The Colorado Railroad Museum is a non-profit railroad museum . The museum is located on 15 acres (6.1 ha) at a point where Clear Creek flows between North and South Table Mountains in Golden , Colorado .
166-485: The museum was established in 1959 to preserve a record of Colorado 's flamboyant railroad era, particularly the state's pioneering narrow-gauge mountain railroads. The museum building is a replica of an 1880s-style railroad depot . Exhibits feature original photographs by pioneer photographers such as William Henry Jackson and Louis Charles McClure, as well as paintings by Howard L Fogg , Otto Kuhler , Ted Rose and other artists. Locomotives and railroad cars modeled in
332-689: A gunman killed 10 people , including a police officer, in a King Soopers supermarket in Boulder . In an instance of anti-LGBT violence , a gunman killed 5 people at a nightclub in Colorado Springs during the night of November 19–20, 2022. Four warships of the U.S. Navy have been named the USS Colorado . The first USS Colorado was named for the Colorado River and served in the Civil War and later
498-530: A mammal adapted to desert life. It minimizes its water loss by producing concentrated urine and dry dung , and is able to lose 40% of its body weight through water loss without dying of dehydration. Carnivores can obtain much of their water needs from the body fluids of their prey. Many other hot desert animals are nocturnal , seeking out shade during the day or dwelling underground in burrows. At depths of more than 50 cm (20 in), these remain at between 30 and 32 °C (86 and 90 °F) regardless of
664-455: A mosaic of smooth stones, often forming desert pavements , and little further erosion takes place. Other desert features include rock outcrops , exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water. Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate. There may be underground sources of water, in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers . Where these are found, oases can occur. Plants and animals living in
830-456: A sand blasting mechanism which grinds away solid objects in its path as the kinetic energy of the wind is transferred to the ground. The sand eventually ends up deposited in level areas known as sand-fields or sand-seas, or piled up in dunes. Many people think of deserts as consisting of extensive areas of billowing sand dunes because that is the way they are often depicted on TV and in films, but deserts do not always look like this. Across
996-428: A semi-arid climate and are less extreme than regular deserts. Like arid deserts, temperatures can vary greatly in semi deserts. They share some characteristics of a true desert and are usually located at the edge of deserts and continental dry areas. They usually receive precipitation from 250 to 500 mm (9.8 to 19.7 in) but this can vary due to evapotranspiration and soil nutrition. Semi-deserts can be found in
1162-438: A desert conglomerate . In time, bacteria that live on the surface of the stones accumulate a film of minerals and clay particles, forming a shiny brown coating known as desert varnish . Other non-sandy deserts consist of exposed outcrops of bedrock , dry soils or aridisols , and a variety of landforms affected by flowing water , such as alluvial fans , sinks or playas , temporary or permanent lakes , and oases. A hamada
1328-505: A destructive effect on the exposed rocky surfaces. The repeated fluctuations put a strain on exposed rock and the flanks of mountains crack and shatter. Fragmented strata slide down into the valleys where they continue to break into pieces due to the relentless sun by day and chill by night. Successive strata are exposed to further weathering. The relief of the internal pressure that has built up in rocks that have been underground for aeons can cause them to shatter. Exfoliation also occurs when
1494-577: A large collection of 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow-gauge rolling stock and provides narrow-gauge train rides on special event days known as "Steam Up days". The museum also has ex- Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad No. 683 , a coal-burning 2-8-0 " Consolidation " type steam locomotive built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1890, builders number 11207. It is the only surviving 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1,435 mm ) standard gauge steam locomotive from
1660-415: A low basal metabolic rate and by remaining underground during the heat of the day, reducing loss of water through its skin and respiratory system when at rest. Herbivorous mammals obtain moisture from the plants they eat. Species such as the addax antelope , dik-dik , Grant's gazelle and oryx are so efficient at doing this that they apparently never need to drink. The camel is a superb example of
1826-648: A major industry in Colorado. This period became known locally as the Carnation Gold Rush . Poor labor conditions and discontent among miners resulted in several major clashes between strikers and the Colorado National Guard , including the 1903–1904 Western Federation of Miners Strike and Colorado Coalfield War , the latter of which included the Ludlow massacre that killed a dozen women and children. Both
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#17328448589291992-484: A number of ways, generally combining total precipitation, number of days on which this falls, temperature, and humidity, and sometimes additional factors. For example, Phoenix, Arizona , receives less than 250 mm (9.8 in) of precipitation per year, and is immediately recognized as being located in a desert because of its aridity-adapted plants. The North Slope of Alaska's Brooks Range also receives less than 250 mm (9.8 in) of precipitation per year and
2158-628: A rapid decline in the organization's power, with membership waning significantly by the end of the 1920s. Colorado became the first western state to host a major political convention when the Democratic Party met in Denver in 1908. By the U.S. census in 1930 , the population of Colorado first exceeded one million residents. Colorado suffered greatly through the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl of
2324-423: A series of long, linear dunes known as seif dunes may form. These also occur parallel to a strong wind that blows in one general direction. Transverse dunes run at a right angle to the prevailing wind direction. Star dunes are formed by variable winds, and have several ridges and slip faces radiating from a central point. They tend to grow vertically; they can reach a height of 500 m (1,600 ft), making them
2490-636: A significant portion of the extreme weather occurs in the least populated areas of the state. Thunderstorms are common east of the Continental Divide in the spring and summer, yet are usually brief. Hail is a common sight in the mountains east of the Divide and across the eastern Plains, especially the northeast part of the state. Hail is the most commonly reported warm-season severe weather hazard, and occasionally causes human injuries, as well as significant property damage. The eastern Plains are subject to some of
2656-461: A sparse trophic network . Plant growth is limited by rainfall , temperature extremes and desiccating winds. Deserts have strong temporal variability in the availability of resources due to the total amount of annual rainfall and the size of individual rainfall events. Resources are often ephemeral or episodic, and this triggers sporadic animal movements and 'pulse and reserve' or 'boom-bust' ecosystem dynamics. Erosion and sedimentation are high due to
2822-439: A steady wind begins to blow, fine particles lying on the exposed ground begin to vibrate. At greater wind speeds, some particles are lifted into the air stream. When they land, they strike other particles which may be jerked into the air in their turn, starting a chain reaction . Once ejected, these particles move in one of three possible ways, depending on their size, shape and density; suspension , saltation or creep. Suspension
2988-514: A storm that may be many kilometers away. Most deserts are in basins with no drainage to the sea but some are crossed by exotic rivers sourced in mountain ranges or other high rainfall areas beyond their borders. The River Nile , the Colorado River and the Yellow River do this, losing much of their water through evaporation as they pass through the desert and raising groundwater levels nearby. There may also be underground sources of water in deserts in
3154-485: A tolerable level. In many ways, birds are the ablest to do this of the higher animals. They can move to areas of greater food availability as the desert blooms after local rainfall and can fly to faraway waterholes. In hot deserts, gliding birds can remove themselves from the over-heated desert floor by using thermals to soar in the cooler air at great heights. In order to conserve energy, other desert birds run rather than fly. The cream-colored courser flits gracefully across
3320-632: A type of cold desert . While they do not lack water, having a persistent cover of snow and ice, this is merely due to marginal evaporation rates and low precipitation. The McMurdo dry valleys of Antarctica, which lack water (whether rain, ice, or snow) much like a non-polar desert and even have such desert features as hypersaline lakes and intermittent streams that resemble (except for being frozen at their surfaces) hot or cold deserts for extreme aridity and lack of precipitation of any kind. Extreme winds and not seasonal heat desiccate these nearly-lifeless terrains. The concept of "biological desert" redefines
