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94-634: This royal psalter was made in the 12th century. This manuscript was created under the influence of the Austin Canons , also known as the Augustinians, in a time of papal schism . Furthermore, the manuscript has Augustinian elements in its calendar which was made in Northern England. The manuscript was probably made in Lincoln . Because the list of saints in the manuscript does not include Thomas Becket , who

188-401: A common dormitory. From the 4th to the middle of the 11th century, communities of canons were established exclusively by bishops. The oldest form of canonical life was known as "Ordo Antiquus". In Italy, among the first to successfully unite the clerical state with the common life was St Eusebius, Bishop of Vercelli and St Zeno, Bishop of Verona and St Ambrose of Milan did similarly. It

282-741: A day they met to hear a chapter from the rule of their founder, hence the meeting itself was soon called "chapter". This discipline was also recommended shortly after by the Councils of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) (789) and Mainz (813). In 816 the Institutio canonicorum Aquisgranensis was drawn up at the Council of Aachen. This included a rule of 147 articles, known as the Rule of (Aix-la-Chapelle), to be applied to all canons. These statues were held as binding. The principal difference between Chrodegang's Rule and that of Aachen

376-473: A group of shepherds about the birth of Jesus . It is a common subject of Christian art and of Christmas carols . As described in verses 8–20 of the second chapter of the Gospel of Luke , shepherds were tending their flocks out in the countryside near Bethlehem , when they were terrified by the appearance of an angel . The angel explains that he has a message of good news for all people, namely that "Today in

470-455: A historical rule. One obvious place where such groups of priests are required is at a cathedral , where there were many Masses to celebrate and the Divine Office to be prayed together in community. Other groups were established at other churches which at some period in their history had been considered major churches, and (often thanks to particular benefactions) also in smaller centres. As

564-553: A life according to the example of Augustine as was known from his numerous writings. From that time the Order of Canons Regular of Saint Augustine, as it was already beginning to be called, increased rapidly. A great number of congregations of canons regular sprang into existence, each with its own distinctive constitutions, grounded on the Rule of St. Augustine and the statutes which Blessed Peter de Honestis gave to his canons at Ravenna about

658-484: A monk. The clerical state is essential to the Order of Canons Regular, whereas it is only accidental to the Monastic Order. Erasmus, himself a canon regular, declared that the canons regular are a "median point" between the monks and the secular clergy. The outer appearance and observances of the canons regular can seem very similar to those of the monks. This is because the various reforms borrowed certain practices from

752-545: A much greater role in Charles Wesley 's " Hark! The Herald Angels Sing " (1739), which begins: Hark! The herald angels sing, "Glory to the newborn King; Peace on earth, and mercy mild, God and sinners reconciled!" Joyful, all ye nations rise, Join the triumph of the skies; With th'angelic host proclaim, "Christ is born in Bethlehem!" Nahum Tate 's well-known carol " While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks " (1700)

846-579: A norm, canons regular live together in communities that take public vows. Their early communities took vows of common property and stability. As a later development, they now usually take the three public vows of chastity, poverty and obedience , although some orders or congregations of canons regular have retained the vow of stability. By 1125 hundreds of communities of canons had sprung up in Western Europe. Usually, they were quite independent of one another and varied in their ministries. Especially from

940-569: A pacifist sense, as does " It Came Upon the Midnight Clear ". The German carol " Kommet, ihr Hirten " (Come, you Shepherds) reflects the Annunciation and the Adoration of the shepherds. The phrase "Peace on earth, good will to men" has been widely used in a variety of contexts. For example, Samuel Morse 's farewell message in 1871 read "Greetings and thanks to the telegraph fraternity throughout

1034-556: A partly similar terminology. As religious communities, they have laybrothers as part of the community. At times, their Orders have been very popular: in England in the 12th century, there were more houses of canons (often referred to as an abbey or canonry) than monasteries of monks. All canons regular are to be distinguished from secular canons who belong to a resident group of priests but who do not take public vows and are not governed in whatever elements of life they lead in common by

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1128-484: A stratum of society, reminiscent of the usage of the equestrian order or senatorial order of Roman society, rather than to a religious order in the modern sense of a closely organized body. Furthermore, among the Augustinian Canons, some groups acquired a greater degree of distinctiveness in their style of life and organization, to the point of being in law or in effect autonomous religious orders. Examples include

