The Congressional Gold Medal is the oldest and highest civilian award in the United States , alongside the Presidential Medal of Freedom . It is bestowed by vote of the United States Congress , signed into law by the president. The Gold Medal expresses the highest national appreciation for distinguished achievements and contributions by individuals or institutions.
148-478: The congressional practice of issuing gold medals to occasionally honor recipients began with members of the military during the American Revolution . The practice soon extended to individuals in all walks of life and in the late 20th century also to groups. The congressional medal honors those, individually or as a group, "who have performed an achievement that has an impact on American history and culture that
296-477: A British warship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations, in what became known as the Gaspee Affair . The affair was investigated for possible treason, but no action was taken. In 1773, private letters were published in which Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson claimed that the colonists could not enjoy all English liberties, and in which Lieutenant Governor Andrew Oliver called for
444-544: A boycott on imports of all British merchandise . American spokesmen such as Samuel Adams, James Otis, John Hancock, John Dickinson, Thomas Paine, and many others, rejected aristocracy and propounded " republicanism " as the political philosophy that was best suited to American conditions. The Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout the Empire and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval or even consultation. They argued that
592-473: A large military and naval force: Convinced that the Revolution was the work of a full few miscreants who had rallied an armed rabble to their cause, they expected that the revolutionaries would be intimidated .... Then the vast majority of Americans, who were loyal but cowed by the terroristic tactics ... would rise up, kick out the rebels, and restore loyal government in each colony. Washington forced
740-410: A logic of its own ... No amount of contrary evidence could dislodge it from the collective imagination". The fact that all northbound voyages had, sooner or later, been stopped by ice was rationalized through a belief that the undiscovered sea was encircled in a ring or "annulus" of ice which, it was thought, could be penetrated via one of several warm-water gateways or portals. The initial quest for
888-797: A meeting with representatives from Congress to negotiate an end to hostilities. A delegation including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin met British admiral Richard Howe on Staten Island in New York Harbor on September 11 in what became known as the Staten Island Peace Conference . Howe demanded that the Americans retract the Declaration of Independence , which they refused to do, and negotiations ended. The British then seized New York City and nearly captured Washington's army. They made
1036-507: A much larger force. As Benjamin Franklin wrote to Joseph Priestley in October 1775: Britain, at the expense of three millions, has killed 150 Yankees this campaign, which is £20,000 a head ... During the same time, 60,000 children have been born in America. From these data his mathematical head will easily calculate the time and expense necessary to kill us all. In the winter of 1775,
1184-512: A path to the polar sea. At the time no one had attempted to reach the polar sea by this route. In July 1873, the United States Navy dispatched USS Juniata to Greenland, to search for survivors from the Polaris expedition , which had disintegrated after the death of its leader, Charles Francis Hall. Juniata ' s second-in-command was George W. De Long , a 28-year-old graduate of
1332-470: A perfectly God-forsaken place", he returned home captivated by the Arctic. Emma wrote: "The polar virus was in his blood and would not let him rest". The abortive Little Juniata mission brought De Long to public notice, and he saw himself as a possible leader of the next U.S. Arctic expedition. He approached Henry Grinnell , a philanthropic shipping magnate who had funded several previous expeditions. Grinnell
1480-465: A prolonged journey in the Arctic ice. De Long spent much of the early part of 1879 in Washington, D.C. , promoting the expedition among officials, searching for appropriate crew members, and harrying Navy Secretary Richard W. Thompson for practical support. His requests included the use of a supply ship to accompany Jeannette as far as Alaska . Among the less standard equipment acquired by De Long
1628-409: A sizeable settlement about 100 miles (160 km) from the coast. The boats made good progress through the morning, and Melville initially thought they might strike land after a single night at sea. In the afternoon the weather worsened; the boats separated and lost sight of each other. De Long used a sea anchor to stabilize his craft in the ferocious seas and, despite having his sail torn away by
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#17328444277411776-768: A structure of shared sovereignty during prosecution of the Revolutionary War and facilitating international relations and alliances. The Articles were fully ratified on March 1, 1781. At that point, the Continental Congress was dissolved and a new government of the United States in Congress Assembled took its place the following day, on March 2, 1782, with Samuel Huntington leading the Congress as presiding officer. According to British historian Jeremy Black ,