3486-400: A year; they have no annual seasonal cycle of precipitation and experience twelve-month periods with no rainfall at all. Arid deserts receive between 25 and 200 mm (1 and 8 in) in a year and semiarid deserts between 200 and 500 mm (8 and 20 in). However, such factors as the temperature, humidity, rate of evaporation and evapotranspiration, and the moisture storage capacity of
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#17328448589293652-465: Is 150 km (93 mi) long and is the largest oasis in the Libyan Desert. A lake occupied this depression in ancient times and thick deposits of sandy-clay resulted. Wells are dug to extract water from the porous sandstone that lies underneath. Seepages may occur in the walls of canyons and pools may survive in deep shade near the dried up watercourse below. Lakes may form in basins where there
3818-617: Is a state in the Western United States . It is one of the Mountain states , sharing the Four Corners region with Arizona , New Mexico , and Utah . It is also bordered by Wyoming to the north, Nebraska to the northeast, Kansas to the east, and Oklahoma to the southeast. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains , forests , high plains , mesas , canyons , plateaus , rivers , and desert lands. It encompasses most of
3984-525: Is a jumble of eroded sandstone outcrops , canyons , blocks, pinnacles , fissures , slabs and ravines . In some places the wind has carved holes or arches, and in others, it has created mushroom-like pillars narrower at the base than the top. On the Colorado Plateau , it is water that has been the prevailing eroding force. Here, rivers, such as the Colorado , have cut their way over the millennia through
4150-512: Is a mix of high plains, foothills, and mountains. Northwest and west Colorado are predominantly mountainous, with some desert lands mixed in. Southwest and southern Colorado are a complex mixture of desert and mountain areas. The climate of the Eastern Plains is semi-arid ( Köppen climate classification : BSk ) with low humidity and moderate precipitation, usually from 15 to 25 inches (380 to 640 millimeters) annually, although many areas near
4316-532: Is a type of desert landscape consisting of a high rocky plateau where the sand has been removed by aeolian processes . Other landforms include plains largely covered by gravels and angular boulders, from which the finer particles have been stripped by the wind. These are called "reg" in the western Sahara, "serir" in the eastern Sahara, "gibber plains" in Australia and "saï" in central Asia. The Tassili Plateau in Algeria
4482-623: Is continuous above 5,600 m (18,400 ft). Nevertheless, there is some plant life in the Atacama, in the form of specialist plants that obtain moisture from dew and the fogs that blow in from the Pacific. When rain falls in deserts, as it occasionally does, it is often with great violence. The desert surface is evidence of this with dry stream channels known as arroyos or wadis meandering across its surface. These can experience flash floods , becoming raging torrents with surprising rapidity after
4648-806: Is drained by the Colorado River. The South Park of Colorado is the region of the headwaters of the South Platte River. In south-central Colorado is the large San Luis Valley , where the headwaters of the Rio Grande are located. The northern part of the valley is the San Luis Closed Basin , an endorheic basin that helped created the Great Sand Dunes . The valley sits between the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and San Juan Mountains . The Rio Grande drains due south into New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. Across
4814-659: Is flat and rolling land. East of the Rocky Mountains is the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains , the section of the Great Plains within Colorado at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet (1,020 to 2,290 m). The Colorado plains are mostly prairies but also include deciduous forests , buttes , and canyons. Precipitation averages 15 to 25 inches (380 to 640 mm) annually. Eastern Colorado
4980-533: Is generally accessed through artesian wells . Heavy usage of these wells for irrigation purposes caused underground water reserves to decline in the region. Eastern Colorado also hosts a considerable amount and range of livestock, such as cattle ranches and hog farms. Roughly 70% of Colorado's population resides along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming , and Pueblo, Colorado . This region
5146-479: Is higher than that of forests or the sea. A desert is a region of land that is very dry because it receives low amounts of precipitation (usually in the form of rain, but it may be snow, mist or fog), often has little coverage by plants, and in which streams dry up unless they are supplied by water from outside the area. Deserts generally receive less than 250 mm (10 in) of precipitation each year. The potential evapotranspiration may be large but (in
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5312-739: Is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. The Continental Divide of the Americas extends along the crest of the Rocky Mountains. The area of Colorado to the west of the Continental Divide is called the Western Slope of Colorado . West of the Continental Divide, water flows to the southwest via the Colorado River and the Green River towards the Gulf of California . Within
5478-521: Is known as "The Western Slope") are the cities of Grand Junction , Durango , and Montrose . Download coordinates as: To the west of the Great Plains of Colorado rises the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains . Notable peaks of the Rocky Mountains include Longs Peak , Mount Blue Sky , Pikes Peak , and the Spanish Peaks near Walsenburg , in southern Colorado. This area drains to the east and
5644-459: Is more complex than states outside of the Mountain States region. Unlike most other states, southern Colorado is not always warmer than northern Colorado. Most of Colorado is made up of mountains, foothills, high plains, and desert lands. Mountains and surrounding valleys greatly affect the local climate. Northeast, east, and southeast Colorado are mostly the high plains, while Northern Colorado
5810-551: Is often classified as a cold desert. Other regions of the world have cold deserts, including areas of the Himalayas and other high-altitude areas in other parts of the world. Polar deserts cover much of the ice-free areas of the Arctic and Antarctic. A non-technical definition is that deserts are those parts of Earth's surface that have insufficient vegetation cover to support a human population. Potential evapotranspiration supplements
5976-434: Is often less than 40 mm or 1.5 in) to being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture and are often in the lee of mountain ranges. Montane deserts are normally cold, or may be scorchingly hot by day and very cold by night as is true of the northeastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro . Polar deserts such as McMurdo Dry Valleys remain ice-free because of the dry katabatic winds that flow downhill from
6142-421: Is only possible for particles less than 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) in diameter. In a dust storm, these fine particles are lifted up and wafted aloft to heights of up to 6 km (3.7 mi). They reduce visibility and can remain in the atmosphere for days on end, conveyed by the trade winds for distances of up to 6,000 km (3,700 mi). Denser clouds of dust can be formed in stronger winds, moving across
6308-510: Is partially protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The "Front Range" includes Denver, Boulder , Fort Collins , Loveland, Castle Rock , Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley, and other townships and municipalities in between. On the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in western Colorado (which
6474-546: Is presently mainly farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages and towns. Corn , wheat , hay , soybeans , and oats are all typical crops. Most villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator . Irrigation water is available from both surface and subterranean sources. Surface water sources include the South Platte , the Arkansas River , and a few other streams. Subterranean water
6640-486: Is sufficient precipitation or meltwater from glaciers above. They are usually shallow and saline, and wind blowing over their surface can cause stress, moving the water over nearby low-lying areas. When the lakes dry up, they leave a crust or hardpan behind. This area of deposited clay, silt or sand is known as a playa . The deserts of North America have more than one hundred playas, many of them relics of Lake Bonneville which covered parts of Utah, Nevada and Idaho during
6806-657: Is the Atacama Desert . It is virtually devoid of life because it is blocked from receiving precipitation by the Andes mountains to the east and the Chilean Coast Range to the west. The cold Humboldt Current and the anticyclone of the Pacific are essential to keep the dry climate of the Atacama. The average precipitation in the Chilean region of Antofagasta is just 1 mm (0.039 in) per year. Some weather stations in