1222-621: A wide influence. During the 15th and 16th centuries the Lateran Congregation added to the Order's luster by its spirituality and scholarship. In the 17th and 18th centuries the French Congregation of Saint Genevieve and later the Congregation of Our Savior founded by Saint Peter Fourier (1566–1640), responded to new needs by combining the religious life with pastoral work. Finally, in the 19th century Adrien Grea (1828–1917), founder of

1316-759: A wise moderation in all things. This spirit permeates the whole of the so-called Rule of St. Augustine and at least in substance can be attributed to Augustine personally. The invasion of Africa by the Vandals destroyed Augustine's foundation, which likely took refuge in Gaul. The prescriptions which St. Augustine had given to the clerics who lived with him soon spread and were adopted by other communities of canons regular not only in Africa, but in Italy, in France and elsewhere. Pope Gelasius , about

1410-406: A word, canons regular may be considered as the genus and Augustinian canons as the species. Otherwise put, all Augustinian Canons are canons regular, but not all canons regular are Augustinian Canons. In Latin, terms such as Canonici Regulares Ordinis S. Augustini ( Canons Regular of the Order of St. Augustine ) were used, whereby the term order (Latin ordo ) referred more to a form of life or

1504-458: Is a free translation of the German, which says "Hirten erst kund gemacht / durch der Engel Halleluja ... That is "Shepherds heard the news first, through (by means of) the angels' Halleluja. No mention of shepherds quailing or quaking, nor of 'Glories streaming from heaven afar'. The German does go on to say the song sounds loudly from far and near - "tönt es laut von fern und nah ..." The episode plays

1598-542: Is also very common in the West, though the Magi are very often omitted. For example, the 1485 Adoration of the shepherds scene by Domenico Ghirlandaio includes the annunciation to the shepherds peripherally, in the upper left corner, even though it represents an episode occurring prior to the main scene. Similarly, in the Nativity at Night of Geertgen tot Sint Jans , the annunciation to

1692-769: Is elected by all the congregations and serves for a six-year term, works to foster contact and mutual cooperation among the diverse communities of canons regular in the Catholic Church. On 11 October 2016, Jean-Michel Girard, Abbot of the Congregation of St. Nicholas and St. Bernard of Mont Joux (Great St. Bernard, Switzerland) was elected as the 10th abbot primate of the Confederation of the Canons Regular of St Augustine. The order has houses in Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Canada,

1786-591: Is entirely devoted to describing the annunciation to the shepherds, and the episode is also significant in " The First Nowell ", Angels from the Realms of Glory , the originally French carol " Angels We Have Heard on High ", and several others. The carol " I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day ", written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow during the American Civil War , reflects on the phrase "Peace on earth, good will to men" in

1880-640: Is inconclusive. The Copenhagen Psalter has a sister manuscript, called the Hunterian Psalter (also referred to as the York Psalter in earlier literature). This psalter has the same stylistic features as the Copenhagen Psalter, but different iconography. It was also most likely made for another member of the Danish royal house. Although there is uncertainty about who it was for, it has been suggested that it

1974-529: Is pleased" ( ESV ). The Douay-Rheims Bible , translated from the Latin Vulgate , derives from the same Greek text as the original Codex Sinaiticus , but renders it "on earth peace to men of good will". In the New American Bible , this is updated to "on earth peace to those on whom his favor rests". It is generally considered significant that this message was given to shepherds, who were located on

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2068-462: Is regarded by the canons as their founder, Vincent of Beauvais , Sigebert , and Peter of Cluny all state that the canonical order traces back its origin to the earliest ages of the Church. In the first centuries after Christ, priests lived with the bishop and carried out the liturgy and sacraments in the cathedral church. While each could own his own property, they lived together and shared common meals and

2162-564: Is the monastery of Black Canons which St. Columba founded), though this is clearly anachronistic. According to Smith and Ratcliff there was a homogeneity among the Augustinian houses in Scotland before 1215 which had much to do with King David I who gave them a common economic policy, and Robert , Bishop of St Andrews , himself a former Augustinian canon at the Priory of St. Oswalds, at Nostell and

2256-405: Is titled an abbot . Smaller communities are headed by a prior or provost . The distinctive habit of canons regular is the rochet , worn over a cassock or tunic , which is indicative of their clerical origins. This has evolved in various ways among different congregations, from wearing the full rochet to the wearing of a white tunic and scapular . On 4 May 1959 Pope John XXIII founded

