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120-504: CAD typically consists of a suite of software packages used to initiate public safety calls for service, dispatch, and maintain the status of responding resources in the field. It is generally used by emergency communications dispatchers, call-takers, and 911 operators in centralized, public-safety call centers, as well as by field personnel utilizing mobile data terminals (MDTs) or mobile data computers (MDCs). CAD systems consist of several modules that provide services at multiple levels in

240-504: A ground sample distance of 1 inch (2.54 cm) in only 12 minutes. The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of aerial photographs. Soft-copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from stereo pairs of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry . Analog aerial photos must be scanned before being entered into

360-527: A provider and accessed over the Internet . The process of developing software involves several stages. The stages include software design , programming , testing , release , and maintenance . Software quality assurance and security are critical aspects of software development, as bugs and security vulnerabilities can lead to system failures and security breaches. Additionally, legal issues such as software licenses and intellectual property rights play

480-409: A spatial database ; however, this is not essential to meet the definition of a GIS. In a broader sense, one may consider such a system also to include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, the body of knowledge of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations. The uncounted plural, geographic information systems , also abbreviated GIS, is the most common term for

600-509: A vulnerability . Software patches are often released to fix identified vulnerabilities, but those that remain unknown ( zero days ) as well as those that have not been patched are still liable for exploitation. Vulnerabilities vary in their ability to be exploited by malicious actors, and the actual risk is dependent on the nature of the vulnerability as well as the value of the surrounding system. Although some vulnerabilities can only be used for denial of service attacks that compromise

720-520: A web application —had become the primary method that companies deliver applications. Software companies aim to deliver a high-quality product on time and under budget. A challenge is that software development effort estimation is often inaccurate. Software development begins by conceiving the project, evaluating its feasibility, analyzing the business requirements, and making a software design . Most software projects speed up their development by reusing or incorporating existing software, either in

840-409: A "real" physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry and studies. While digital GIS dates to the mid-1960s, when Roger Tomlinson first coined the phrase "geographic information system", many of the geographic concepts and methods that GIS automates date back decades earlier. One of the first known instances in which spatial analysis

960-596: A GIS database, which can be grouped into three categories: primary data capture , the direct measurement phenomena in the field (e.g., remote sensing , the global positioning system ); secondary data capture , the extraction of information from existing sources that are not in a GIS form, such as paper maps, through digitization ; and data transfer , the copying of existing GIS data from external sources such as government agencies and private companies. All of these methods can consume significant time, finances, and other resources. Survey data can be directly entered into

1080-567: A GIS for both kinds of abstractions mapping references: raster images and vector . Points, lines, and polygons represent vector data of mapped location attribute references. A new hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with RGB information at each point, returning a 3D color image . GIS thematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine. GIS data acquisition includes several methods for gathering spatial data into

1200-540: A GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called coordinate geometry (COGO). Positions from a global navigation satellite system ( GNSS ) like the Global Positioning System can also be collected and then imported into a GIS. A current trend in data collection gives users the ability to utilize field computers with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions. The current trend

1320-419: A busy light, a call light, select light, select button, and a transmit button. The steady, red busy light indicates another dispatch position is transmitting on the channel. The flashing yellow call light indicates a field unit is talking on the channel. The call light usually blinks for several seconds after a transmission ends allowing a busy dispatcher to look up from a telephone call and determine which channel

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1440-482: A button, any channel on the console can be toggled between select and unselect status. Each channel has an independent push-to-talk button, allowing the dispatcher to talk over one channel at a time. For broadcast messages, a single button transmits over all selected channels at the same time. A digital clock and an LED bar-graph or VU meter are included. Each channel has a label identifying it and indicator lights and buttons to control settings. A typical channel has

1560-509: A central dispatch office, which communicate with computer terminals in a communications center or with mobile data terminals installed in vehicles. There are a multitude of CAD programs that suit different department needs, but the fundamentals of each system are the same. They include: In an ideal setting, a call is received by a call-taker and information about the call is inputted into the CAD template. Simply, location, reporting party and incident are

1680-457: A change request. Frequently, software is released in an incomplete state when the development team runs out of time or funding. Despite testing and quality assurance , virtually all software contains bugs where the system does not work as intended. Post-release software maintenance is necessary to remediate these bugs when they are found and keep the software working as the environment changes over time. New features are often added after

