67-604: Colin Luther Powell ( / ˈ k oʊ l ɪ n ˈ p aʊ ə l / KOH -lin POW -əl ; April 5, 1937 – October 18, 2021) was an American statesman, diplomat, and army officer who was the 65th United States secretary of state from 2001 to 2005. He was the first African-American to hold the office. He was the 15th national security advisor from 1987 to 1989, and the 12th chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1989 to 1993. Powell
134-470: A Lockheed AC-130 from the list of armaments requested for the operation. Powell took an early resignation from his tenure as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff on September 30, 1993. The following year President Clinton sent newly-retired Powell, together with former President Jimmy Carter and Senator Sam Nunn, to visit Haiti in an effort to persuade General Raoul Cédras and the ruling junta to abdicate in favor of former Haitian President Aristide, under
201-582: A ceremony at his ranch in Crawford, Texas on December 16, 2000. This made Powell the first person to formally accept a Cabinet post in the Bush administration, as well the first black United States secretary of state . As secretary of state, Powell was perceived as moderate. Powell was unanimously confirmed by the United States Senate by voice vote on January 20, 2001, and ceremonially sworn in on January 26. Over
268-814: A commission as an Army second lieutenant ; at this time, the Army was newly desegregated (see: Executive Order 9981 ) . He underwent training in the state of Georgia , where he was refused service in bars and restaurants because of the color of his skin . After attending basic training at Fort Benning , Powell was assigned to the 48th Infantry , in West Germany , as a platoon leader . From 1960 to 1962, he served as group liaison officer, company executive officer, and commander of Company A, 1st Battle Group, 4th Infantry, 2nd Infantry Brigade, 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized) at Fort Devens , Massachusetts. Captain Powell served
335-512: A delegate from New York , as the first Secretary for Foreign Affairs. Livingston was unable to take office until October 20, 1781. He served until June 4, 1783, and was succeeded by John Jay on December 21, 1784, who served until March 4, 1789, when the government under the Articles of Confederation gave way to the government under the Constitution . The office of Secretary of Foreign Affairs and
402-408: A few years time". In a press statement on February 24, 2001, Powell had said that sanctions against Iraq had prevented the development of any weapons of mass destruction by Saddam Hussein . Powell favored involving the international community in the invasion, as opposed to a unilateral approach . Powell's chief role was to garner international support for a multi-national coalition to mount
469-513: A form of blood cancer that damaged his immune system . Colin Luther Powell was born on April 5, 1937, in Harlem , a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan . He was born to Jamaican immigrants Maud Ariel (née McKoy) and Luther Theophilus Powell. His parents were both of mixed African and Scottish ancestry. Luther worked as a shipping clerk and Maud as a seamstress . Powell
536-443: A framed quotation by President Abraham Lincoln . The quote was "I can make a brigadier general in five minutes. But it's not so easy to replace one hundred ten horses." Taped to the back of the frame was an envelope with instructions that it not be opened for ten years. When Powell opened the note in 1989, after he had become Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, he read Purviance's prediction that Powell would become Chief of Staff of
603-526: A hypothetical match-up proposed to voters in the exit polls conducted on Election Day. Despite not standing in the race, Powell won the Republican New Hampshire Vice-Presidential primary on write-in votes. In 1997, Powell founded America's Promise with the objective of helping children from all socioeconomic sectors. That same year saw the establishment of The Colin L. Powell Center for Leadership and Service . The mission of
670-728: A meeting of foreign ministers of the Organization of American States . After the September 11 attacks , Powell's job became of critical importance in managing the United States of America's relationships with foreign countries to secure a stable coalition in the War on Terrorism . My second purpose today is ... to share with you what the United States knows about Iraq's weapons of mass destruction ... Iraq's behavior demonstrate that Saddam Hussein and his regime have made no effort ... to disarm as required by
737-671: A number of arms treaties with Mikhail Gorbachev , the leader of the Soviet Union . In April 1989, after his tenure with the National Security Council , Powell was promoted to four-star general under President George H. W. Bush and briefly served as the Commander in Chief , Forces Command (FORSCOM), headquartered at Fort McPherson, Georgia , overseeing all active U.S. Army regulars, U.S. Army Reserve , and National Guard units in
SECTION 10