2350-595: Is typical in the West; one or more dogs may be included, as in the Taddeo Gaddi (right, with red collar). The annunciation to the shepherds became less common as an independent subject in the late Middle Ages, but depictions continued in later centuries. Famous depictions by Abraham Hondius and Rembrandt exist. Along with the Agony in the Garden and the Arrest of Christ the scene

2444-624: The Premonstratensian or Norbertine Order , sometimes known in English as White Canons , from their white habits. Yet another such order is that of the Crosiers . Encouraged by the general policies of the Holy See , especially from the late nineteenth century, some of these separate orders and congregations of Augustinian Canons have subsequently combined in some form of federation or confederation. All

2538-653: The La Flora Hours in Naples shows the shepherds playing to the Infant Jesus , as a delighted Virgin Mary stands to one side. Christmas cantatas often deal with the Annunciation. It features prominently in both Bach's Und es waren Hirten in derselben Gegend , Part II of Bach's Christmas Oratorio , and in Part I of Handel's Messiah . Many Christmas carols mention the annunciation to

2632-474: The Rule of St. Augustine . The revival also counteracted the decline of religious discipline which had set in among Irish monasteries. St Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, was a prime mover in the reform movement in the Irish Church in the 12th century and by the time of his death in 1148, there were forty-one Augustinian houses. It is not improbable that at the outbreak of the dissolution by Henry VIII , some of

2726-496: The nominative case . Expressed in standard English, this gives the familiar "Peace on earth, good will to men" of many ancient Christmas carols. Even though some other ancient Greek manuscripts (and many medieval ones) agree with the edited Codex Sinaiticus , most modern religious scholars and Bible translators accept the reading of the majority of ancient manuscripts, translating as "on earth peace to those on whom his favor rests" ( NIV ) or "on earth peace among those with whom he

2820-508: The vita apostolica into effect for the circumstances of his time and the community of his day. From the time of his elevation to be Bishop of Hippo in 395 AD, he transformed his episcopal residence into a monastery for clerics and established the essential characteristics-the common life with renunciation of private property, chastity, obedience, the liturgical life and the care of souls: to these can be added two other typically Augustinian characteristics —a close bond of brotherly affection and

2914-417: The 11th century, among the canons regular, various groupings called congregations were formed, which partly resembled religious orders in the general modern sense. This movement parallelled in some respects the kind of bonds established between houses of monks. Among these congregations of canons regular, most adopted the Rule of St. Augustine , hence taking their name from St. Augustine, the great Doctor of

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3008-522: The British Isles in the course of the 12th century the canons regular, known there as the "Black Canons", were the most prolific. At the heart of their existence was the vita apostolica, but even more than other groups the canons regular became involved in active spiritual care of local populations. Perhaps as a result of this feature they also enjoyed sustained support from founders, patrons and benefactors, and new foundations continued to be made long after

3102-399: The Catholic Church, that of the Augustinian Canons (Canons Regular of St. Augustine, Canonici Regulares Sancti Augustini , CRSA) cannot be traced back to an individual founder or to a particular founding group. They are more the result of a process that lasted for centuries. Because of their manifold roots they have assumed various forms in medieval and modern Europe. Though they also follow

3196-497: The Church, "for he realized in an ideal way the common life of the Clergy". They became known as Augustinian Canons , and sometimes in English as Austin Canons ( Austin being a form of Augustine ). Where it was the case, they have also been known as Black Canons , from their black habits. Nevertheless, there have always been canons regular who never adopted the Rule of St. Augustine. In

3290-487: The Confederation of the Canons Regular of St. Augustine with his apostolic letter "Caritatis Unitas" on the 900th anniversary of the First Lateran Synod. The Confederation is a "union of charity" which binds nine congregations of canons regular together for mutual aid and support. The initial four congregations were: Subsequently, other congregations of canons regular joined the confederation: The abbot primate, who

3384-534: The Congregation of the Immaculate Conception, in his writing put in its proper perspective the ecclesial dimension of the canonical life. In their independence and their local character, the canons regular had some resemblance to the Benedictine monks, as they did in their maintaining the vow of stability to a particular house. The individual houses often have differences in the form of the habit, even within