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6972-457: Is the highest point in Colorado and the Rocky Mountains of North America. Colorado is the only U.S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado , and into Cheyenne County, Kansas , is the lowest in Colorado at 3,317 feet (1,011 m) elevation. This point, which is the highest low elevation point of any state,
7138-450: Is the key to plant growth. It can only take place during the day as energy from the sun is required, but during the day, many deserts become very hot. Opening stomata to allow in the carbon dioxide necessary for the process causes evapotranspiration , and conservation of water is a top priority for desert vegetation. Some plants have resolved this problem by adopting crassulacean acid metabolism , allowing them to open their stomata during
7304-431: Is the specializations of mammalian kidneys shown by desert-inhabiting species. Many examples of convergent evolution have been identified in desert organisms, including between cacti and Euphorbia , kangaroo rats and jerboas , Phrynosoma and Moloch lizards. Deserts present a very challenging environment for animals. Not only do they require food and water but they also need to keep their body temperature at
7470-557: Is today the State of Colorado has been inhabited by Native Americans and their Paleoamerican ancestors for at least 13,500 years and possibly more than 37,000 years. The eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains was a major migration route that was important to the spread of early peoples throughout the Americas. The Lindenmeier site in Larimer County contains artifacts dating from approximately 8720 BCE. The Ancient Pueblo peoples lived in
7636-446: Is used by trains on operating days. The museum's roster contains the following notable pieces of rolling stock: 39°46′19″N 105°11′35″W / 39.771875°N 105.192969444°W / 39.771875; -105.192969444 Colorado Colorado ( / ˌ k ɒ l ə ˈ r æ d oʊ , - ˈ r ɑː d oʊ / KOL -ə- RAD -oh, - RAH -doh , other variants; Spanish: [koloˈɾaðo] )
7802-528: Is very cold and carries little moisture so little precipitation occurs and what does fall, usually snow, is carried along in the often strong wind and may form blizzards, drifts and dunes similar to those caused by dust and sand in other desert regions. In Antarctica , for example, the annual precipitation is about 50 mm (2 in) on the central plateau and some ten times that amount on some major peninsulas. Based on precipitation alone, hyperarid deserts receive less than 25 mm (1 in) of rainfall
7968-432: Is very prone to droughts. Most of the precipitation comes from thunderstorms, which can be severe, and from major snowstorms that occur in the winter and early spring. Otherwise, winters tend to be mostly dry and cold. In much of the region, March is the snowiest month. April and May are normally the rainiest months, while April is the wettest month overall. The Front Range cities closer to the mountains tend to be warmer in
8134-561: The Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. The treaty took effect on February 22, 1821. Having settled its border with Spain, the U.S. admitted the southeastern portion of the Territory of Missouri to the Union as the state of Missouri on August 10, 1821. The remainder of Missouri Territory, including what would become northeastern Colorado, became an unorganized territory and remained so for 33 years over
8300-524: The Asiatic Squadron , where it was attacked during the 1871 Korean Expedition . The later three ships were named in honor of the state, including an armored cruiser and the battleship USS Colorado , the latter of which was the lead ship of her class and served in World War II in the Pacific beginning in 1941. At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor , the battleship USS Colorado was located at
8466-669: The Atacama Desert . Deserts of this type are often long and narrow and bounded to the east by mountain ranges. They occur in Namibia , Chile , southern California and Baja California . Other coastal deserts influenced by cold currents are found in Western Australia , the Arabian Peninsula and Horn of Africa , and the western fringes of the Sahara. In 1961, Peveril Meigs divided desert regions on Earth into three categories according to
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#17328448589298632-547: The Great Lakes region to hunt across the High Plains of Colorado and Wyoming . The Spanish Empire claimed Colorado as part of Nuevo México . The U.S. acquired the territorial claim to the eastern Rocky Mountains with the Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803. This U.S. claim conflicted with the claim by Spain to the upper Arkansas River Basin . In 1806, Zebulon Pike led a U.S. Army reconnaissance expedition into
8798-696: The Provisional Government of the Territory of Jefferson on August 24, 1859, but this new territory failed to secure approval from the Congress of the United States embroiled in the debate over slavery. The election of Abraham Lincoln for the President of the United States on November 6, 1860, led to the secession of nine southern slave states and the threat of civil war among the states . Seeking to augment
8964-605: The Rocky Mountains was a major migration route for early peoples who spread throughout the Americas. In 1848, much of the Nuevo México region was annexed to the United States with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . The Pike's Peak Gold Rush of 1858–1862 created an influx of settlers. On February 28, 1861, U.S. President James Buchanan signed an act creating the Territory of Colorado , and on August 1, 1876, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Proclamation 230 , admitting Colorado to
9130-632: The Sangre de Cristo Range to the east of the San Luis Valley lies the Wet Mountain Valley . These basins, particularly the San Luis Valley, lie along the Rio Grande rift , a major geological formation of the Rocky Mountains, and its branches. The Western Slope of Colorado includes the western face of the Rocky Mountains and all of the area to the western border. This area includes several terrains and climates from alpine mountains to arid deserts. The Western Slope includes many ski resort towns in
9296-641: The Southern Rocky Mountains , as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains . Colorado is the eighth most extensive and 21st most populous U.S. state. The United States Census Bureau estimated the population of Colorado at 5,877,610 as of July 1, 2023, a 1.80% increase since the 2020 United States census. The region has been inhabited by Native Americans and their ancestors for at least 13,500 years and possibly much longer. The eastern edge of
9462-545: The Territory of New Mexico , and the Territory of Utah . On April 9, 1851, Hispano settlers from the area of Taos settled the village of San Luis , then in the New Mexico Territory , as Colorado's first permanent Euro-American settlement , further cementing the traditions of New Mexican cuisine and New Mexico music in the developing Southern Rocky Mountain Front . In 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas persuaded
9628-574: The U.S. Congress to divide the unorganized territory east of the Continental Divide into two new organized territories, the Territory of Kansas and the Territory of Nebraska , and an unorganized southern region known as the Indian Territory . Each new territory was to decide the fate of slavery within its boundaries, but this compromise merely served to fuel animosity between free soil and pro-slavery factions. The gold seekers organized
9794-542: The Union as the 38th state. The Spanish adjective "colorado" means "colored red" or "ruddy". Colorado is nicknamed the " Centennial State " because it became a state 100 years (and four weeks) after the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence . Denver is the capital, the most populous city , and the center of the Front Range Urban Corridor . Colorado Springs is the second most populous city of
9960-502: The Union cause. In 1862, a force of Texas cavalry invaded the Territory of New Mexico and captured Santa Fe on March 10. The object of this Western Campaign was to seize or disrupt Colorado and California's gold fields and seize Pacific Ocean ports for the Confederacy. A hastily organized force of Colorado volunteers force-marched from Denver City, Colorado Territory , to Glorieta Pass , New Mexico Territory, in an attempt to block
10126-597: The Ute Indian reservation in southwestern Colorado. The Ute people were removed from the San Juan Mountains the following year. The United States Congress passed an enabling act on March 3, 1875, specifying the requirements for the Territory of Colorado to become a state. On August 1, 1876 (four weeks after the Centennial of the United States ), U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signed a proclamation admitting Colorado to
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#173284485892910292-470: The free Territory of Colorado . The original boundaries of Colorado remain unchanged except for government survey amendments. In 1776, Spanish priest Silvestre Vélez de Escalante recorded that Native Americans in the area knew the river as el Rio Colorado for the red-brown silt that the river carried from the mountains. In 1859, a U.S. Army topographic expedition led by Captain John Macomb located