1800-486: A code's correct and efficient behavior, its reusability and portability , or the ease of modification. It is usually more cost-effective to build quality into the product from the beginning rather than try to add it later in the development process. Higher quality code will reduce lifetime cost to both suppliers and customers as it is more reliable and easier to maintain . Software failures in safety-critical systems can be very serious including death. By some estimates,

1920-527: A dispatch center and in the field of public safety. These services include call input, call dispatching, call status maintenance, event notes, field unit status and tracking, and call resolution and disposition. CAD systems also include interfaces that permit the software to provide services to dispatchers, call takers, and field personnel with respect to control and use of analog radio and telephone equipment, as well as logger-recorder functions. Computer-assisted dispatch systems use one or more servers located in

2040-418: A fire call occurring inside this zone. The predefined order is created by persons with expertise in the service being provided, local geography, traffic, and patterns in calls for service. Since only basic GIS information is included, if AVL was available, it would simply display service vehicle locations on a map. The closest unit would be interpreted by the dispatcher looking at vehicle locations projected on

2160-416: A fire station that is physically closer by drawing a straight line on the map may be slower to reach a zone. This can occur because responding units must drive around freeways, lakes, or terrain obstructions in order to reach a zone. A centroid may be moved because 200-car freight trains often block a railroad crossing used to access a particular zone. This is the cheapest system to develop because it requires

2280-423: A full suite of capabilities for entering, managing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data, and are designed to be used on their own. Starting in the late 1990s with the emergence of the Internet , as computer network technology progressed, GIS infrastructure and data began to move to servers , providing another mechanism for providing GIS capabilities. This was facilitated by standalone software installed on

2400-507: A geographic methodology in pinpointing the source of an outbreak in epidemiology. While the basic elements of topography and theme existed previously in cartography , Snow's map was unique due to his use of cartographic methods, not only to depict, but also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena. The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography , which allowed maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This

2520-597: A human interface and connect to push-to-talk dispatch radio systems. Audio from all channels is processed through audio level compression circuits and is routed to two separate speakers identified as select and unselect . Each has a volume control. The select channel or channels carry the highest priority communications. To prevent missed messages on critical channels, the select volume may be configured so it cannot be set to an inaudible level. Unselect channels may be used for special events, other agencies, or purposes that do not involve dispatch and may be inaudible. By pressing

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2640-402: A left turn might be blocked occasionally by heavy traffic, a draw bridge , or street cars . At the most difficult score, the two streets may cross but the lack of any interchange does not allow service vehicles to get from one to the other. To calculate the closest service vehicles, the CAD system does a network analysis of the road system based on these routable street centerlines. It assesses

2760-443: A legal regime where liability for software products is significantly curtailed compared to other products. Source code is protected by copyright law that vests the owner with the exclusive right to copy the code. The underlying ideas or algorithms are not protected by copyright law, but are often treated as a trade secret and concealed by such methods as non-disclosure agreements . Software copyright has been recognized since

2880-449: A map made against a local datum may not be the same as one obtained from a GPS receiver . Converting coordinates from one datum to another requires a datum transformation such as a Helmert transformation , although in certain situations a simple translation may be sufficient. In popular GIS software, data projected in latitude/longitude is often represented as a Geographic coordinate system . For example, data in latitude/longitude if

3000-503: A multitude of ways, whether it is for radio logs, call logs or statistical analysis. Typical of local government dispatching facilities, the Denver RTD's facility is one example of a transit dispatch center. Communications consoles are mounted in desk-style electronics racks. Features include multi-line telephones. Modern facilities usually include a variety of computing systems for operational and administrative purposes. Consoles serve as

3120-410: A new dimension to business intelligence termed " spatial intelligence " which, when openly delivered via intranet, democratizes access to geographic and social network data. Geospatial intelligence , based on GIS spatial analysis, has also become a key element for security. GIS as a whole can be described as conversion to a vectorial representation or to any other digitisation process. Geoprocessing

3240-437: A programming language is run through a compiler or interpreter to execute on the architecture's hardware. Over time, software has become complex, owing to developments in networking , operating systems , and databases . Software can generally be categorized into two main types: The rise of cloud computing has introduced the new software delivery model Software as a Service (SaaS). In SaaS, applications are hosted by

3360-499: A quick web search . Most creative professionals have switched to software-based tools such as computer-aided design , 3D modeling , digital image editing , and computer animation . Almost every complex device is controlled by software. Geographic information system A geographic information system ( GIS ) consists of integrated computer hardware and software that store, manage, analyze , edit, output, and visualize geographic data . Much of this often happens within