3478-646: The Czech Republic, the Dominican Republic, England, Italy, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Peru, Porto Rico, Spain, Taiwan, Switzerland, the United States and Uruguay. Other orders sprang up which followed the Rule of St. Augustine and the canonical life. As canons regular became separated into different congregations they took their names from the locality in which they lived, or from

3572-623: The Great (reigned 1157–82), and for the canonization of Saint Canute . Perhaps because it was made for a boy king, just seven years old, the Copenhagen Psalter includes an alphabet , and aside from its religious use, could be used to teach the young king to read. Christopher de Hamel in 2016 also remarked that although the illumination is in the English manner, it could have been executed (perhaps by an English team) either in Paris or even in Denmark. The evidence

3666-650: The Hospice of Saint Bernard of Mont Joux in Switzerland, and the Austrian Abbeys. The high point of the canons regular can be situated in the first half of the 12th century. During this time they contributed series of popes – Honorius II, Innocent II, Lucius II, as well as Hadrian IV shortly after mid-century and finally Gregory VIII in the second half of the century. In the Middle Ages, some cathedrals were given over to

3760-592: The Immaculate Conception at Epping , Harlow , Milton Keynes , Daventry and now Luton . Besides the occupations of the regular life at home and the public recitation of the Divine Office in choir, they are chiefly employed in parish ministry, preaching retreats, supplying for priests who ask their service, and hearing confessions, either as ordinary or extraordinary confessors to convents or other religious communities. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dated to 565 A.D., relates that Columba, Masspreost (Mass-Priest), "came to

3854-575: The Irish canons regular retired to houses abroad. By 1646 the Irish canons regular on the Continent were sufficiently numerous to be formed by Innocent X into a separate "Congregation of St. Patrick", which the pope declared to inherit all the rights, privileges and possessions of the old Irish canons. In the year 1698 the Irish Congregation, by a Bull of Pope Innocent XII , was affiliated and aggregated to

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3948-446: The Lateran Congregation. Like the Order of St. Benedict , it is not one legal body, but a union of various independent congregations. The Canons Regular of Saint Augustine ( C.R.S.A. or Can.Reg. ), also referred to as "Augustinian Canons" or "Austin Canons" ('Austin' being an anglicisation of 'Augustine'), is one of the oldest Latin Church orders. In contrast to many other orders of

4042-541: The Lateran Synod of 1059. Here for the first time the Apostolic See officially recognized and approved the manner of life of the religious clergy as founded by bishops and others. Gregory VII's reform resulted in a distinction being made between clerics who lived in separate houses and those who still preserved the old discipline. Toward the end of the 11th century, the more cathedral and other chapters of canons opted for

4136-548: The Picts to convert them to Christ". St Columba (Columbanus, Colmcille) was the disciple of St. Finnian , who was a follower of St. Patrick . Both Columba and Finnian embraced the regular life which Patrick had established in Ireland. Tradition places the first landing of Columba on leaving Ireland at Oronsay, and Fordun (Bower) notices the island as "Hornsey, ubi est monasterium nigrorum Canonicorum, quod fundavit S. Columba" (where

4230-585: The Psalter shows the English ancestry; it is written in black in but some of the calligraphy is in red, blue, or green. It has 199 leaves, is made of parchment and measures 28.6 centimetres (11.3 in) x 19.8 centimetres (7.8 in). The calligraphy and the illuminations are of the very highest quality. Five or six English artists participated in painting its exquisite miniatures of the Life of Christ and 166 historiated and decorated initials. Within this manuscript around

4324-506: The Rule of St. Augustine, they differ from the friars in not committing themselves to corporate poverty , which is a defining element of the mendicant orders. Unlike the friars and like monks, the canons are generally organized as one large community to which they are attached for life with a vow of stability. Their houses are given the title of an abbey , from which the canons then tend to various surrounding towns and villages for spiritual services. The religious superior of their major houses

4418-530: The University of Paris finds part of its ancestry in the famous Abbey school of St. Victor. Later, congregations properly so called, governed by a superior general, were established within the order so as to maintain uniformity of particular observances. Among these congregations, which gave new life to the order, were the Windesheim Congregation, whose spirituality (known as the " Devotio Moderna ") had