10458-616: The horse latitudes at 30° to 35° North and South. These belts are associated with the subtropical anticyclone and the large-scale descent of dry air. The Sahara Desert is of this type. Mid-latitude deserts occur between 30° and 50° North and South. They are mostly in areas remote from the sea where most of the moisture has already precipitated from the prevailing winds. They include the Tengger and Sonoran Deserts . Monsoon deserts are similar. They occur in regions where large temperature differences occur between sea and land. Moist warm air rises over
10624-798: The one inch scale by Herb Votaw are also displayed. A bay window contains a reconstructed depot telegrapher's office, complete with a working telegraph sounder . The lower level of the museum building contains an exhibition hall which features seasonal and traveling displays on railroading history. The lower level also contains the Denver HO Model Railroad Club's "Denver and Western" operating HO and HOn3 scale model train layout that represent Colorado's rail history in miniature. The Robert W. Richardson Library houses over 10,000 rare historic photographs, along with other reference materials such as timetables, maps, employee records and engineering documents about Colorado railroads. The museum has
10790-526: The question of slavery . After 11 years of war, Spain finally recognized the independence of Mexico with the Treaty of Córdoba signed on August 24, 1821. Mexico eventually ratified the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1831. The Texian Revolt of 1835–36 fomented a dispute between the U.S. and Mexico which eventually erupted into the Mexican–American War in 1846. Mexico surrendered its northern territory to
10956-414: The rocks , which consequently break in pieces. Although rain seldom occurs in deserts, there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods. Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter, and the resulting fragments and rubble strewn over the desert floor are further eroded by the wind. This picks up particles of sand and dust, which can remain airborne for extended periods – sometimes causing
11122-417: The windward slope of the mountain range . When they descend on the leeward side, they warm and their capacity to hold moisture increases so an area with relatively little precipitation occurs. The Taklamakan Desert is an example, lying in the rain shadow of the Himalayas and receiving less than 38 mm (1.5 in) precipitation annually. Other areas are arid by virtue of being a very long way from
11288-581: The 1913–1914 Coalfield War and the Denver streetcar strike of 1920 resulted in federal troops intervening to end the violence. In 1927, the 1927-28 Colorado coal strike occurred and was ultimately successful in winning a dollar a day increase in wages. During it however the Columbine Mine massacre resulted in six dead strikers following a confrontation with Colorado Rangers . In a separate incident in Trinidad
11454-404: The 1930s, but a major wave of immigration following World War II boosted Colorado's fortune. Tourism became a mainstay of the state economy, and high technology became an important economic engine. The United States Census Bureau estimated that the population of Colorado exceeded five million in 2009. On September 11, 1957, a plutonium fire occurred at the Rocky Flats Plant , which resulted in
11620-434: The Atacama have never received rain. Evidence suggests that the Atacama may not have had any significant rainfall from 1570 to 1971. It is so arid that mountains that reach as high as 6,885 m (22,589 ft) are completely free of glaciers and, in the southern part from 25°S to 27°S, may have been glacier-free throughout the Quaternary , though permafrost extends down to an altitude of 4,400 m (14,400 ft) and
11786-403: The Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad. All of the railroad equipment is displayed outdoors. Display tracks are complete with a rare three-way stub switch , dual gauge track and switches and century-old switch stands. These tracks hold over 100 historic narrow and standard gauge locomotives and cars. The 1 ⁄ 3 mile (0.54 km) oval of 3 ft ( 914 mm ) gauge track
11952-565: The Green River briefly crosses over into Colorado. The Western Slope of Colorado is drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries (primarily the Gunnison River , Green River , and the San Juan River ). The Colorado River flows through Glenwood Canyon , and then through an arid valley made up of desert from Rifle to Parachute , through the desert canyon of De Beque Canyon , and into
12118-463: The Rocky Mountains and towns west to Utah. It is less populous than the Front Range but includes a large number of national parks and monuments. The northwestern corner of Colorado is a sparsely populated region, and it contains part of the noted Dinosaur National Monument , which not only is a paleontological area, but is also a scenic area of rocky hills, canyons, arid desert, and streambeds. Here,
12284-725: The Southwestern United States. In 1864, Territorial Governor John Evans appointed the Reverend John Chivington as Colonel of the Colorado Volunteers with orders to protect white settlers from Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors who were accused of stealing cattle. Colonel Chivington ordered his troops to attack a band of Cheyenne and Arapaho encamped along Sand Creek. Chivington reported that his troops killed more than 500 warriors. The militia returned to Denver City in triumph, but several officers reported that
12450-697: The Territory. The Union Pacific linked up with the Central Pacific Railroad at Promontory Summit, Utah , on May 10, 1869, to form the First transcontinental railroad . The Denver Pacific Railway reached Denver in June of the following year, and the Kansas Pacific arrived two months later to forge the second line across the continent. In 1872, rich veins of silver were discovered in the San Juan Mountains on
12616-669: The Texans. On March 28, the Coloradans and local New Mexico volunteers stopped the Texans at the Battle of Glorieta Pass , destroyed their cannon and supply wagons, and dispersed 500 of their horses and mules. The Texans were forced to retreat to Santa Fe. Having lost the supplies for their campaign and finding little support in New Mexico, the Texans abandoned Santa Fe and returned to San Antonio in defeat. The Confederacy made no further attempts to seize
12782-573: The U.S. with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo after the war in 1848; this included much of the western and southern areas of Colorado. Most American settlers first traveled to Colorado through the Santa Fe Trail , which connected the U.S. to Santa Fe and the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro southward. Others were traveling overland west to the Oregon Country , the new goldfields of California , or
12948-461: The Union as the 38th state and earning it the moniker "Centennial State". The discovery of a major silver lode near Leadville in 1878 triggered the Colorado Silver Boom . The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 invigorated silver mining, and Colorado's last, but greatest, gold strike at Cripple Creek a few months later lured a new generation of gold seekers. Colorado women were granted
13114-765: The Western Slope can be found at Colorado Mesa University in Grand Junction, Western Colorado University in Gunnison, Fort Lewis College in Durango, and Colorado Mountain College in Glenwood Springs and Steamboat Springs. The Four Corners Monument in the southwest corner of Colorado marks the common boundary of Colorado, New Mexico , Arizona , and Utah ; the only such place in the United States. The climate of Colorado
13280-502: The Western Slope. Grand Junction and Durango are the only major centers of television broadcasting west of the Continental Divide in Colorado, though most mountain resort communities publish daily newspapers. Grand Junction is located at the juncture of Interstate 70 and US 50, the only major highways in western Colorado. Grand Junction is also along the major railroad of the Western Slope, the Union Pacific . This railroad also provides
13446-517: The absence of available water) the actual evapotranspiration may be close to zero. Semi-deserts are regions which receive between 250 and 500 mm (10 and 20 in) and when clad in grass, these are known as steppes . Most deserts on Earth such as the Sahara Desert , Grand Australian Desert and the Great Basin Desert , occur in low altitudes . One of the driest places on Earth
13612-401: The air but soon fall back to earth, ejecting other particles in the process. Their weight prevents them from being airborne for long and most only travel a distance of a few meters (yards). The sand streams along above the surface of the ground like a fluid, often rising to heights of about 30 cm (12 in). In a really severe steady blow, 2 m (6 ft 7 in) is about as high as
13778-552: The alpine snow melts by mid-August except for a few snow-capped peaks and a few small glaciers. The Colorado Mineral Belt , stretching from the San Juan Mountains in the southwest to Boulder and Central City on the front range, contains most of the historic gold- and silver-mining districts of Colorado. The 30 highest major summits of the Rocky Mountains of North America are all within the state. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,437.6 feet (4,400.58 m) elevation in Lake County