3480-994: A relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. The key is the location and/or extent in space-time. Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be referenced using a GIS. Locations or extents in Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude , latitude , and elevation , respectively. These GIS coordinates may represent other quantified systems of temporo-spatial reference (for example, film frame number, stream gage station, highway mile-marker, surveyor benchmark, building address, street intersection, entrance gate, water depth sounding, POS or CAD drawing origin/units). Units applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary widely (even when using exactly

3600-498: A result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital land resource database in Canada. It was developed as a mainframe -based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex datasets . The CGIS

3720-479: A road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection. Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster . For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected. The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on

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3840-449: A scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis. CGIS was an improvement over "computer mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for data storage, overlay, measurement, and digitizing /scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as arcs having a true embedded topology and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As

3960-487: A server, similar to other server software such as HTTP servers and relational database management systems , enabling clients to have access to GIS data and processing tools without having to install specialized desktop software. These networks are known as distributed GIS . This strategy has been extended through the Internet and development of cloud-based GIS platforms such as ArcGIS Online and GIS-specialized software as

4080-495: A service (SAAS), and mobile computing . The distinction must be made between a singular geographic information system , which is a single installation of software and data for a particular use, along with associated hardware, staff, and institutions (e.g., the GIS for a particular city government); and GIS software , a general-purpose application program that is intended to be used in many individual geographic information systems in

4200-508: A service (SAAS). The use of the Internet to facilitate distributed GIS is known as Internet GIS . An alternative approach is the integration of some or all of these capabilities into other software or information technology architectures. One example is a spatial extension to Object-relational database software, which defines a geometry datatype so that spatial data can be stored in relational tables, and extensions to SQL for spatial analysis operations such as overlay . Another example

4320-407: A service vehicle turn left from eastbound Carnegie Street onto northbound Hooligan Boulevard? A scoring system is used to assess the difficulty of making the turn. At one end of the scoring system there might be an interchange where service vehicles had unrestricted access in making the turn. Perhaps both streets are one-way, making it relatively easy to turn from one onto another. In the middle scores,

4440-495: A significant role in the distribution of software products. The first use of the word software is credited to mathematician John Wilder Tukey in 1958. The first programmable computers, which appeared at the end of the 1940s, were programmed in machine language . Machine language is difficult to debug and not portable across different computers. Initially, hardware resources were more expensive than human resources . As programs became complex, programmer productivity became

4560-548: A soft-copy system, for high-quality digital cameras this step is skipped. Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the electromagnetic spectrum or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover. The most common method of data creation

4680-415: A specific aspect of the surface. Some of the most common include: Most of these are generated using algorithms that are discrete simplifications of vector calculus . Slope, aspect, and surface curvature in terrain analysis are all derived from neighborhood operations using elevation values of a cell's adjacent neighbours. Each of these is strongly affected by the level of detail in the terrain data, such as

4800-458: A specific version of the software, downloaded, and run on hardware belonging to the purchaser. The rise of the Internet and cloud computing enabled a new model, software as a service (SaaS), in which the provider hosts the software (usually built on top of rented infrastructure or platforms ) and provides the use of the software to customers, often in exchange for a subscription fee . By 2023, SaaS products—which are usually delivered via

4920-497: A system is implemented. Modern geocoded systems will often display service vehicle locations, the location of service calls, and the locations of callers on a map. This helps to disambiguate calls for service and reduces the likelihood of dispatching two reports of a single call for service as two separate calls. Another problem comes from technologies using differing datums or coordinate systems. For example, suppose your AVL system uses degrees-decimal degrees format. The AVL display for

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5040-415: A system's availability, others allow the attacker to inject and run their own code (called malware ), without the user being aware of it. To thwart cyberattacks, all software in the system must be designed to withstand and recover from external attack. Despite efforts to ensure security, a significant fraction of computers are infected with malware. Programming languages are the format in which software

5160-459: A variety of application domains. Starting in the late 1970s, many software packages have been created specifically for GIS applications. Esri's ArcGIS , which includes ArcGIS Pro and the legacy software ArcMap , currently dominates the GIS market. Other examples of GIS include Autodesk and MapInfo Professional and open-source programs such as QGIS , GRASS GIS , MapGuide , and Hadoop-GIS . These and other desktop GIS applications include

5280-406: A variety of forms, such as a collection of separate data files or a single spatially-enabled relational database . Collecting and managing these data usually constitutes the bulk of the time and financial resources of a project, far more than other aspects such as analysis and mapping. GIS uses spatio-temporal ( space-time ) location as the key index variable for all other information. Just as