#1732931451383804-514: A peg or two. Fall on your damn sword and kill yourself, and I'll be happy, too." In September 2005, Powell was asked about the speech during an interview with Barbara Walters and responded that it was a "blot" on his record. He went on to say, "It will always be a part of my record. It was painful. It's painful now." Wilkerson later said that he inadvertently participated in a hoax on the American people in preparing Powell's erroneous testimony before
871-430: A possible North Korean attack, and made them repeatedly watch the television film Brian's Song to promote racial harmony. Powell always professed that what set Emerson apart was his great love of his soldiers and concern for their welfare. After a race riot occurred, in which African-American soldiers almost killed a white officer, Powell was charged by Emerson to crack down on black militants ; Powell's efforts led to
938-457: A tour in Vietnam as a South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) advisor from 1962 to 1963. While on patrol in a Viet Cong -held area, he was wounded by stepping on a punji stake . The large infection made it difficult for him to walk, and caused his foot to swell for a short time, shortening his first tour. Powell returned to Vietnam as a major in 1968, serving as assistant chief of staff of operations for
1005-767: The 2016 United States presidential election , Powell, who was not a candidate, received three electoral votes from Washington state for the office of President of the United States. He won numerous U.S. and foreign military awards and decorations. His civilian awards included the Presidential Medal of Freedom (twice), the Congressional Gold Medal , the Presidential Citizens Medal , and the Secretary's Distinguished Service Award . Powell died from complications of COVID-19 in 2021, while being treated for
1072-510: The 23rd (Americal) Infantry Division . During the second tour in Vietnam he was decorated with the Soldier's Medal for bravery after he survived a helicopter crash and single-handedly rescued three others, including division commander Major General Charles M. Gettys , from the burning wreckage. Soldiers actively hunted, herded, and killed elderly people, children, infants, and raped women while other Soldiers [ sic ] looked on and did nothing to stop
1139-656: The Bosnian crisis , as he opposed any military intervention that did not involve U.S. interests. Powell also regularly clashed with Secretary of Defense Leslie Aspin , whom he was initially hesitant to support after Aspin was nominated by President Clinton. During a lunch meeting between Powell and Aspin in preparation of Operation Gothic Serpent , Aspin was more focused on eating salad than listening and paying attention to Powell's presentation on military operations. The incident caused Powell to grow more irritated towards Aspin and led to his early resignation on September 30, 1993. Powell
1206-660: The City College of New York in 1958 and said that he was a "C average" student. "I wasn't doing well in civil engineering". While at CCNY, Powell shifted his study focus to the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) and became a "straight A student" in it; he held the distinction of being the first chairman to have attained his commission through the ROTC. Powell also graduated from George Washington University with an MBA in 1971 and an honorary doctor of public service in 1990. Powell
1273-511: The Continental U.S. , Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. He became the third general since World War II to reach four-star rank without ever serving as a division commander, joining Dwight D. Eisenhower and Alexander Haig . Later that year, President George H. W. Bush selected him as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Powell's last military assignment, from October 1, 1989, to September 30, 1993,
1340-578: The National War College , Washington, D.C. In his autobiography, My American Journey , Powell named several officers he served under who inspired and mentored him. As a lieutenant colonel commanding 1st Battalion, 32nd Infantry in South Korea, Powell was very close to his division commander, Major General Henry "Gunfighter" Emerson , whom he regarded as one of the most caring officers he ever met. Emerson insisted his troops train at night to fight
1407-619: The Persian Gulf War against Iraq in 1990–1991. He formulated the Powell Doctrine , which limits American military action unless it satisfies criteria regarding American national security interests, overwhelming force, and widespread public support. He served as secretary of state under Republican president George W. Bush . As secretary of state, Powell gave a presentation to the United Nations Security Council regarding
SECTION 20
#17329314513831474-592: The rationale for the Iraq War , but he later admitted that the speech contained substantial inaccuracies. He resigned after Bush was reelected in 2004. In 1995, Powell wrote his autobiography, My American Journey and then in retirement another book titled, It Worked for Me: Lessons in Life and Leadership (2012). He pursued a career as a public speaker, addressing audiences across the country and abroad. Before his appointment as Secretary of State he chaired America's Promise . In