13944-722: The amount of precipitation they received. In this now widely accepted system, extremely arid lands have at least twelve consecutive months without precipitation, arid lands have less than 250 mm (9.8 in) of annual precipitation, and semiarid lands have a mean annual precipitation of between 250 and 500 mm (9.8 and 19.7 in). Both extremely arid and arid lands are considered to be deserts while semiarid lands are generally referred to as steppes when they are grasslands. Deserts are also classified, according to their geographical location and dominant weather pattern, as trade wind, mid-latitude, rain shadow, coastal, monsoon, or polar deserts . Trade wind deserts occur either side of
14110-455: The arid desert of Grand Valley , where the city of Grand Junction is located. Also prominent is the Grand Mesa , which lies to the southeast of Grand Junction; the high San Juan Mountains, a rugged mountain range; and to the north and west of the San Juan Mountains, the Colorado Plateau . Grand Junction, Colorado , at the confluence of the Colorado and Gunnison Rivers, is the largest city on
14276-411: The barren rock is to be found in the so-called Dry Valleys of Antarctica that almost never get snow, which can have ice-encrusted saline lakes that suggest evaporation far greater than the rare snowfall due to the strong katabatic winds that even evaporate ice. Deserts, both hot and cold, play a part in moderating Earth's temperature, because they reflect more of the incoming light and their albedo
14442-461: The biggest hail storms in North America. Notable examples are the severe hailstorms that hit Denver on July 11, 1990, and May 8, 2017, the latter being the costliest ever in the state. Desert A desert is a landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions create unique biomes and ecosystems. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of
14608-493: The boundaries of the new Territory of Colorado exclusively by lines of latitude and longitude , stretching from 37°N to 41°N latitude, and from 102°02′48″W to 109°02′48″W longitude ( 25°W to 32°W from the Washington Meridian ). After 163 years of government surveys, the borders of Colorado were officially defined by 697 boundary markers and 697 straight boundary lines . Colorado, Wyoming , and Utah are
14774-457: The capture of large quantities of solar energy . English desert and its Romance cognates (including Italian and Portuguese deserto , French désert and Spanish desierto ) all come from the ecclesiastical Latin dēsertum (originally "an abandoned place"), a participle of dēserere , "to abandon". The correlation between aridity and sparse population is complex and dynamic, varying by culture, era, and technologies; thus
14940-516: The cellular structure of which has been modified to allow them to store water. When rain falls, the water is rapidly absorbed by the shallow roots and retained to allow them to survive until the next downpour, which may be months or years away. The giant saguaro cacti of the Sonoran Desert form "forests", providing shade for other plants and nesting places for desert birds. Saguaro grows slowly but may live for up to two hundred years. The surface of
15106-615: The coldest part of the year. Animals adapted to live in deserts are called xerocoles . There is no evidence that body temperature of mammals and birds is adaptive to the different climates, either of great heat or cold. In fact, with a very few exceptions, their basal metabolic rate is determined by body size, irrespective of the climate in which they live. Many desert animals (and plants) show especially clear evolutionary adaptations for water conservation or heat tolerance and so are often studied in comparative physiology , ecophysiology , and evolutionary physiology . One well-studied example
15272-597: The collision between airborne particles and by the impacts of saltating sand grains landing on the ground. The mechanism is little understood but the particles usually have a negative charge when their diameter is under 250 μm and a positive one when they are over 500 μm. Deserts and semi-deserts are home to ecosystems with low or very low biomass and primary productivity in arid or semi-arid climates. They are mostly found in subtropical high-pressure belts and major continental rain shadows . Primary productivity depends on low densities of small photoautotrophs that sustain
15438-586: The color of the underlying surface. The desert lark takes frequent dust baths which ensures that it matches its environment. Water and carbon dioxide are metabolic end products of oxidation of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. Oxidising a gram of carbohydrate produces 0.60 grams of water; a gram of protein produces 0.41 grams of water; and a gram of fat produces 1.07 grams of water, making it possible for xerocoles to live with little or no access to drinking water. The kangaroo rat for example makes use of this water of metabolism and conserves water both by having
15604-468: The concept of desert, without the characteristic of aridity, not lacking water, but instead lacking life. Such places can be so-called "ocean deserts", which are mostly at the centers of gyres , but also hypoxic or anoxic waters such as dead zones . Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high daytime temperatures falling sharply at night. The diurnal range may be as much as 20 to 30 °C (36 to 54 °F) and
15770-625: The confluence of the Green River with the Grand River in what is now Canyonlands National Park in Utah . The Macomb party designated the confluence as the source of the Colorado River. On April 12, 1861, South Carolina artillery opened fire on Fort Sumter to start the American Civil War . While many gold seekers held sympathies for the Confederacy , the vast majority remained fiercely loyal to
15936-452: The desert floor to scarify the seed coat. The seed of the mesquite tree, which grows in deserts in the Americas, is hard and fails to sprout even when planted carefully. When it has passed through the gut of a pronghorn it germinates readily, and the little pile of moist dung provides an excellent start to life well away from the parent tree. The stems and leaves of some plants lower the surface velocity of sand-carrying winds and protect
16102-500: The desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment. Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves, water-resistant cuticles , and often spines to deter herbivory . Some annual plants germinate , bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall, while other long-lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture. Animals need to keep cool and find enough food and water to survive. Many are nocturnal , and stay in
16268-466: The disputed region. Colonel Pike and his troops were arrested by Spanish cavalrymen in the San Luis Valley the following February, taken to Chihuahua , and expelled from Mexico the following July. The U.S. relinquished its claim to all land south and west of the Arkansas River and south of 42nd parallel north and west of the 100th meridian west as part of its purchase of Florida from Spain with
16434-587: The driest season, and others curl their leaves up to reduce transpiration. Others, such as aloes , store water in succulent leaves or stems or in fleshy tubers. Desert plants maximize water uptake by having shallow roots that spread widely, or by developing long taproots that reach down to deep rock strata for ground water. The saltbush in Australia has succulent leaves and secretes salt crystals, enabling it to live in saline areas. In common with cacti, many have developed spines to ward off browsing animals. Some desert plants produce seed which lies dormant in
16600-526: The entire Great Basin and all lands drained by the rivers Green , Grand , and Colorado . The federal government of the U.S. flatly refused to recognize the new Mormon government because it was theocratic and sanctioned plural marriage . Instead, the Compromise of 1850 divided the Mexican Cession and the northwestern claims of Texas into a new state and two new territories, the state of California ,
16766-455: The external temperature. Jerboas , desert rats , kangaroo rats and other small rodents emerge from their burrows at night and so do the foxes, coyotes, jackals and snakes that prey on them. Kangaroos keep cool by increasing their respiration rate, panting, sweating and moistening the skin of their forelegs with saliva . Mammals living in cold deserts have developed greater insulation through warmer body fur and insulating layers of fat beneath
16932-561: The form of springs , aquifers , underground rivers or lakes. Where these lie close to the surface, wells can be dug and oases may form where plant and animal life can flourish. The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System under the Sahara Desert is the largest known accumulation of fossil water . The Great Man-Made River is a scheme launched by Libya's Muammar Gaddafi to tap this aquifer and supply water to coastal cities. Kharga Oasis in Egypt