5400-521: A vehicle at the Heart Butte Post Office in Montana shows a latitude and longitude of 48.28333 N, -112.83583 W. The CAD system uses degrees-minutes-seconds format data and shows the same location as 481700N, 1125009W. How do you translate? This is sometimes a problem with neighboring CAD systems. Ideally, you should be able to send and receive calls to and from CAD systems in neighboring areas. What if

5520-466: A wired phone number or tells the dispatcher their address. For example, suppose the caller's address is 123 Main Street . The GIS or CAD system includes a look-up table. The table may identify odd-numbered addresses in the community as being on the north and east sides of streets. Addresses from 113 to 157 Main Street are identified as being along Main Street's center line between Broadway and Washington. 123

5640-599: A zone system. The basic system may start with maps from the US Census Bureau or a county assessor's office. The quality of these maps may be good but will not be ideal for dispatching. There would normally be one or more persons on staff who would deal with data changes from new development, new streets, or data quality problems. The person would compile addresses and generate street centerlines in mapping software. Geocoding varies in accuracy depending on data sources and vendors. It normally takes years of work and planning before

5760-438: Is digitization , where a hard copy map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a CAD program, and geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of ortho-rectified imagery (from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVs), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of

5880-511: Is a GIS operation used to manipulate spatial data. A typical geoprocessing operation takes an input dataset , performs an operation on that dataset, and returns the result of the operation as an output dataset. Common geoprocessing operations include geographic feature overlay, feature selection and analysis, topology processing, raster processing, and data conversion. Geoprocessing allows for definition, management, and analysis of information used to form decisions. Many geographic tasks involve

6000-653: Is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities, as optional toolsets, as add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances these are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or collaborative non commercial development teams), while in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties. Furthermore, many products offer software development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or special interfaces for developing one's own analytical tools or variants. The increased availability has created

6120-461: Is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture. After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in

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6240-425: Is closest to a call for service. If an AVL system is used, the CAD system will look through a list of most recent reported vehicle positions. Next, the positions are compared to the service vehicle status. The CAD system may identify several of the closest units that have a status of available . The dispatcher makes an ideal choice from the CAD system shortlist. This type of system is significantly more expensive than

6360-464: Is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert geographic data from one structure to another. In so doing, the implicit assumptions behind different ontologies and classifications require analysis. Object ontologies have gained increasing prominence as a consequence of object-oriented programming and sustained work by Barry Smith and co-workers. Spatial ETL tools provide

6480-452: Is estimated to be on the north side of Main Street somewhere closer to 113 than 157. This estimate produces a latitude and longitude , or a set of Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates. The coordinates are close enough to identify the closest service vehicle. This system may automatically append the name of the nearest cross-street or intersecting street. Again, the system uses a straight-line distance to determine which service vehicle

6600-437: Is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. All geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict. Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with

6720-404: Is gathered, dispatched and disposed is usually stored in a central server in which the type codes reside, or possibly another server. All of these calls which have incident numbers attached to them can be recalled by an internal search engine. For example, a request for a printout of all calls to Madison in the past hour could be gathered by querying the CAD program by location: CAD can be used in

6840-420: Is more commonly used, heads-down digitizing is still useful for digitizing maps of poor quality. Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data. When data

6960-445: Is no single standard for data quality, because the necessary degree of quality depends on the scale and purpose of the tasks for which it is to be used. Several elements of data quality are important to GIS data: The quality of a dataset is very dependent upon its sources, and the methods used to create it. Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing high-end GPS equipment, but GPS locations on

7080-405: Is population growth or where automation is required to meet defined service objectives. In any system, concentration of facilities increases risks of outages or massive failures. In a system where the call traffic is so high that advanced technology is needed to handle routine levels of day-to-day calls, relatively minor failures can have major effects on service levels. For example, where everyone

7200-521: Is the proliferation of geospatial libraries and application programming interfaces (e.g., GDAL , Leaflet , D3.js ) that extend programming languages to enable the incorporation of GIS data and processing into custom software, including web mapping sites and location-based services in smartphones . The core of any GIS is a database that contains representations of geographic phenomena, modeling their geometry (location and shape) and their properties or attributes . A GIS database may be stored in

7320-498: Is to utilize applications available on smartphones and PDAs in the form of mobile GIS. This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the ability to incorporate positions collected using a laser rangefinder . New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as analysis directly in