4512-790: The administration of the sacraments, or by giving hospitality to pilgrims and travellers, and tending the sick. In fact, traditionally canons regular have not confined themselves exclusively to the functions of the canonical life. They have also given hospitality to pilgrims and travelers on the Great St. Bernard and on the Simplon , and in former times the hospitals of St. Bartholomew's Smithfield , in London, of Santo Spirito, in Rome, of Lochleven, Monymusk and St. Andrew's, in Scotland, and others like them, were all served by canons regular. Many houses of canons worked among

4606-516: The annunciation to the shepherds became an independent subject for art in the 9th century, but has remained relatively uncommon as such, except in extended cycles with many scenes. The standard Byzantine depiction, still used in Eastern Orthodox icons to the present, is to show the scene in the background of a Nativity , typically on the right, while the Three Magi approach on the left. This

4700-418: The apostolic life after the example of St. Augustine, the more urgent became both a separation from worldy life and measures regarding those canons who held to private ownership, in contradistinction to Benedictine monasticism, which till then was the mainstay of the Gregorian Reform. Pope Urban II deserves the credit for having recognized the way of life of the "canonici regulares" as sharply distinguished from

4794-407: The book belonged to the Danish royal family in the 13th century. This person who it was intended for must have been very young, due to the fact that the Pater noster , which is the Lords Prayer, is preceded by an alphabet, indicating that the book was to be used as a primer. Much seems to indicate that the book was made for King Canute VI of Denmark , and commissioned by Bishop Eskil of Lund who

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4888-424: The canons to that of her sister, Martha . According to St. Thomas Aquinas , a canon regular is essentially a religious cleric ; "The Order of Canons Regular is necessarily constituted by religious clerics, because they are essentially destined to those works which relate to the Divine mysteries, whereas it is not so with the monastic Orders." This is what constitutes a canon regular and what distinguishes him from

4982-485: The care of canons regular, as were certain places of pilgrimage. The shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham in England was just such a shrine, and the cathedrals of Saint John Lateran in Rome, Salzburg and Gurk in Austria, Toledo and Saragossa in Spain, St. Andrew's in Scotland, were among many others to be reformed by canons regular. The canons also took a leading role in the intellectual life of the Church by founding cathedral and collegiate schools throughout Europe. For example,

5076-417: The different varieties of canons regular are to be distinguished not only from secular canons but also from: Writing at a time before the foundation of the mendicant orders (friars), Pope Urban II (died 1099), said there were two forms of religious life: the monastic (like the Benedictines and Cistercians ) and the canonical (like the Augustinian Canons). He likened the monks to the role of Mary , and

5170-442: The distinctive habit they wore, or from the one who led the way in remodelling their lives. Hence the White Canons of Prémontré; the White Canons of Saint John Lateran; the Black Canons of St. Augustine; the Canons of St. Victor at Paris and also at Marseilles. Annunciation to the shepherds The annunciation to the shepherds is an episode in the Nativity of Jesus described in the Bible in Luke 2 , in which angels tell

5264-399: The early 20th century, the canons regular were represented in England by the Premonstratensians at Crowley, Manchester , Spalding and Storrington and currently Chelmsford ; the Canons Regular of the Lateran Congregation at Bodmin , Truro , St Ives , and Newquay , in Cornwall; at Spettisbury and Swanage , in Dorsetshire; at Stroud Green and Eltham , in London; the Canons Regular of

5358-412: The first illuminations shown is the Annunciation where the angel Gabriel greets the Virgin Mary and a dove that is the Holy Spirit . Gabriel and Mary both hold scrolls inscribed in Latin. On the other side of the same manuscript leaf (the verso), the Nativity itself is illustrated. The Virgin is recovering after giving birth in the foreground and the Christ Child, swaddled, with a red halo, lies in

5452-505: The first to officially use the name Canonici secundum regulam sancti Augustini viventes , which would give the new ordo of canonical life a distinctive stamp. The norm of life of the canons regular was concretized from the last third of the 11th century by a general following of the vita apostolica and the vita communis of the early Church based more and more on the precepts handed down by Augustine. Secundum regulam Augustini vivere, an expression first employed in Rheims in 1067, signified

5546-507: The founding prior of Scone , united the houses of canons through his patronage and by engaging them as his advisors. At the time of the Reformation the chief houses were: Many of the houses which claimed to have been founded by St. Columba remained in the possession of canons regular till the Reformation, including Oronsay and an alleged foundation at an unidentified locality in the Western Isles named as Crusay. The Augustinian canons regular established 116 religious houses in Ireland in