17098-407: The formation of sand storms or dust storms . Wind-blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface. Rocks are smoothed down, and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits. The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes . Other deserts are flat, stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of
17264-458: The fragmentation of harder granites , limestone and sandstone . There is a certain critical size (about 0.5 mm) below which further temperature-induced weathering of rocks does not occur and this provides a minimum size for sand grains. As the mountains are eroded, more and more sand is created. At high wind speeds, sand grains are picked up off the surface and blown along, a process known as saltation . The whirling airborne grains act as
17430-439: The ground from erosion. Even small fungi and microscopic plant organisms found on the soil surface (so-called cryptobiotic soil ) can be a vital link in preventing erosion and providing support for other living organisms. Cold deserts often have high concentrations of salt in the soil. Grasses and low shrubs are the dominant vegetation here and the ground may be covered with lichens . Most shrubs have spiny leaves and shed them in
17596-474: The ground have a marked effect on the degree of aridity and the plant and animal life that can be sustained. Rain falling in the cold season may be more effective at promoting plant growth, and defining the boundaries of deserts and the semiarid regions that surround them on the grounds of precipitation alone is problematic. A semi-arid desert or a steppe is a version of the arid desert with much more rainfall, vegetation and higher humidity. These regions feature
17762-432: The ground on its long legs, stopping periodically to snatch up insects. Like other desert birds, it is well-camouflaged by its coloring and can merge into the landscape when stationary. The sandgrouse is an expert at this and nests on the open desert floor dozens of kilometers (miles) away from the waterhole it needs to visit daily. Some small diurnal birds are found in very restricted localities where their plumage matches
17928-427: The ground rises quickly through a small pocket of cooler, low-pressure air above forming a whirling column of particles, a dust devil . Sandstorms occur with much less frequency than dust storms. They are often preceded by severe dust storms and occur when the wind velocity increases to a point where it can lift heavier particles. These grains of sand, up to about 0.5 mm (0.020 in) in diameter are jerked into
18094-587: The ground to denudation . About one-third of the land surface of the Earth is arid or semi-arid . This includes much of the polar regions , where little precipitation occurs, and which are sometimes called polar deserts or "cold deserts". Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls, by the temperature that prevails, by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location. Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on
18260-429: The high desert floor, creating canyons that are over a mile (6,000 feet or 1,800 meters) deep in places, exposing strata that are over two billion years old. Sand and dust storms are natural events that occur in arid regions where the land is not protected by a covering of vegetation. Dust storms usually start in desert margins rather than the deserts themselves where the finer materials have already been blown away. As
18426-746: The high elevations of the Tabernas Desert (and some parts of the Spanish Plateu ), The Sahel , The Eurasian Steppe , most of Central Asia , the Western US , most of Northern Mexico , portions of South America (especially in Argentina ) and the Australian Outback . They usually feature BSh (hot steppe) or BSk (temperate steppe) in the Köppen climate classification . Coastal deserts are mostly found on
18592-450: The import of water from an outside source. Many trade routes have been forged across deserts, especially across the Sahara , and traditionally were used by caravans of camels carrying salt, gold, ivory and other goods. Large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara. Some mineral extraction also takes place in deserts, and the uninterrupted sunlight gives potential for
18758-479: The infamous Columbine High School massacre in 1999 which made international news, where two gunmen killed 12 students and one teacher, before committing suicide. The incident has spawned many copycat incidents . On July 20, 2012, a gunman killed 12 people in a movie theater in Aurora . The state responded with tighter restrictions on firearms, including introducing a limit on magazine capacity. On March 22, 2021,
18924-567: The interior of the Rocky Mountains are several large parks which are high broad basins. In the north, on the east side of the Continental Divide is the North Park of Colorado . The North Park is drained by the North Platte River , which flows north into Wyoming and Nebraska. Just to the south of North Park, but on the western side of the Continental Divide, is the Middle Park of Colorado , which
19090-523: The lack of heat to aid in the evaporation process. Deserts are sometimes classified as "hot" or "cold", "semiarid" or "coastal". The characteristics of hot deserts include high temperatures in summer; greater evaporation than precipitation, usually exacerbated by high temperatures, strong winds and lack of cloud cover; considerable variation in the occurrence of precipitation, its intensity and distribution; and low humidity. Winter temperatures vary considerably between different deserts and are often related to
19256-479: The land with a billowing leading edge. The sunlight can be obliterated and it may become as dark as night at ground level. In a study of a dust storm in China in 2001, it was estimated that 6.5 million tons of dust were involved, covering an area of 134,000,000 km (52,000,000 sq mi). The mean particle size was 1.44 μm. A much smaller scale, short-lived phenomenon can occur in calm conditions when hot air near
19422-469: The land, deposits its water content and circulates back to sea. Further inland, areas receive very little precipitation. The Thar Desert near the India/Pakistan border is of this type. In some parts of the world, deserts are created by a rain shadow effect. Orographic lift occurs as air masses rise to pass over high ground. In the process they cool and lose much of their moisture by precipitation on
19588-692: The last ice age when the climate was colder and wetter. These include the Great Salt Lake , Utah Lake , Sevier Lake and many dry lake beds. The smooth flat surfaces of playas have been used for attempted vehicle speed records at Black Rock Desert and Bonneville Speedway and the United States Air Force uses Rogers Dry Lake in the Mojave Desert as runways for aircraft and the Space Shuttle . Deserts have been defined and classified in
19754-510: The life processes of plants. Potential evapotranspiration , then, is the amount of water that could evaporate in any given region. As an example, Tucson, Arizona receives about 300 mm (12 in) of rain per year, however about 2,500 mm (98 in) of water could evaporate over the course of a year. In other words, about eight times more water could evaporate from the region than actually falls as rain. Rates of evapotranspiration in cold regions such as Alaska are much lower because of
19920-617: The local and state Democrat and Republican parties , particularly in the governor's office and city governments of Denver, Cañon City , and Durango . A particularly strong element of the Klan controlled the Denver Police . Cross burnings became semi-regular occurrences in cities such as Florence and Pueblo. The Klan targeted African-Americans, Catholics , Eastern European immigrants, and other non-White Protestant groups. Efforts by non-Klan lawmen and lawyers including Philip Van Cise led to
20086-412: The location of the desert on the continental landmass and the latitude. Daily variations in temperature can be as great as 22 °C (40 °F) or more, with heat loss by radiation at night being increased by the clear skies. Cold deserts, sometimes known as temperate deserts, occur at higher latitudes than hot deserts, and the aridity is caused by the dryness of the air. Some cold deserts are far from
20252-673: The mayor was accused of deputizing members of the KKK against the striking workers. More than 5,000 Colorado miners—many immigrants—are estimated to have died in accidents since records were first formally collected following an 1884 accident in Crested Butte that killed 59. In 1924, the Ku Klux Klan Colorado Realm achieved dominance in Colorado politics. With peak membership levels, the Second Klan levied significant control over both
20418-404: The measurement of precipitation in providing a scientific measurement-based definition of a desert. The water budget of an area can be calculated using the formula P − PE ± S , wherein P is precipitation, PE is potential evapotranspiration rates and S is the amount of surface storage of water. Evapotranspiration is the combination of water loss through atmospheric evaporation and through
20584-542: The midst and aftermath of the Civil War, many discouraged prospectors returned to their homes, but a few stayed and developed mines, mills, farms, ranches, roads, and towns in Colorado Territory. On September 14, 1864, James Huff discovered silver near Argentine Pass , the first of many silver strikes. In 1867, the Union Pacific Railroad laid its tracks west to Weir, now Julesburg , in the northeast corner of