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7440-454: Is used to suggest the closest vehicle to an event. How is the closest unit determined? The simplest system is a beat or zone map system. For example, in a community with four fire stations, a grid is overlaid on a community map. Each zone of the grid is identified with a progression of police beats, ambulance zones, transit zones, or fire stations. One grid might be labeled: AB241. This means fire station 2, then 4, then 1, then 3 would respond to

7560-406: Is used to the convenience of automatic vehicle location (AVL), an AVL outage can suddenly increase staff workloads. Suppose a failure causes a condition where CAD cannot recommend a closest unit. How will the dispatcher efficiently assess which unit to assign? In public safety systems, standards are under discussion to allow disparate systems to exchange call information. For example, a call taker at

7680-453: Is written. Since the 1950s, thousands of different programming languages have been invented; some have been in use for decades, while others have fallen into disuse. Some definitions classify machine code —the exact instructions directly implemented by the hardware—and assembly language —a more human-readable alternative to machine code whose statements can be translated one-to-one into machine code—as programming languages. Programs written in

7800-632: The CAD  platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute ( ESRI ), CARIS  (Computer Aided Resource Information System), and ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS ;features, combining the first-generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second-generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures. In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS),

7920-634: The DHS and the disaster management e-gov initiative to communicate in emergencies. Other interoperability technologies can bridge disparities between the data-format, software, and hardware that constitute various computer-aided dispatch systems in various jurisdictions. Middleware , software and servers (data brokers), can translate and integrate various systems into a seamless automated dispatch system. One example of such middleware (provided by Utah-based FATPOT Technologies/CII) exists in Orange County, Calif., where

8040-426: The Internet , requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, a growing number of free, open-source GIS packages run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. The major trend of the 21st Century has been the integration of GIS capabilities with other Information technology and Internet infrastructure, such as relational databases , cloud computing , software as

8160-499: The execution of a computer . Software also includes design documents and specifications. The history of software is closely tied to the development of digital computers in the mid-20th century. Early programs were written in the machine language specific to the hardware. The introduction of high-level programming languages in 1958 allowed for more human-readable instructions, making software development easier and more portable across different computer architectures . Software in

8280-438: The high-level programming languages used to create software share a few main characteristics: knowledge of machine code is not necessary to write them, they can be ported to other computer systems, and they are more concise and human-readable than machine code. They must be both human-readable and capable of being translated into unambiguous instructions for computer hardware. The invention of high-level programming languages

8400-400: The terrain , the shape of the surface of the earth, such as hydrology , earthworks , and biogeography . Thus, terrain data is often a core dataset in a GIS, usually in the form of a raster Digital elevation model (DEM) or a Triangulated irregular network (TIN). A variety of tools are available in most GIS software for analyzing terrain, often by creating derivative datasets that represent

8520-529: The Department of Transportation Intelligent Transportation System at the Transportation Management Centers and other efforts involving DHS counterterrorism or fusion centers. Some local jurisdictions have also integrated their dispatch systems using EAI (Electronic Application Integration) software. Computer aided call handling (CACH) is built on the premise that effective call handling is

8640-539: The Earth's surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate. In fact, there are models called datums that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy, like North American Datum of 1983 for U.S. measurements, and the World Geodetic System for worldwide measurements. The latitude and longitude on

8760-698: The Fire Authority has integrated different emergency service answering points into a seamless dispatching network. A similar project was completed for the Silicon Valley Regional Interoperability Project (SVRIP), and is part of the Dept. of Homeland Security's CADIP report. Australia and New Zealand use the ICEMS protocol for messaging between different CAD systems operated by various emergency services organisations. In business use of CAD,

8880-728: The Intelligent Transportation Initiatives program of Department of Transportation. This initiative sponsored the IEEE 1512 series of protocols for emergency management which provides sophisticated means to coordinate incidents across operations centers using CAD software. Additional work is occurring under the National Information Exchange Model to link homeland security with CAD. Also the OASIS international standards body has produced standards funded in part by

9000-517: The aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet (heads-down digitizing). Heads-down digitizing, or manual digitizing, uses a special magnetic pen, or stylus, that feeds information into a computer to create an identical, digital map. Some tablets use a mouse-like tool, called a puck, instead of a stylus. The puck has a small window with cross-hairs which allows for greater precision and pinpointing map features. Though heads-up digitizing

9120-439: The average smartphone are much less accurate. Common datasets such as digital terrain and aerial imagery are available in a wide variety of levels of quality, especially spatial precision. Paper maps, which have been digitized for many years as a data source, can also be of widely varying quality. A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The electronic and other equipment used to make measurements for GIS