1924-772: A uniform or other clothing, but rather displayed. In rare instances, miniature versions have been made or converted for wear on clothing, suspended from a ribbon. Examples are the Cardenas Medal for Frank H. Newcomb , the Jarvis Medal for David H. Jarvis , the Jeannette Medal for the men of the Jeannette expedition , the Byrd Antarctic Expedition Medal for the men of the First Byrd expedition of 1928–1930 , and
2072-466: A vehicle for deliberation and collective action. During secret debates, conservative Joseph Galloway proposed the creation of a colonial Parliament that would be able to approve or disapprove acts of the British Parliament, but his idea was tabled in a vote of 6 to 5 and was subsequently removed from the record. Congress called for a boycott beginning on December 1, 1774, of all British goods; it
2220-455: A week's hard traveling on the ice, the northward drift had nullified their progress; they were further from land than they had been when they set out. When the direction of the ice shifted, the party was finally able to advance in the right direction, but the going was slow and difficult. Part of the problem lay with the dogs who, after nearly two years of relative idleness, were either lethargic or quarrelsome, unable to work in harness. Some of
2368-622: A well-connected Washington family, was recommended to Bennett by former U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant . Such sponsorship won Danenhower his place, despite a history of depression that had seen him briefly incarcerated at the Government Hospital for the Insane . On Bennett's request, Danenhower accompanied De Long on the voyage from Le Havre to San Francisco, during which he confided details of his medical history. The navigator's competent performance persuaded De Long that such troubles were in
2516-533: Is likely to be recognized as a major achievement in the recipient's field long after the achievement." There is no general statutory scheme for creation of the award. When a Congressional Gold Medal is deemed appropriate, Congress provides for the creation of each medal by passing a law to that effect. Each chamber of Congress (the House and the Senate) imposes super-majority sponsorship rules to begin consideration. Each medal
2664-682: Is normally awarded to persons, but in 1979 the American Red Cross became the first organization to be honored with a gold medal. As of 2021, at least 7 people had been awarded more than one gold medal: Winfield Scott (1814 for the War of 1812 and 1848 for the Mexican–American War ), Zachary Taylor (1846, 1847, and 1848 for the Mexican–American War), Lincoln Ellsworth (1928 and 1936 for polar exploration), Hyman G. Rickover (1958 for
2812-616: Is ordered to be uniquely designed and cast in gold by the United States Mint . Thus, there are significantly fewer gold medals than presidential medals. U.S. citizenship is not a requirement. As of November 29, 2023, 184 people, events, or institutions have been awarded a Congressional Gold Medal. Since the American Revolution, Congress has commissioned gold medals as its highest expression of national appreciation for distinguished achievements and contributions. The medal
2960-797: Is that the Presidential Medal of Freedom is awarded in the discretion of the President of the United States , while Congressional Gold Medals are awarded by an Act of Congress which becomes law. Per committee rules, legislation bestowing a Congressional Gold Medal upon a recipient must be co-sponsored by two-thirds of the membership of both the House of Representatives and the Senate before their respective committees—the House Committee on Financial Services and
3108-708: The Aleutian Islands , where De Long sought information on Nordenskiöld from the crew of a revenue cutter , newly returned from the Bering Strait. The cutter had no news of him. On August 12, Jeannette reached St. Michael , a small port on the Alaskan mainland, and waited for Francis Hyde to arrive with extra provisions and coal. At St. Michael, De Long hired two experienced Inuit dog drivers, and took on board sled dogs . On August 21, after transferring provisions and fuel, Francis Hyde departed; Jeannette set out for
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#17328444277413256-814: The Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770. In 1772, anti-tax demonstrators in Rhode Island destroyed the Royal Navy customs schooner Gaspee . On December 16, 1773, activists disguised as Indians instigated the Boston Tea Party and dumped chests of tea owned by the British East India Company into Boston Harbor . London closed Boston Harbor and enacted a series of punitive laws , which effectively ended self-government in Massachusetts. In late 1774, 12 of
3404-622: The British Empire was a constitutional monarchy with sovereignty in the King-in-Parliament . Aristocrats inherited seats in the House of Lords , while the gentry and merchants controlled the elected House of Commons . The king ruled through cabinet ministers who depended on majority support in the Commons to govern effectively. British subjects on both sides of the Atlantic proudly claimed