1541-459: The 1968 Mỹ Lai massacre . Powell wrote: "In direct refutation of this portrayal is the fact that relations between Americal soldiers and the Vietnamese people are excellent." Later, Powell's assessment would be described as whitewashing the news of the massacre, and questions would continue to remain undisclosed to the public. In May 2004, Powell said to television and radio host Larry King , "I
1608-400: The 1991 Persian Gulf War . During these events, Powell earned the nickname "the reluctant warrior" – although Powell himself disputed this label, and spoke in favor of the first Bush administration's Gulf War policies. As a military strategist , Powell advocated an approach to military conflicts that maximizes the potential for success and minimizes casualties. A component of this approach is
1675-497: The DeYoung biography and quoted JINSA's then-executive director, Thomas Neumann, as "surprised" Powell "would single out a Jewish group when naming those who supported the war." Neumann said, "I am not accusing Powell of anything, but these are words that the antisemites will use in the future". Once Saddam Hussein had been deposed, Powell's renewed role was to once again establish a working international coalition, this time to assist in
1742-492: The Department of Foreign Affairs were reinstated by a law signed by George Washington on July 27, 1789. John Jay retained the post on an interim basis, pending the return of Thomas Jefferson from France. Acting On September 15, 1789, before Jefferson could return to take the post, Washington signed into law another act which changed the name of the office from Secretary of Foreign Affairs to Secretary of State , changed
1809-482: The Pentagon, with Meyer appointing Powell as assistant division commander for operations and training of the 4th Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Colorado under Major General John W. Hudachek. After he left Fort Carson, Powell became the senior military assistant to Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger , whom he assisted during the 1983 invasion of Grenada and the 1986 airstrike on Libya . Under Weinberger, Powell
1876-491: The Republican nomination, Powell endorsed him for president and spoke at the 2000 Republican National Convention . Bush won the general election and appointed Powell as secretary of state in 2001. In the electoral college vote count of 2016 , Powell received three votes for president from faithless electors from the state of Washington. President-elect George W. Bush named Powell as his nominee to be secretary of state in
1943-549: The Republican vice presidential nominee, Powell eventually declared himself a Republican and began to campaign for Republican candidates in 1995. He was touted as a possible opponent of Bill Clinton in the 1996 U.S. presidential election , possibly capitalizing on a split conservative vote in Iowa and even leading New Hampshire polls for the GOP nomination, but Powell declined, citing a lack of passion for politics. Powell defeated Clinton 50–38 in
2010-626: The United Nations Security Council. As recounted in Soldier: The Life of Colin Powell , in 2001 before 9/11, Richard A. Clarke , a National Security Council holdover from the Clinton administration, pushed the new Bush administration for action against al-Qaeda in Afghanistan, a move opposed by Paul Wolfowitz who advocated for the creation of a "U.S.-protected, opposition-run 'liberated' enclave around
2077-596: The United States Army . Powell wrote that he kept the Lincoln quote as a reminder to remain humble despite his rank and position. Powell retained his role as the now-senior military assistant into the presidency of Ronald Reagan , serving under Claytor's successor as deputy secretary of defense, Frank Carlucci . Powell and Carlucci formed a close friendship, referring to each by first names in private, as Powell refused any sort of first-name basis in an official capacity. It
Colin Powell - Misplaced Pages Continue
2144-547: The activities of Powell and others in concealing the notes "seemed corrupt enough to meet the new, poorly defined test of obstruction ." Following his resignation as Secretary of Defense, Weinberger was indicted on five felony charges, including one count Obstruction of Congress for concealing the notes. Powell was never indicted by the Independent Counsel in connection with the Iran-Contra affair. In 1986, Powell took over
2211-517: The case for the 2003 invasion of Iraq . A 2004 report by the Iraq Survey Group concluded that the evidence that Powell offered to support the allegation that the Iraqi government possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) was inaccurate. As early as 2000 on the day Powell was nominated to be Secretary of State he told the press "Saddam is sitting on a failed regime that is not going to be around in