9240-399: The bottleneck. The introduction of high-level programming languages in 1958 hid the details of the hardware and expressed the underlying algorithms into the code . Early languages include Fortran , Lisp , and COBOL . There are two main types of software: Software can also be categorized by how it is deployed . Traditional applications are purchased with a perpetual license for

9360-404: The correctness of code, while user acceptance testing helps to ensure that the product meets customer expectations. There are a variety of software development methodologies , which vary from completing all steps in order to concurrent and iterative models. Software development is driven by requirements taken from prospective users, as opposed to maintenance, which is driven by events such as

9480-400: The cost of poor quality software can be as high as 20 to 40 percent of sales. Despite developers' goal of delivering a product that works entirely as intended, virtually all software contains bugs. The rise of the Internet also greatly increased the need for computer security as it enabled malicious actors to conduct cyberattacks remotely. If a bug creates a security risk, it is called

9600-419: The cost of products. Unlike copyrights, patents generally only apply in the jurisdiction where they were issued. Engineer Capers Jones writes that "computers and software are making profound changes to every aspect of human life: education, work, warfare, entertainment, medicine, law, and everything else". It has become ubiquitous in everyday life in developed countries . In many cases, software augments

9720-403: The county fire department receives a call for an auto accident inside a city limit. Evolving standards will allow CAD systems to send messages to one another for calls originating outside local jurisdiction. Some entities have arrangements that already support data exchange between systems, but standards aim to make these interconnections more common. Because of auditing trail and fail-safe needs,

9840-455: The data processing functionality of traditional extract, transform, load  (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data. They provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en route. These tools can come in the form of add-ins to existing wider-purpose software such as spreadsheets . GIS spatial analysis

9960-429: The datum is the ' North American Datum of 1983' is denoted by 'GCS North American 1983'. While no digital model can be a perfect representation of the real world, it is important that GIS data be of a high quality. In keeping with the principle of homomorphism , the data must be close enough to reality so that the results of GIS procedures correctly correspond to the results of real world processes. This means that there

10080-581: The dispatch system may be a module or part of a larger enterprise computing system. Rather than having multiple infrastructures, being able to have a single infrastructure with many applications running on it is important. At the high end of enterprise integration for CAD there is SOS. SOS or systems of systems is a methodology and a set of technology for linking distributed independent applications into one meta-system or system of systems. These methods were originally being used at DOD for command and control (C2) but have now been applied to dispatch in efforts like

10200-725: The early 1960s. In 1963, the world's first true operational GIS was developed in Ottawa, Ontario , Canada, by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by Roger Tomlinson , it was called the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory , an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils , agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl , forestry and land use at

10320-489: The early days of GIS: Ian McHarg 's publication Design with Nature and its map overlay method and the introduction of a street network into the U.S. Census Bureau's DIME ( Dual Independent Map Encoding ) system. The first publication detailing the use of computers to facilitate cartography was written by Waldo Tobler in 1959. Further computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to more widespread general-purpose computer "mapping" applications by

10440-473: The example above: Again, granted as it can be seen that the fields are spelled out, the call-taker uses those abbreviations that are already predetermined in order to quickly gather and transmit the information. The dispatcher then receives the call from the call-taker and is able to dispatch the call to those available. The dispatcher's screen would show the available personnel that are dispatchable. A typical setting can be exemplified by this: Everything that

10560-527: The field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate. Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and lidar , while platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites . In England in the mid-1990s, hybrid kite/balloons called helikites first pioneered the use of compact airborne digital cameras as airborne geo-information systems. Aircraft measurement software, accurate to 0.4 mm,

10680-586: The first desktop GIS product, was released for the DOS operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was ported to the Microsoft Windows platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the research department into the business environment. By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to explore viewing GIS data over

10800-408: The first examples of general-purpose GIS software that was not developed for a particular installation, and was very influential on future commercial software, such as Esri ARC/INFO , released in 1983. By the late 1970s two public domain GIS systems ( MOSS and GRASS GIS ) were in development, and by the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph ) along with Bentley Systems Incorporated for

10920-438: The form of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) or open-source software . Software quality assurance is typically a combination of manual code review by other engineers and automated software testing . Due to time constraints, testing cannot cover all aspects of the software's intended functionality, so developers often focus on the most critical functionality. Formal methods are used in some safety-critical systems to prove