3552-645: The Chukchi Peninsula on the Siberian coast, to enquire after Nordenskiöld. At Saint Lawrence Bay the Chukchi people reported that an unidentified steamer had recently passed by, going south. De Long then headed through the Bering Strait towards Cape Dezhnev , where he learned from locals that a ship had called at Cape Serdtse-Kamen , further along the coast. Here, a shore party from Jeannette quickly established from artifacts left behind with villagers that this ship
3700-415: The Declaration of Independence , which embodied the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism , rejected monarchy and aristocracy , and famously proclaimed that " all men are created equal ". The fighting continued for five years, now known as the Revolutionary War . During that time, the kingdoms of France and Spain entered as allies of the United States. The decisive victory came in
3848-518: The Declaration of Independence , which was drafted largely by Thomas Jefferson and presented by the Committee of Five , which had been charged with its development. The Congress struck several provisions of Jefferson's draft, and then adopted it unanimously on July 4. The Declaration embodied the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism , rejected monarchy and aristocracy , and famously proclaimed that " all men are created equal ". With
3996-686: The English Empire , and they formed part of the British Empire after the union of England and Scotland in 1707. The development of a unique American identity can be traced to the English Civil War (1642–1651) and its aftermath. The Puritan colonies of New England supported the Commonwealth government responsible for the execution of King Charles I . After the Stuart Restoration of 1660, Massachusetts did not recognize Charles II as
4144-521: The Great Lakes . About 60,000 Loyalists migrated to other British territories in Canada and elsewhere, but the great majority remained in the United States. With its victory in the American Revolution, the United States became the first constitutional republic in world history founded on the consent of the governed and the rule of law . The Thirteen Colonies were established in the 17th century as part of
4292-655: The Hat Act of 1732, and the Iron Act of 1750. Colonial reactions to these policies were mixed. The Molasses Act of 1733 placed a duty of six pence per gallon upon foreign molasses imported into the colonies. This act was particularly egregious to the New England colonists, who protested it as taxation without representation. The act increased the smuggling of foreign molasses, and the British government ceased enforcement efforts after
4440-612: The Hessian and British armies at Trenton and Princeton , thereby regaining control of most of New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to Patriots at a time when morale was flagging, and they have become iconic events of the war. In September 1777, in anticipation of a coordinated attack by the British Army on the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, the Continental Congress was forced to depart Philadelphia temporarily for Baltimore , where they continued deliberations. In 1777,
4588-528: The Little Juniata adventure. Another veteran of the Polaris rescue mission, George W. Melville , was appointed as ship's engineer. Other experienced Arctic hands were William F. C. Nindemann , a Polaris survivor, and the ice pilot William Dunbar, who had many years' experience in whalers. The appointment of the expedition's navigating officer was problematic; John W. Danenhower , a young naval officer from
Congressional Gold Medal - Misplaced Pages Continue
4736-680: The NC-4 Medal for the men who completed the first transatlantic flight in May 1919. The latter was authorized in 1935 by Pub. L. 74–43 allowing the Secretary of the Navy to authorize—at his discretion—the wearing of commemorative or other special awards on Navy or Marine Corps uniforms, in military-sized form. Often, bronze versions of the medals are struck for sale by the U.S. Mint, and may be available in both larger and smaller sizes. In at least one case,
4884-511: The Olive Branch Petition in which they attempted to come to an accord with King George. The king, however, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion which declared that the states were "in rebellion" and the members of Congress were traitors. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed on June 17, 1775. It was a British victory—but at a great cost: about 1,000 British casualties from a garrison of about 6,000, as compared to 500 American casualties from
5032-699: The Royal Proclamation of 1763 , designating the territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River as an Indian Reserve closed to white settlement. The Proclamation failed to stop westward migration while angering settlers, fur traders, and land speculators in the Thirteen Colonies. George Grenville became prime minister in 1763, and "the need for money played a part in every important decision made by Grenville regarding
5180-473: The Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs —will consider it. A Congressional Gold Medal is designed by the United States Mint to specifically commemorate the person and achievement for which the medal is awarded. Medals are therefore different in appearance, and there is no standard design. Congressional Gold Medals are considered non-portable, meaning that they are not meant to be worn on