2278-479: The center is to "prepare new generations of publicly engaged leaders from populations previously underrepresented in public service and policy circles, to build a strong culture of civic engagement at City College, and to mobilize campus resources to meet pressing community needs and serve the public good." Powell was mentioned as a potential candidate in the 2000 U.S. presidential election , but again decided against running. Once Texas Governor George W. Bush secured
2345-515: The command of V Corps in Frankfurt, Germany, from Robert Lewis "Sam" Wetzel . The next year, he served as United States Deputy National Security Advisor , under Frank Carlucci . Following the Iran–Contra scandal, Powell became, at the age of 49, Ronald Reagan 's National Security Advisor , serving from 1987 to 1989 while retaining his Army commission as a lieutenant general . He helped negotiate
2412-499: The course of his tenure he traveled less than any other U.S. Secretary of State in thirty years. This is partly attributed to a letter from former diplomat George F. Kennan , who advised Powell to focus on his duties as the president's principal foreign policy advisor and avoid trips that risked undercutting the duties of the ambassadors . On September 11, 2001, Powell was in Lima , Peru, meeting with President Alejandro Toledo and attending
2479-447: The discharge of one soldier, and other efforts to reduce racial tensions. During 1976–1977 he commanded the 2nd Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division . Powell subsequently served as the junior military assistant to deputy secretaries of defense Charles Duncan and Graham Claytor , receiving a promotion to brigadier general on June 1, 1979. At the ceremony, he received from Secretary Harold Brown's protocol officer, Stuart Purviance,
2546-642: The effort to upgrade Benavidez's medal and provided the necessary sworn statement; the upgrade to the Medal of Honor was approved in December 1980. Powell also declined an offer from Secretary of the Army John O. Marsh Jr. to be his under secretary due to his reluctance to assume a political appointment; James R. Ambrose was selected instead. Intent on attaining a division command, Powell petitioned Carlucci and Army chief of staff Edward C. Meyer for reassignment away from
2613-578: The figures would be one greater. Cordell Hull is the only person to have served as secretary of state for more than eight years. Daniel Webster and James G. Blaine are the only secretaries of state to have ever served non-consecutive terms. Warren Christopher served very briefly as acting secretary of state non-consecutively with his later tenure as full-fledged secretary of state. Elihu B. Washburne served as secretary of state for less than two weeks before becoming ambassador to France . Morris High School (Bronx, New York) Morris High School
2680-435: The informant known as Curveball . Powell later recounted how Vice President Dick Cheney had joked with him before he gave the speech, telling him, "You've got high poll ratings; you can afford to lose a few points." Powell's longtime aide-de-camp and Chief of Staff from 1989 to 2003, Colonel Lawrence Wilkerson , later characterized Cheney's view of Powell's mission as to "go up there and sell it, and we'll have moved forward
2747-641: The intelligence community, including the creation of a national intelligence director who would assure that "what one person knew, everyone else knew". List of secretaries of state of the United States#Secretaries of state This is a list of secretaries of state of the United States . On January 10, 1780, the Congress of the Confederation created the Department of Foreign Affairs. On August 10, 1781, Congress selected Robert R. Livingston ,
Colin Powell - Misplaced Pages Continue
2814-408: The intense debate that went on behind the scenes on what to include in Powell's speech. State Department analysts had found dozens of factual problems in drafts of the speech. Some of the claims were taken out, but others were left in, such as claims based on the yellowcake forgery . The administration came under fire for having acted on faulty intelligence, particularly that which was single-sourced to
2881-405: The international community. Indeed, the facts and Iraq's behavior show that Saddam Hussein and his regime are concealing their efforts to produce more weapons of mass destruction ... every statement I make today is backed up by sources, solid sources. These are not assertions. What we're giving you are facts and conclusions based on solid intelligence. Powell came under fire for his role in building
2948-492: The invasion. To this end, Powell addressed a plenary session of the United Nations Security Council on February 5, 2003, to argue in favor of military action. Citing numerous anonymous Iraqi defectors, Powell asserted that "there can be no doubt that Saddam Hussein has biological weapons and the capability to rapidly produce more, many more." Powell also stated that there was "no doubt in my mind" that Saddam
3015-454: The law. Despite this, thousands of TOW missiles and hundreds of Hawk missiles and spare parts were transferred from Israel to Iran until the venture was exposed in a Lebanese magazine, Ash-Shiraa , in November 1986. According to Iran-Contra Independent Counsel Lawrence E. Walsh , when questioned by Congress, Powell "had given incomplete answers" concerning notes withheld by Weinberger and that