5640-412: The general chapter of the Lateran Congregation held at Ravenna in 1558, at the request of many Spanish canons, Don Francis de Agala, a professed canon regular from Spain, who for some ten years had already laboured in the newly discovered country, was created vicar-general in America, with powers to gather into communities all the members of the canonical institute who were then dispersed in those parts, and

5734-427: The infant Jesus lying in the manger , just as they had been told. The adoration of the shepherds follows. The King James Version of the Bible translates the words of the angels differently from modern versions, using the words "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men". Most Christmas carols reflect this older translation, with " It Came Upon the Midnight Clear ", for example, using

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5828-426: The largest religious house in Cornwall. The priory was suppressed on 27 February 1538. In England houses of canons were more numerous than Benedictine monasteries. The Black Death left the canons regular seriously decimated, and they never quite recovered. Between 1538 and 1540, the canonical houses were suppressed, and the religious dispersed, according to Cardinal Gasquet's computation, ninety-one houses in all. In

5922-527: The last word being in the genitive case (apparently reflecting a Semitic idiom that reads strangely in Greek ). Most ancient manuscripts of the Greek New Testament have this reading. The original version of the ancient Codex Sinaiticus (denoted א* by scholars ) has this reading, but it has been altered by erasure of the last letter to epi gēs eirēnē en anthrōpois eudokia (ἐπὶ γῆς εἰρήνη ἐν ἀνθρώποις εὐδοκία), literally "on earth (first subject: peace) to men (second subject: good will)," with two subjects in

6016-435: The lower rungs of the social ladder in first-century Palestine . Contrasting with the more powerful characters mentioned in the Nativity , such as the Emperor Augustus , they seem to reflect Mary 's words in the Magnificat : "He has brought down rulers from their thrones but has lifted up the humble." The shepherds, taken as Jewish, also combine with the Gentile Three Magi , in later tradition thought to be one each from

6110-456: The main force of the expansion of the monastic orders had declined. In England, in the 12th century there was a great revival of canons regular, in the wake of various congregations newly found in France, Italy and the Low countries, some of them reaching England following the Norman invasion. In England alone, from the Conquest to the death of Henry II Plantagenet , no fewer than fifty-four houses of canons regular were founded. The first of these

6204-422: The manger in the background, admired by the animals in the stable. Both Mary and Joseph look to Jesus, the focal point of the image. Another illumination is the Annunciation to the Shepherds , with an angel coming down from heaven proclaiming Christ's birth to three startled shepherds. Again, the angel holds a scroll in Latin. Although the text of a manuscript is important, the illuminations are just as they tell

6298-411: The monks for the use of the canons. According to St. Augustine, a canon regular professes two things, "sanctitatem et clericatum". He lives in community, he leads the life of a religious, he sings the praises of God by the daily recitation of the Divine Office in choir; but at the same time, at the bidding of his superiors, he is prepared to follow the example of the Apostles by preaching, teaching, and

6392-534: The narrative. These illuminations are filled with vibrant colors. They are bold, rich, and contain dark colors like red, blues, and green. Not only do the colors show the thoughtfulness in design, but there are patterns within the borders. The patterns are vine-like, spiral, and other organic designs. Inside of the manuscript, the writing is almost certain to have been written by an English scribe. There are characteristics trailing-topped "a", "g" not quite closed in its lower loop with an ampersand. The calendar inside of

6486-411: The obligation to report to the authorities of the order. Especially from the 19th century onwards, the order has undertaken the work of evangelization. By the 13th century, there was widespread adherence to the Rule of St. Augustine . This came in piecemeal fashion. There were in fact three different rules of St. Augustine from which to choose: Of all the new monastic and religious groups to settle in

6580-563: The opening initial there are seven large gold stars within the stars are jewels. As the manuscript shows sophistication by using gold and jewels, it shows throughout the manuscript in the recurring images of kings. Canons regular The Canons Regular of St. Augustine are Catholic priests who live in community under a rule ( Latin : regula and κανών, kanon , in Greek) and are generally organised into religious orders , differing from both secular canons and other forms of religious life, such as clerics regular , designated by