5328-530: The Stamp Act Congress ; its "Declaration of Rights and Grievances" argued that taxation without representation violated their rights as Englishmen . In 1767, tensions flared again following the British Parliament's passage of the Townshend Acts . In an effort to quell the mounting rebellion, King George III deployed troops to Boston . A local confrontation resulted in the troops killing protesters in
5476-463: The Tea Act lowering the price of taxed tea exported to the colonies, to help the British East India Company undersell smuggled untaxed Dutch tea. Special consignees were appointed to sell the tea to bypass colonial merchants. The act was opposed by those who resisted the taxes and also by smugglers who stood to lose business. In every colony demonstrators warned merchants not to bring in tea that included
5624-669: The U.S. Arctic Expedition , was an attempt led by George W. De Long to reach the North Pole by pioneering a route from the Pacific Ocean through the Bering Strait . The premise was that a temperate current, the Kuro Siwo , flowed northwards into the strait, providing a gateway to the hypothesized Open Polar Sea and thus to the pole. This theory proved illusory; the expedition's ship, USS Jeannette and its crew of thirty-three men,
5772-476: The U.S. Department of the Navy for an Arctic command, a request that he was informed would "receive due attention". James Gordon Bennett Jr. had succeeded his father as proprietor of the Herald in 1866. He had won renown in 1872, when his reporter Henry Morton Stanley , sent by Bennett to Africa in search of the British missionary-explorer David Livingstone , cabled that Livingstone had been found. Bennett knew
5920-477: The United States Naval Academy , making his first visit to the Arctic. Ice conditions prevented Juniata from advancing beyond Upernavik ; De Long volunteered to take the ship's tender , a small steamer named Little Juniata , in the hope of finding survivors at Cape York , a further 400 nautical miles (740 km) north. The attempt failed; Little Juniata faced extreme weather conditions and
6068-478: The whaleboat . Danenhower, who outranked Melville, complained bitterly to De Long about being placed under the engineer's command, but De Long replied that Danenhower was unfit for duty, a view confirmed by Ambler. De Long instructed that the boats should each aim for a point indicated as "Cape Barkin" on the Petermann map; if they became separated, and landed in different areas, the parties should rendezvous at Bulun,
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6216-465: The "Nuclear Navy" and 1982 for his entire career), Staff Sergeant Warner Katz (Office of Strategic Services and Merrill's Marauders WW2 also the first Merrill's Marauder to kill a Japanese Soldier), Ranger Randall Ching and Ranger Raymond Lee (2020 for serving in WW2 as a Chinese-American and 2022 for serving as a US army ranger). A difference between a Congressional Gold Medal and a Presidential Medal of Freedom
6364-432: The 1740s. On the other hand, certain merchants and local industries benefitted from the restrictions on foreign competition. The limits on foreign-built ships greatly benefitted the colonial shipbuilding industry, particularly in New England. Some argue that the economic impact was minimal on the colonists, but the political friction that the acts triggered was more serious, as the merchants most directly affected were also
6512-466: The American Revolution (see Salutary neglect ) . During the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British government fielded 45,000 soldiers, half British Regulars and half colonial volunteers. The colonies also contributed money to the war effort; however, two-fifths of this spending was reimbursed by the British government. Great Britain defeated France and acquired that nation's territory east of
6660-469: The Americans invaded northeastern Quebec under generals Benedict Arnold and Richard Montgomery , expecting to rally sympathetic colonists there. The attack was a failure; many Americans were killed, captured, or died of smallpox. In March 1776, aided by the fortification of Dorchester Heights with cannons recently captured at Fort Ticonderoga , the Continental Army led by George Washington forced
6808-812: The Arctic regions began in the 16th century, with searches for new routes to the Pacific via the Northeast and Northwest passages. The English sea explorer Henry Hudson , namesake of the Hudson River , is presumed to have died in Hudson Bay in 1611 while trying to find the Northwest Passage. The possibility of a third route, directly across the North Pole , was raised by early geographer Richard Hakluyt . The early explorers had little success in finding these routes, but made important geographical discoveries. In time,
6956-446: The Bering Sea; encounters with locals convinced him that the wreck was not that of Jeannette . On June 16, another relief vessel, USS Rodgers , left San Francisco but was destroyed by fire in Saint Lawrence Bay in November. On board Jeannette , the discovery of the islands had raised De Long's spirits—the expedition would, wherever the drift took it, have some concrete geographical achievement to its credit. The onset of