11040-416: The foundation for an efficient dispatch response. By using structured call handling and a series of risk calculations, such systems can make objective dispatch recommendations based on information provided by the caller. 12.^ https://www.intrado.com/life-safety# is an example of an Emergency Call Handling system that feeds CADs Software Software consists of computer programs that instruct

11160-587: The foundation of location-enabled services, which rely on geographic analysis and visualization. GIS provides the ability to relate previously unrelated information, through the use of location as the "key index variable". Locations and extents that are found in the Earth's spacetime are able to be recorded through the date and time of occurrence, along with x, y, and z coordinates ; representing, longitude ( x ), latitude ( y ), and elevation ( z ). All Earth-based, spatial–temporal, location and extent references should be relatable to one another, and ultimately, to

11280-439: The functionality of existing technologies such as household appliances and elevators . Software also spawned entirely new technologies such as the Internet , video games , mobile phones , and GPS . New methods of communication, including email , forums , blogs , microblogging , wikis , and social media , were enabled by the Internet. Massive amounts of knowledge exceeding any paper-based library are now available with

11400-747: The industry and profession concerned with these systems. It is roughly synonymous with geoinformatics . The academic discipline that studies these systems and their underlying geographic principles, may also be abbreviated as GIS, but the unambiguous GIScience is more common. GIScience is often considered a subdiscipline of geography within the branch of technical geography . Geographic information systems are utilized in multiple technologies, processes, techniques and methods. They are attached to various operations and numerous applications, that relate to: engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For this reason, GIS and location intelligence applications are at

11520-424: The last message came from. Some console dispatch panels are actually a PC-based application. Such is the case of Zetron's Acom system and Avtec's Scout system. This allows for easy customization and modification of the dispatch key layout. Computerized mapping , automatic vehicle location , automatic number identification and caller-identification technology are often used to enhance the service by pinpointing

11640-484: The layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each color. While the use of layers much later became one of the typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just described is not considered a GIS in itself – as the maps were just images with no database to link them to. Two additional developments are notable in

11760-440: The least detailed geographic information and the simplest calculations. Another problem occurs where several services use the same system. Police and transit, for example, may have different ideas about what boundaries define the ideal zone or how centroids should be weighted. Geocoding is a translation system allowing addresses to be converted to X- and Y-coordinates. Someone placing a call for service has an address attached to

11880-417: The locations of both the client and the most suitable vehicle for serving the client. Some CAD systems allow several sources of information to be combined. For example, adding automatic vehicle location (AVL) and geographic information (GIS) could improve service by getting units to a service call location faster. Ideally, CAD is connected to monitor vehicle locations provided by an AVL system. This information

12000-504: The main fields that have to be populated by type-codes. For example, if there was a burglary in progress, the type-code for that incident could be "BURG"; when BURG is typed out, then the program will spell out "BURGLARY (in progress)". If the location was at the 1400 block of Madison, the type-code could be "14MAD." The reporting party information would be populated by the call-taker including last name, first name, call-back number, etc. A typical CAD printout looks something like this based on

12120-566: The map. Where detailed geographic data are not available, units may be assigned based on the center of a district. To make the computing problem easier, the CAD system may use centroids to evaluate service vehicle locations. Centroids are estimated center points within a zone. The system calculates a distance from a fire station or AVL location to a centroid point. The closest fire station, according to CAD system rules, would be assigned. Systems may use centroids that are not exactly centered in order to skew or weight system decisions. Staff based at

12240-597: The mid-1970s and is vested in the company that makes the software, not the employees or contractors who wrote it. The use of most software is governed by an agreement ( software license ) between the copyright holder and the user. Proprietary software is usually sold under a restrictive license that limits copying and reuse (often enforced with tools such as digital rights management (DRM)). Open-source licenses , in contrast, allow free use and redistribution of software with few conditions. Most open-source licenses used for software require that modifications be released under

12360-472: The operating system) can take this saved file and execute it as a process on the computer hardware. Some programming languages use an interpreter instead of a compiler. An interpreter converts the program into machine code at run time , which makes them 10 to 100 times slower than compiled programming languages. Software is often released with the knowledge that it is incomplete or contains bugs. Purchasers knowingly buy it in this state, which has led to

12480-455: The path from the service call to the AVL location of available vehicles. The system recommends the service vehicles with the shortest path. Routable street centerlines take into account differences between northbound and southbound lanes on a freeway or turnpike. For example, to reach a point in the southbound lanes of a turnpike, service vehicles may need to drive north to the next exit then return on