6674-402: The period of church reform early in the 12th century. The role of the Augustinian Canons within the population was the main reason for their being the largest single order in Ireland. The canons regular did not practise the isolation from the general population operated by the Cistercians, and participated in a great variety of pastoral activities in parishes, hospitals and schools, as permitted by

6768-474: The poor, the lepers, and the infirm. The clerics established by St. Patrick in Ireland had accommodation for pilgrims and the sick whom they tended by day and by night. And the rule given by Chrodegang to his canons enjoined that there should be a hospital near their house for this purpose. Augustine of Hippo (354–430), also known as Saint Augustine , did not found the canons regular, not even those who are called Augustinian Canons. Although Augustine of Hippo

6862-429: The principles of the "canonici saeculares", and at the same time as a way of communal perfection equal to monasticism. In granting numerous privileges to reformed houses of canons he clearly emphasized the nature and goal, the rights and duties of the canons regular. Thus from the renewal of the canonical life there inevitably arose a new "order"—which initially had not been the intention. The privileges of Pope Urban II are

6956-754: The reign of the Emperor Charlemagne (AD 800). Important milestones for the Ordo Antiquus form of canonical life include the reform and rule of the Benedictine Bishop of Metz, Chrodegang (763), and the Synods of Aachen (816–819) , which established a rule of life for canons in the Carolingian Empire. The ecclesiastical constitution or ordinance of Chrodegang, the Regula vitae communis (Rule of Common Life),

7050-617: The same congregation. Already in the Middle Ages canons regular were engaged in missionary work. Saint Vicelin (c. 1090 – 1154) took the Gospel to the pagan Slavs of Lower Germany; his disciple Meinhard (died 1196) evangelized the people of eastern Livonia. In the 16th century the Portuguese Congregation of Saint John the Baptist took the good news of salvation to the Congo, Ethiopia and India. At

7144-475: The shepherds is seen on a hillside through an opening in the stable wall. Scenes showing the shepherds at the side of the crib are a different subject, formally known as the Adoration of the shepherds . This is very commonly combined with the Adoration of the Magi , which makes for a balanced composition, as the two groups often occupy opposite sides of the image space around the central figures, and fitted with

7238-572: The shepherds, with the Gloria in Excelsis Deo being the most ancient. Phillips Brooks ' " O Little Town of Bethlehem " (1867) has the lines "O morning stars together, proclaim the holy birth, / And praises sing to God the King, and peace to men on earth!" The originally German carol " Silent Night " has "Shepherds quake at the sight; / Glories stream from heaven afar, / Heavenly hosts sing Alleluia!" However, this

7332-555: The theological interpretation of the episode, where the two groups represented the peoples of the world between them. This combination is first found in the 6th-century Monza ampullae made in Palestine. The landscape varies, though scenes in the background of a Nativity very often show the shepherds on a steep hill, making visual sense of their placement above the main Nativity scene. The number of shepherds shown varies also, though three

7426-457: The three continents then known, to represent the first declaration of the Christian message to all the peoples of the world. The phrase "peace to men on whom his favor rests" has been interpreted both as expressing a restriction to a particular group of people that God has chosen and inclusively, as God displaying favor to the world. Initially depicted only as part of a broader Nativity scene ,

7520-539: The town of David a Savior has been born to you; he is the Messiah, the Lord. This will be a sign to you: You will find a baby wrapped in cloths and lying in a manger." After this, a great many more angels appear, praising God with the words "Glory to God in the highest heaven, and on earth peace to those on whom his favor rests." Deciding to do as the angel had said, the shepherds travel to Bethlehem, and find Mary and Joseph and

7614-512: The words "Peace on the earth, good will to men, / From Heaven's all gracious King." The disparity reflects a dispute about the Greek text of the New Testament involving a single letter. The Greek text accepted by most modern theological scholars today uses the words epi gēs eirēnē en anthrōpois eudokias (ἐπὶ γῆς εἰρήνη ἐν ἀνθρώποις εὐδοκίας), literally "on earth peace to men of good will", with

7708-444: The world. Glory to God in the highest, on earth peace, good will to men. – S. F. B. Morse." Linus van Pelt recites the scene verbatim at the climax of A Charlie Brown Christmas , explaining that "that's what Christmas is all about, Charlie Brown ". The novelty song " I Yust Go Nuts at Christmas " uses the line to juxtapose the meaning of the holiday with the often chaotic nature of the celebrations; as Gabriel Heatter preaches