3082-496: The massacre. An estimated 350 to 500 unarmed civilians died in My Lai ... MAJ Colin Powell, a recently assigned Deputy G3, investigated the allegations described in the [Glen] letter. He proved unable to uncover either wide-spread unnecessary killings, war crimes, or any facts related to My Lai ... Powell was charged with investigating a detailed letter by 11th Light Infantry Brigade soldier Tom Glen, which backed up rumored allegations of
3149-460: The name of the department to the Department of State , and added several domestic powers and responsibilities to both the office of secretary and the department. Thomas Jefferson took office as the first secretary of state on March 22, 1790. This is a list of United States secretaries of state by time in office. This is based on the difference between dates; if counted by number of calendar days all
3216-490: The now-senior military assistant Powell's experience in military matters made him a very popular figure with both American political parties. Many Democrats admired his moderate stance on military matters, while many Republicans saw him as a great asset associated with the successes of past Republican administrations. Put forth as a potential Democratic vice presidential nominee in the 1992 U.S. presidential election or even potentially replacing Vice President Dan Quayle as
3283-472: The rank of four-star general . He was commander of the U.S. Army Forces Command in 1989. Powell's last military assignment, from October 1989 to September 1993, was as Joint Chiefs of Staff chairman, the highest military position in the United States Department of Defense . During this time, he oversaw twenty-eight crises, including the invasion of Panama in 1989 and Operation Desert Storm in
3350-536: The rebuilding of post-war Iraq. On September 13, 2004, Powell testified before the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee , acknowledging that the sources who provided much of the information in his February 2003 UN presentation were "wrong" and that it was "unlikely" that any stockpiles of WMDs would be found. Claiming that he was unaware that some intelligence officials questioned the information prior to his presentation, Powell pushed for reform in
3417-581: The road to peace in Jerusalem." A review of Soldier by Tim Rutten criticized Powell's remarks as a "blot on his record", accusing Powell of slandering "neoconservatives in the Defense Department – nearly all of them Jews" with "old and wholly unmeritorious allegations of dual loyalty". A 2007 article about fears that Jewish groups "will be accused of driving America into a war with the regime in Tehran" cited
SECTION 50
#17329314513833484-558: The southern Iraqi city of Basra". Powell referred to Wolfowitz and other top members of Donald Rumsfeld's staff "as the 'JINSA crowd,' " in reference to the pro-Israel Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs . Again invoking "the JINSA crowd" Powell also attributed the decision to go to war in Iraq in 2003 to the neoconservative belief that regime change in Baghdad "was a first and necessary stop on
3551-596: The threat of an imminent US invasion to remove them by force. Powell status as a retired general well known and respected in Haiti was held to be instrumental in persuading Gen. Cédras. During his chairmanship of the JCS, there was discussion of awarding Powell a fifth star , granting him the rank of General of the Army . But even in the wake of public and Congressional pressure to do so, Clinton-Gore presidential transition team staffers decided against it. Powell retained his role as
3618-544: The use of overwhelming force, which he applied to Operation Desert Storm in 1991. His approach has been dubbed the Powell Doctrine . Powell continued as chairman of the JCS into the Clinton presidency . However, as a realist , he considered himself a bad fit for an administration largely made up of liberal internationalists . He clashed with then- U.S. ambassador to the United Nations Madeleine Albright over
3685-558: Was ROTC, Reserve Officer Training Corps in the military. And I not only liked it, but I was pretty good at it. That's what you really have to look for in life, something that you like, and something that you think you're pretty good at. And if you can put those two things together, then you're on the right track, and just drive on. As a cadet , Powell joined the Pershing Rifles , the ROTC fraternal organization and drill team begun by General John Pershing . Upon graduation, he received
3752-741: Was a high school in the Melrose neighborhood of the South Bronx in New York City . The direct predecessor of Morris was built in 1897 and established as the Mixed High School , situated in a small brick building on 157th Street and 3rd Avenue, about six blocks south of where the new building would be built. The only building structure dedicated to k-12 education is the Marist brothers operated Mount St Michael Academy which only enrolls boys as of June 2024. It