20750-516: The naval base in San Diego, California, and thus went unscathed. The most recent vessel to bear the name USS Colorado is Virginia-class submarine USS Colorado (SSN-788) , which was commissioned in 2018. Colorado is notable for its diverse geography, which includes alpine mountains, high plains, deserts with huge sand dunes, and deep canyons. In 1861, the United States Congress defined
20916-597: The nearest available sources of moisture. Montane deserts are arid places with a very high altitude ; the most prominent example is found north of the Himalayas, in the Kunlun Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau . Many locations within this category have elevations exceeding 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and the thermal regime can be hemiboreal . These places owe their profound aridity (the average annual precipitation
21082-788: The new Mormon settlements of the State of Deseret in the Salt Lake Valley , avoided the rugged Southern Rocky Mountains , and instead followed the North Platte River and Sweetwater River to South Pass (Wyoming) , the lowest crossing of the Continental Divide between the Southern Rocky Mountains and the Central Rocky Mountains. In 1849, the Mormons of the Salt Lake Valley organized the extralegal State of Deseret , claiming
21248-409: The night to allow CO 2 to enter, and close them during the day, or by using C4 carbon fixation . Many desert plants have reduced the size of their leaves or abandoned them altogether. Cacti are present in both North and South America with a post-Gondwana origin. The genus is desert specialist, and in most species, the leaves have been dispensed with and the chlorophyll displaced into the trunks,
21414-457: The ocean and others are separated by mountain ranges from the sea, and in both cases, there is insufficient moisture in the air to cause much precipitation. The largest of these deserts are found in Central Asia. Others occur on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains , the eastern side of the southern Andes and in southern Australia. Polar deserts are a particular class of cold desert. The air
21580-473: The only states that have their borders defined solely by straight boundary lines with no natural features. The southwest corner of Colorado is the Four Corners Monument at 36°59′56″N , 109°2′43″W . The Four Corners Monument , located at the place where Colorado, New Mexico , Arizona , and Utah meet, is the only place in the United States where four states meet. Approximately half of Colorado
21746-426: The outer surfaces of rocks split off in flat flakes. This is believed to be caused by the stresses put on the rock by repeated thermal expansions and contractions which induces fracturing parallel to the original surface. Chemical weathering processes probably play a more important role in deserts than was previously thought. The necessary moisture may be present in the form of dew or mist. Ground water may be drawn to
21912-466: The pavement is formed. It may be that after the sand and dust is blown away by the wind the stones jiggle themselves into place; alternatively, stones previously below ground may in some way work themselves to the surface. Very little further erosion takes place after the formation of a pavement, and the ground becomes stable. Evaporation brings moisture to the surface by capillary action and calcium salts may be precipitated, binding particles together to form
22078-620: The plains and into the foothills, there is a wide variety of climate types. Locations merely a few miles apart can experience entirely different weather depending on the topography. Most valleys have a semi-arid climate, not unlike the eastern plains, which transitions to an alpine climate at the highest elevations. Microclimates also exist in local areas that run nearly the entire spectrum of climates, including subtropical highland ( Cfb/Cwb ), humid subtropical ( Cfa ), humid continental ( Dfa/Dfb ), Mediterranean ( Csa/Csb ) and subarctic ( Dfc ). Extreme weather changes are common in Colorado, although
22244-561: The political power of the Union states , the Republican Party -dominated Congress quickly admitted the eastern portion of the Territory of Kansas into the Union as the free State of Kansas on January 29, 1861, leaving the western portion of the Kansas Territory, and its gold-mining areas, as unorganized territory. Thirty days later on February 28, 1861, outgoing U.S. President James Buchanan signed an Act of Congress organizing
22410-444: The population of Colorado resides, lies in a pronounced precipitation shadow as a result of being on the lee side of the Rocky Mountains. In summer, this area can have many days above 95 °F (35 °C) and often 100 °F (38 °C). On the plains, the winter lows usually range from 25 to −10 °F (−4 to −23 °C). About 75% of the precipitation falls within the growing season, from April to September, but this area
22576-483: The right to vote on November 7, 1893, making Colorado the second state to grant universal suffrage and the first one by a popular vote (of Colorado men). The repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1893 led to a staggering collapse of the mining and agricultural economy of Colorado, but the state slowly and steadily recovered. Between the 1880s and 1930s, Denver's floriculture industry developed into
22742-405: The rivers are semi-humid climate. The area is known for its abundant sunshine and cool, clear nights, which give this area a great average diurnal temperature range . The difference between the highs of the days and the lows of the nights can be considerable as warmth dissipates to space during clear nights, the heat radiation not being trapped by clouds. The Front Range urban corridor, where most of
22908-438: The rock surface experiences even greater temperature differentials. During the day the sky is usually clear and most of the sun 's radiation reaches the ground, but as soon as the sun sets, the desert cools quickly by radiating heat into space. In hot deserts, the temperature during daytime can exceed 45 °C (113 °F) in summer and plunge below freezing point at night during winter. Such large temperature variations have
23074-503: The sand stream can rise as the largest sand grains do not become airborne at all. They are transported by creep, being rolled along the desert floor or performing short jumps. During a sandstorm, the wind-blown sand particles become electrically charged . Such electric fields , which range in size up to 80 kV/m, can produce sparks and cause interference with telecommunications equipment. They are also unpleasant for humans and can cause headaches and nausea. The electric fields are caused by
23240-435: The shade or underground during the heat of the day. They tend to be efficient at conserving water, extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine . Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods, ready to become active again during the rare rainfall. They then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy. People have struggled to live in deserts and
23406-441: The sheet consists of thin horizontal layers of coarse silt and very fine to medium grain sand, separated by layers of coarse sand and pea-gravel which are a single grain thick. These larger particles anchor the other particles in place and may also be packed together on the surface so as to form a miniature desert pavement. Small ripples form on the sand sheet when the wind exceeds 24 km/h (15 mph). They form perpendicular to
23572-471: The significant plutonium contamination of surrounding populated areas. From the 1940s and 1970s, many protest movements gained momentum in Colorado, predominantly in Denver. This included the Chicano Movement , a civil rights , and social movement of Mexican Americans emphasizing a Chicano identity that is widely considered to have begun in Denver. The National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference
23738-412: The skin. The arctic weasel has a metabolic rate that is two or three times as high as would be expected for an animal of its size. Birds have avoided the problem of losing heat through their feet by not attempting to maintain them at the same temperature as the rest of their bodies, a form of adaptive insulation. The emperor penguin has dense plumage, a downy under layer, an air insulation layer next to
23904-477: The so-called battle was a blatant massacre of Indians at peace, that most of the dead were women and children, and that the bodies of the dead had been hideously mutilated and desecrated. Three U.S. Army inquiries condemned the action, and incoming President Andrew Johnson asked Governor Evans for his resignation, but none of the perpetrators was ever punished. This event is now known as the Sand Creek massacre . In
24070-466: The soil until sparked into growth by rainfall. With annuals , such plants grow with great rapidity and may flower and set seed within weeks, aiming to complete their development before the last vestige of water dries up. For perennial plants, reproduction is more likely to be successful if the seed germinates in a shaded position, but not so close to the parent plant as to be in competition with it. Some seed will not germinate until it has been blown about on
