietoa Tanumafili II and Tupua Tamasese Meaʻole . Meaʻole died the next year, after which the country functioned as a monarchy until the death of Tanumafili and

2958-417: The war-chief Árpád , establishing the Hungarian monarchy. It is not known with certainty whether Árpád was originally the kende or the gyula. The Ghurid Empire was an established diarchy between Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad and Muhammad of Ghor . The diarchy lasted from 1173 to 1203 until the death of Ghiyath al-Din, leaving his ruler, Muhammad sole ruler of the Ghurid empire. During Japan 's shogunate ,

SECTION 50

#1732856075455

3016-451: Was defeated and captured by the Sassanid Persians in 260. Odaenathus not only defended the frontier in the East, but succeeded in creating an almost independent state (known as the Palmyrene Empire , after its capital Palmyra ), though it nominally remained within the Roman Empire. For his efforts, he gained the title of corrector totius orientis , "Corrector of the Whole East". When he died, his son requested and obtained, after some years,

3074-469: Was due in part to their immense wealth, being named Pater Patriae or "father of the country " , and by having a monopoly on political power. To this, emperors would satisfy the senatorial class with appointments to the high offices and to the provinces, effectively removing threats to their power in Rome . As such, emperors went to great lengths to control and satisfy the needs of the army (their ultimate source of power) by proving gracious donatives to

3132-551: Was mocked as a "split-level matriarchy in pants" owing to the supposed influence of his mother, Queen Mary and his wife Queen Elizabeth . Owing to Confucian notions of filial piety , Chinese and Japanese emperors were sometimes able to 'retire' but continue to exert great influence over state policy. In Indonesia , Sukarno and his vice president Mohammad Hatta were nicknamed the Duumvirate ( Dwitunggal ), with Sukarno setting government policy and rallying support and Hatta managing day-to-day administration. More recently,

3190-441: Was shared between the 5th , 6th , and 7th Dalai Lamas who headed the realm's Buddhist state religion and various secular rulers known as desis. The growing power of the desis caused the 7th Dalai Lama to abolish the post and replace it with a council known as the Kashag , permitting him to consolidate his authority over the realm. A similar system arose in Bhutan , with the Wangchuck governor ( penlop ) of Trongsa becoming

3248-407: Was the 1278 treaty that established modern Andorra . Others include Maastricht , which was shared by the Duke of Brabant and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège . After the establishment of the Dutch Republic , it became a condominium of Liège and the United Provinces, which administered it through the States General of the Netherlands until 1794. Between 1642 and 1751, political power in Tibet

3306-439: Was to be headed by a governor appointed by the Secretary of State, who could consult the Governor General. The governor was responsible to the Secretary of State for acts of omission and commission. He was to maintain law and order in the province and ensure that the provincial administration worked smoothly. In respect of transferred subjects, he was to be assisted by his ministers whereas reserved subjects were to be administered by

3364-422: Was undoubtedly correct to work through established Republican forms to consolidate his power. He began with the powers of a Roman consul , combined with those of a Tribune of the plebs ; later added the role of the censor and finally became pontifex maximus as well. In addition to these legal powers, the principate was also characterized by the emperor being the " ultimate source of patronage ". This

#454545