7104-407: The British had significant advantages, including a highly trained army, the world's largest navy, and an efficient system of public finance that could easily fund the war. However, they seriously misunderstood the depth of support for the American Patriot position, misinterpreting the situation as merely a large-scale riot. The British government believed that they could overawe the Americans by sending
7252-468: The British out of Boston in the spring of 1776, and neither the British nor the Loyalists controlled any significant areas. The British, however, were amassing forces at their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia . They returned in force in July 1776, landing in New York and defeating Washington's Continental Army in August at the Battle of Brooklyn . This gave the British control of New York City and its strategic harbor . Following that victory, they requested
7400-399: The British sent Burgoyne's invasion force from Canada south to New York to seal off New England. Their aim was to isolate New England, which the British perceived as the primary source of agitation. Rather than move north to support Burgoyne, the British army in New York City went to Philadelphia in a major case of mis-coordination, capturing it from Washington. The invasion army under Burgoyne
7548-403: The British to evacuate Boston . The revolutionaries now fully controlled all thirteen colonies and were ready to declare independence. There still were many Loyalists, but they were no longer in control anywhere by July 1776, and all of the Royal officials had fled. Following the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Patriots had control of Massachusetts outside Boston 's city limits, and
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#17328444277417696-448: The British to deploy troops to Boston. A Boston town meeting declared that no obedience was due to parliamentary laws and called for the convening of a convention. A convention assembled but only issued a mild protest before dissolving itself. In January 1769, Parliament responded to the unrest by reactivating the Treason Act 1543 which called for subjects outside the realm to face trials for treason in England. The governor of Massachusetts
7844-558: The Crown nullified their colonial charters in response. In 1686, James finalized these efforts by consolidating the separate New England colonies along with New York and New Jersey into the Dominion of New England . Edmund Andros was appointed royal governor and tasked with governing the new Dominion under his direct rule . Colonial assemblies and town meetings were restricted, new taxes were levied, and rights were abridged. Dominion rule triggered bitter resentment throughout New England. When James tried to rule without Parliament ,
7992-459: The Edison arc lighting system erected, but the generating mechanism failed to produce even the dimmest of lights and the apparatus was swiftly abandoned, along with the equally ineffective telephone system. Christmas 1879, and the start of the new year, were celebrated without great joy; De Long wrote of Christmas as "the dreariest day of my life, and it is certainly the dreariest part of the world". On January 19, 1880, Jeannette ' s hull
8140-416: The English aristocracy removed him from power in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This was followed by the 1689 Boston revolt , which overthrew Dominion rule. Colonial governments reasserted their control after the revolt. The new monarchs, William and Mary , granted new charters to the individual New England colonies, and local democratic self-government was restored. After the Glorious Revolution,
8288-419: The English. Grenville believed that the colonies should help pay the troop costs. In 1764 Parliament passed the Sugar Act , decreasing the existing customs duties on sugar and molasses but providing stricter measures of enforcement and collection. That same year, Grenville proposed direct taxes on the colonies to raise revenue, but he delayed action to see whether the colonies would propose some way to raise
8436-472: The Geodetic Survey's findings, by then known in Washington, that the Kuro Siwo had no effect north of the Bering Strait. The vista of endless ice surrounding the ship raised profound doubts about the entire concept of the Open Polar Sea. Amid the boredom of the largely eventless drift, the crew ate well; ship's stores were boosted by regular hunting parties which brought a harvest of seal and polar bear meat. In late October, as winter approached, De Long ordered
8584-412: The Gulf Stream but ultimately failed to break through the ice, Petermann grew dispirited. In the year before he took his own life in 1878 he transferred his advocacy to the Kuro Siwo , a Pacific Ocean current analyzed in the 1850s by the hydrographer Silas Bent . Petermann followed Bent in believing that a branch of the Kuro Siwo flowed through the Bering Strait and might be powerful enough to create
8732-498: The John Wayne Congressional Medal, private dealers bought large numbers of the bronze version. They were then gold plated and resold to the public for a significant profit. The Congressional Gold Medal is distinct from the Medal of Honor , a military decoration for extreme bravery in action, and from the Congressional Space Medal of Honor , presented by NASA for extraordinary accomplishment in United States space exploration. American Revolution The American Revolution