7802-459: The year 1100. In some houses the canonical life was combined with hospitality to travelers, nursing the sick and other charitable works. Often a number of houses were grouped together in a congregation. One of the most famous houses was the Abbey of Saint Victor, founded in Paris in 1108, celebrated for its liturgy, pastoral work and spirituality. Also worth mention are the Abbey of Saint Maurice of Agaune,

7896-463: The year 492, re-established the regular life in the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran . From there the reform spread till at length the rule was universally adopted by almost all the canons regular. Over time abuses crept into clerical life, including those of concubinage and independent living with the scandals and disedification of the faithful which followed. Vigorous reforms were undertaken during

7990-504: Was actually one of the artists. The bishop was in France between 1158 and 1168, where he met an artist who seems to have subsequently traveled to England and oversaw the creation of this psalter in Lincoln. When Eskil returned to Denmark in 1168, he was commissioned with preparing celebrations in 1170 for the upcoming coronation of the seven year old Canute as co-ruler with his father, King Valdemar

8084-526: Was at Colchester in 1096, followed by Holy Trinity, Aldgate, in London, established by Queen Maud, in 1108. From 1147, Andrew of St. Victor served as abbot of the newly founded abbey at Wigmore. The first General Chapter of the Augustinian Canons in England, intended to regulate the affairs of the Order, took place in 1217. In the 12th century the Canons Regular of the Lateran established a priory in Bodmin. This became

8178-463: Was at once a restoration and an adaptation of the Rule of St. Augustine , and its chief provisions were that the ecclesiastics who adopted it had to live in common under the Bishop's roof, recite common prayers, perform a certain amount of manual labour, keep silence at certain times, and go to confession twice a year. They did not take the vow of poverty and they could hold a life interest in property. Twice

8272-421: Was canonized in 1173, it is likely that the manuscript was executed before this year. Several artists seem to have been involved in the making of the manuscript, one of whom has been identified as the so-called Simon master , who also worked for Abbot Simon of St Albans . Until recently, the Psalter was thought to have been made for an English royal patron, even though obital notices in the calendar indicate that

8366-501: Was given the highest level of veneration who as a patron of the Augustinian Order. Within the psalter there are a number of illuminated initials, a cycle of full page illuminations. These pages consist of scenes from the life of Christ such as Birth, Crucifixion and Resurrection .The pictures shown in this manuscript are only half of the sequence and most likely, it had more than eight leaves with 16 Old Testament pictures. One of

8460-412: Was made for Roger de Mowbray , a crusader and religious benefactor known to have founded a number of Augustinian and Cistercian monasteries and nunneries. The Copenhagen Psalter begins with a calendar and a set of full-page miniatures illustrating the life of Christ. The manuscript also contains 166 illuminated initials . This book has a calendar that shows various English feasts. Saint Oswald , who

8554-443: Was no longer strictly observed, the sources of revenue were divided and the portions were allocated directly to the individual canons. This soon led to differences of income, and consequently to avarice, covetousness, and the partial destruction of the canonical life. In the 11th century the life of canons regular was reformed and renewed, chiefly owing to the efforts of Hildebrand (c. 1020–1085), later Pope Gregory VII, culminating in

8648-462: Was one of those used most often in the development of the depiction of night scenes, especially in 15th century Early Netherlandish painting and manuscript illustration (see illustrations here and the Geertgen tot Sint Jans linked above). In Renaissance art, drawing on classical stories of Orpheus , the shepherds are sometimes depicted with musical instruments. A charming but atypical miniature in

8742-514: Was their attitude toward private property. Both permitted the canons to own and dispose of property as they saw fit, but while Chrodegang counseled a renunciation of private property, the Aachen Synod did not, since this was not part of the tradition of the canons. It is from this period that there dates the daily recitation by the canons of the Divine Office or canonical hours . In the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries, laxity crept in: community life

8836-626: Was under St Augustine that the "canonical life" reached its apotheosis. None of the Fathers of the Church were as enthusiastic about the community life of the Apostolic Church of Jerusalem (Acts 4:31–35) or as enthralled by it as St. Augustine. To live this out in the midst of like-minded brethren was the goal of his monastic foundations in Thagaste, in the "Garden Monastery" at Hippo and at his bishop's house. The "rules" of St. Augustine intended to help put

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