12600-604: The physical world may also be part of the requirements for a software patent to be held valid. Software patents have been historically controversial . Before the 1998 case State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial Group, Inc. , software patents were generally not recognized in the United States. In that case, the Supreme Court decided that business processes could be patented. Patent applications are complex and costly, and lawsuits involving patents can drive up

12720-402: The problem is more complex than it sounds. The usage of EDI applied to CAD is specific to the law enforcement community and should not be confused with Electronic Document Interchange (EDI) standards for eCommerce. Within law enforcement EDI is used as a buzzword to represent all electronic automated messaging. More mature efforts to interconnect CAD can be found in the standards developed for

12840-663: The real world, such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, and states. The most common types of phenomena that are represented in data can be divided into two conceptualizations: discrete objects (e.g., a house, a road) and continuous fields (e.g., rainfall amount or population density). Other types of geographic phenomena, such as events (e.g., location of World War II battles), processes (e.g., extent of suburbanization ), and masses (e.g., types of soil in an area) are represented less commonly or indirectly, or are modeled in analysis procedures rather than data. Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in

12960-408: The release. Over time, the level of maintenance becomes increasingly restricted before being cut off entirely when the product is withdrawn from the market. As software ages , it becomes known as legacy software and can remain in use for decades, even if there is no one left who knows how to fix it. Over the lifetime of the product, software maintenance is estimated to comprise 75 percent or more of

13080-414: The same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion. More advanced data processing can occur with image processing , a technique developed in the late 1960s by NASA and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false color rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional Fourier transforms . Since digital data

13200-622: The same data, see map projections ), but all Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent in space–time. Related by accurate spatial information, an incredible variety of real-world and projected past or future data can be analyzed, interpreted and represented. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry into behaviors and patterns of real-world information that previously had not been systematically correlated . GIS data represents phenomena that exist in

13320-424: The same license, which can create complications when open-source software is reused in proprietary projects. Patents give an inventor an exclusive, time-limited license for a novel product or process. Ideas about what software could accomplish are not protected by law and concrete implementations are instead covered by copyright law . In some countries, a requirement for the claimed invention to have an effect on

13440-534: The southbound side. The analysis of a routable street network takes this into account so long as the event location is accurately reported. Routable systems account for barriers like lakes by calculating the distance of the driven route rather than a straight-line distance. It is assumed the service vehicle driver knows the shortest path or that all drivers make similar numbers of wrong turns. CAD systems require support staff with special skills. This can lead to concentration of dispatch facilities, particularly where there

13560-424: The state or provincial government has standardized on a different coordinate system? The most expensive and technically challenging systems fully utilize the capabilities of geographic information systems (GIS) and automatic vehicle location (AVL). In these systems, the street centerlines are described as routable . In addition to geocoding and accurate street centerlines, intersections have attributes or scores. Can

13680-431: The total development cost. Completing a software project involves various forms of expertise, not just in software programmers but also testing, documentation writing, project management , graphic design , user experience , user support, marketing , and fundraising. Software quality is defined as meeting the stated requirements as well as customer expectations. Quality is an overarching term that can refer to

13800-456: Was able to determine the source of a cholera outbreak in London through the use of spatial analysis. Snow achieved this through plotting the residence of each casualty on a map of the area, as well as the nearby water sources. Once these points were marked, he was able to identify the water source within the cluster that was responsible for the outbreak. This was one of the earliest successful uses of

13920-592: Was never available commercially. In 1964, Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965–1991), where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY, to universities, research centers and corporations worldwide. These programs were

14040-411: Was particularly used for printing contours – drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the draughtsman . This work was initially drawn on glass plates, but later plastic film was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others. When all

14160-401: Was simultaneous with the compilers needed to translate them automatically into machine code. Most programs do not contain all the resources needed to run them and rely on external libraries . Part of the compiler's function is to link these files in such a way that the program can be executed by the hardware. Once compiled, the program can be saved as an object file and the loader (part of

14280-590: Was used came from the field of epidemiology in the Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine (1832). French cartographer and geographer Charles Picquet created a map outlining the forty-eight districts in Paris , using halftone color gradients, to provide a visual representation for the number of reported deaths due to cholera per every 1,000 inhabitants. In 1854, John Snow , an epidemiologist and physician,

14400-454: Was used to link the photographs and measure the ground. Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data than aircraft. Helikites can be used over roads, railways and towns where unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are banned. Recently aerial data collection has become more accessible with miniature UAVs and drones. For example, the Aeryon Scout was used to map a 50-acre area with

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