24236-643: The southeast, ultimately either via the Mississippi River or the Rio Grande into the Gulf of Mexico . The Rocky Mountains within Colorado contain 53 true peaks and 58 named peaks that are 14,000 feet (4,267 m) or higher in elevation above sea level, known as fourteeners . These mountains are largely covered with trees such as conifers and aspens up to the tree line , at an elevation of about 12,000 feet (3,658 m) in southern Colorado to about 10,500 feet (3,200 m) in northern Colorado. Above this tree line, only alpine vegetation grows. Much of
24402-464: The sparse vegetation cover and the activities of large mammals and people. Plants and animals in deserts are mostly adapted to extreme and prolonged water deficits , but their reproductive phenology often responds to short episodes of surplus. Competitive interactions are weak. Plants face severe challenges in arid environments. Problems they need to solve include how to obtain enough water, how to avoid being eaten and how to reproduce. Photosynthesis
24568-456: The state. Residents of the state are known as Coloradans , although the antiquated "Coloradoan" is occasionally used. Major parts of the economy include government and defense, mining, agriculture , tourism, and increasingly other kinds of manufacturing. With increasing temperatures and decreasing water availability, Colorado's agriculture forestry, and tourism economies are expected to be heavily affected by climate change . The region that
24734-440: The surface by evaporation and the formation of salt crystals may dislodge rock particles as sand or disintegrate rocks by exfoliation. Shallow caves are sometimes formed at the base of cliffs by this means. As the desert mountains decay, large areas of shattered rock and rubble occur. The process continues and the end products are either dust or sand. Dust is formed from solidified clay or volcanic deposits whereas sand results from
24900-464: The surface of the ground. Dunes are sometimes solitary, but they are more often grouped together in dune fields. When these are extensive, they are known as sand seas or ergs . The shape of the dune depends on the characteristics of the prevailing wind. Barchan dunes are produced by strong winds blowing across a level surface and are crescent-shaped with the concave side away from the wind. When there are two directions from which winds regularly blow,
25066-561: The surrounding mountains. Former desert areas presently in non-arid environments, such as the Sandhills in Nebraska , are known as paleodeserts. In the Köppen climate classification system, deserts are classed as BWh (hot desert) or BWk (temperate desert). In the Thornthwaite climate classification system , deserts would be classified as arid megathermal climates. Polar deserts are
25232-597: The surrounding semi-arid lands for millennia. Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available, and oases have provided opportunities for a more settled way of life. The cultivation of semi-arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification. Desert farming is possible with the aid of irrigation , and the Imperial Valley in California provides an example of how previously barren land can be made productive by
25398-399: The tallest type of dune. Rounded mounds of sand without a slip face are the rare dome dunes, found on the upwind edges of sand seas. In deserts where large amounts of limestone mountains surround a closed basin , such as at White Sands National Park in south-central New Mexico , occasional storm runoff transports dissolved limestone and gypsum into a low-lying pan within the basin where
25564-495: The tracks for Amtrak 's California Zephyr passenger train, which crosses the Rocky Mountains between Denver and Grand Junction. The Western Slope includes multiple notable destinations in the Colorado Rocky Mountains, including Glenwood Springs , with its resort hot springs, and the ski resorts of Aspen , Breckenridge , Vail , Crested Butte , Steamboat Springs , and Telluride . Higher education in and near
25730-407: The trunk is folded like a concertina , allowing it to expand, and a large specimen can hold eight tons of water after a good downpour. Other xerophytic plants have developed similar strategies by a process known as convergent evolution . They limit water loss by reducing the size and number of stomata, by having waxy coatings and hairy or tiny leaves. Some are deciduous, shedding their leaves in
25896-496: The use of the word desert can cause confusion. In English before the 20th century, desert was often used in the sense of "unpopulated area", without specific reference to aridity ; but today the word is most often used in its climate-science sense (an area of low precipitation). Phrases such as " desert island " and " Great American Desert ", or Shakespeare 's "deserts of Bohemia " ( The Winter's Tale ) in previous centuries did not necessarily imply sand or aridity; their focus
26062-627: The valleys and mesas of the Colorado Plateau in far southwestern Colorado. The Ute Nation inhabited the mountain valleys of the Southern Rocky Mountains and the Western Rocky Mountains , even as far east as the Front Range of the present day. The Apache and the Comanche also inhabited the Eastern and Southeastern parts of the state. In the 17th century, the Arapaho and Cheyenne moved west from
26228-416: The water evaporates, depositing the gypsum and forming crystals known as selenite . The crystals left behind by this process are eroded by the wind and deposited as vast white dune fields that resemble snow-covered landscapes. These types of dune are rare, and only form in closed arid basins that retain the highly soluble gypsum that would otherwise be washed into the sea. A large part of the surface area of
26394-476: The western edges of continental land masses in regions where cold currents approach the land or cold water upwellings rise from the ocean depths. The cool winds crossing this water pick up little moisture and the coastal regions have low temperatures and very low rainfall, the main precipitation being in the form of fog and dew. The range of temperatures on a daily and annual scale is relatively low, being 11 °C (20 °F) and 5 °C (9 °F) respectively in
26560-404: The wind blows, saltation and creep take place on the windward side of the dune and individual grains of sand move uphill. When they reach the crest, they cascade down the far side. The upwind slope typically has a gradient of 10° to 20° while the lee slope is around 32°, the angle at which loose dry sand will slip. As this wind-induced movement of sand grains takes place, the dune moves slowly across
26726-511: The wind direction and gradually move across the surface as the wind continues to blow. The distance between their crests corresponds to the average length of jumps made by particles during saltation. The ripples are ephemeral and a change in wind direction causes them to reorganise. Sand dunes are accumulations of windblown sand piled up in mounds or ridges. They form downwind of copious sources of dry, loose sand and occur when topographic and climatic conditions cause airborne particles to settle. As
26892-467: The winter due to Chinook winds which warms the area, sometimes bringing temperatures of 70 °F (21 °C) or higher in the winter. The average July temperature is 55 °F (13 °C) in the morning and 90 °F (32 °C) in the afternoon. The average January temperature is 18 °F (−8 °C) in the morning and 48 °F (9 °C) in the afternoon, although variation between consecutive days can be 40 °F (22 °C). Just west of
27058-450: The world's deserts consists of flat, stone-covered plains dominated by wind erosion. In " eolian deflation ", the wind continually removes fine-grained material, which becomes wind-blown sand. This exposes coarser-grained material, mainly pebbles with some larger stones or cobbles , leaving a desert pavement , an area of land overlaid by closely packed smooth stones forming a tessellated mosaic. Different theories exist as to how exactly
27224-414: The world, around 20% of desert is sand, varying from only 2% in North America to 30% in Australia and over 45% in Central Asia. Where sand does occur, it is usually in large quantities in the form of sand sheets or extensive areas of dunes . A sand sheet is a near-level, firm expanse of partially consolidated particles in a layer that varies from a few centimeters to a few meters thick. The structure of
27390-486: Was held in Colorado in March 1969. In 1967, Colorado was the first state to loosen restrictions on abortion when governor John Love signed a law allowing abortions in cases of rape, incest, or threats to the woman's mental or physical health. Many states followed Colorado's lead in loosening abortion laws in the 1960s and 1970s. Since the late 1990s, Colorado has been the site of multiple major mass shootings , including
27556-459: Was the sparse population. Deserts occupy about one third of Earth's land surface. Bottomlands may be salt -covered flats. Eolian processes are major factors in shaping desert landscapes. Polar deserts (also seen as "cold deserts") have similar features, except the main form of precipitation is snow rather than rain. Antarctica is the world's largest cold desert (composed of about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock). Some of
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