3819-458: Was a professional soldier for thirty-five years, holding a variety of command and staff positions and rising to the rank of general . While attending the City College of New York , Powell joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). He described the experience as one of the happiest experiences of his life. According to Powell: It was only once I was in college, about six months into college when I found something that I liked, and that
3886-485: Was also involved in the unlawful transfer of U.S.-made TOW anti-tank missiles and Hawk anti-aircraft missiles from Israel to Iran as part of the criminal conspiracy that would later become known as the Iran–Contra affair . In November 1985, Powell solicited and delivered to Weinberger a legal assessment that the transfer of Hawk missiles to Israel or Iran, without Congressional notification, would be "a clear violation" of
3953-485: Was as the 12th chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , the highest military position in the Department of Defense . At age 52, he became the youngest officer, and first Afro-Caribbean American , to serve in this position. Powell was also the first JCS chair who received his commission through ROTC . During this time, Powell oversaw responses to 28 crises, including the invasion of Panama in 1989 to remove General Manuel Noriega from power and Operation Desert Storm in
4020-475: Was born in New York City in 1937 to parents who immigrated from Jamaica . He was raised in the South Bronx and educated in the New York City public schools, earning a bachelor's degree in geology from the City College of New York . He joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps while at City College and was commissioned as a second lieutenant on graduating in 1958. He was a professional soldier for 35 years, holding many command and staff positions and rising to
4087-532: Was in a unit that was responsible for My Lai. I got there after My Lai happened. So, in war, these sorts of horrible things happen every now and again, but they are still to be deplored." When he returned to the U.S. from Vietnam in 1971, Powell earned a Master of Business Administration degree from George Washington University in Washington, D.C. He later served a White House Fellowship under President Richard Nixon from 1972 to 1973. During 1975–1976 he attended
SECTION 60
#17329314513834154-562: Was on Powell's advice that newly-elected President Ronald Reagan presented Roy Benavidez the Medal of Honor ; Benavidez had received the Distinguished Service Cross , which his commander argued should be upgraded, but army officials believed there was no living eyewitness to testify to Benavidez's heroism. A soldier who had been present during the action in question learned in July 1980 of
4221-922: Was one of the original New York City Public High Schools created by the New York City school reform act of 1896. On December 22, 1899, the Mixed High School was a founding member of the College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB), now known as the College Board. In 1983, the school and surrounding area was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Morris High School Historic District . Alumni include Armand Hammer , Arthur Murray , and Colin Powell . In 2002, as part of an overall restructuring and downsizing of New York City's high schools, Morris High School
4288-433: Was raised in the South Bronx and attended the now closed Morris High School , from which he graduated in 1954. While at school, Powell worked at a local baby furniture store, where he picked up Yiddish from the Eastern European Jewish shopkeepers and some of the customers. He also served as a Shabbos goy , helping Orthodox families with needed tasks on the Sabbath. He received a bachelor of science degree in geology from
4355-468: Was succeeded temporarily by Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral David E. Jeremiah , who took the position as Acting Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Soon after Powell's resignation, on October 3–4, 1993, the Battle of Mogadishu , the aim of which was to capture Somali warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid , was initiated and ended in disaster. Powell later defended Aspin, saying in part that he could not fault Aspin for Aspin's decision to remove
4422-450: Was the first high school built in the Bronx and was the first high school in the New York City public school system to enroll both male and female students. Originally named Peter Cooper High School after Peter Cooper , the school was renamed Morris High School to commemorate a famous Bronx landowner, Gouverneur Morris , one of the signers of the United States Constitution and credited as author of its Preamble . Morris High School
4489-472: Was working to obtain key components to produce nuclear weapons. Powell stated that he gave his speech to the UN on "four days' notice". Britain's Channel 4 News reported soon afterwards that a British intelligence dossier that Powell had referred to as a "fine paper" during his presentation had been based on old material and plagiarized an essay by American graduate student Ibrahim al-Marashi . A Senate report on intelligence failures would later detail
#382617