8880-450: The Kuro Siwo had no perceptible effect on the areas north of the Bering Strait. The survey's report went on to dismiss the entire concept of "gateways" and a warm polar sea. By the time these conclusions were published, Jeannette had sailed, and De Long remained in ignorance of this information. Jeannette ' s departure from San Francisco, on July 8, 1879, was a popular spectacle, witnessed by large crowds who came from all quarters of
9028-582: The Loyalists suddenly found themselves on the defensive with no protection from the British army. In each of the Thirteen Colonies, American patriots overthrew their existing governments, closed courts, and drove out British colonial officials. They held elected conventions and established their own legislatures , which existed outside any legal parameters established by the British. New constitutions were drawn up in each state to supersede royal charters. They proclaimed that they were now states , no longer colonies . On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified
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#17328444277419176-418: The Mississippi River. In early 1763, the Bute ministry decided to permanently garrison 10,000 soldiers in North America. This would allow approximately 1,500 politically well-connected British Army officers to remain on active duty with full pay (stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable). A standing army would provide defense against Native Americans in
9324-430: The New Siberian Islands, Novaya Sibir , was in sight. For the first time since moving away from Herald Island nearly two years previously, they were in the charted world. De Long steered the boats through the channel between Novaya Sibir and Kotelny Island , before skirting the southern coast of Kotelny and beginning the final stage of the journey, across the open sea to the Lena Delta. Their last halt on September 10
9472-454: The North Pole thus became a search for one of these portals. After British naval expeditions in 1818 and 1827–1828 had probed north of Spitsbergen and found no sign of the supposed polar sea, the quest was in abeyance for twenty-five years. In the 1850s, the search for the lost Franklin expedition generated a rash of incursions into the Canadian Arctic . From these forays, particularly that of Edward Augustus Inglefield in 1852, emerged
9620-437: The Open Polar Sea from a distance. The Smith Sound route was not favored by everyone; among those who rejected it was leading cartographer August Petermann from Germany , widely known as the "Sage of Gotha ". A firm believer in the Open Polar Sea theory, Petermann believed that the most likely portal would be found by following the Gulf Stream , which swept up the coast of Norway to the unexplored Arctic regions. He thought
9768-428: The Siberian coast for news of Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld and his ship Vega . The Swedish explorer was currently attempting the first navigation of the Northeast Passage; he was not overdue, and there was no evidence that he was in difficulty. Nevertheless, Bennett sensed the opportunity for a rescue story to equal his Stanley-Livingstone scoop, and persuaded Thompson to issue the order. De Long, unaware that his patron
9916-427: The Siberian coast. The entire crew of thirty-three men was still together. De Long's general plan was to march with dogs and sleds to the New Siberian Islands , somewhere to the south, and then use the boats to carry his party to the Siberian mainland. According to Petermann's maps his intended landfall, the Lena Delta , was studded with settlements that would provide them with shelter and safety. By June 25, after
10064-489: The Thirteen Colonies (Georgia joined in 1775) sent delegates to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia . It began coordinating Patriot resistance through underground networks of committees . In April 1775 British forces attempted to disarm local militias around Boston and engaged them . On June 14, 1775, the Second Continental Congress responded by authorizing formation of the Continental Army and appointing George Washington as its commander-in-chief. In August
10212-503: The Virginia legislature to propose independence, and he did so on June 7, 1776. On June 11, a committee was created by the Second Continental Congress to draft a document explaining the justifications for separation from Britain. After securing enough votes for passage, independence was voted for on July 2. Gathered at Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia , 56 of the nation's Founding Fathers , representing America's Thirteen Colonies , unanimously adopted and issued to King George III
10360-478: The appearance of Indigenous people, boarded the ships of the East India Company and dumped £10,000 worth of tea from their holds (approximately £636,000 in 2008) into Boston Harbor . Decades later, this event became known as the Boston Tea Party and remains a significant part of American patriotic lore. The British government responded by passing four laws that came to be known as the Intolerable Acts , further darkening colonial opinion towards England. The first
10508-401: The best path to the pole, passage through the Bering Strait using the Kuro Siwo would enable investigation of the unexplored, barely glimpsed land mass known since 1867 as " Wrangel's Land ". He theorized that this land formed part of a transpolar continent, connected to Greenland; if so, it might provide an alternative, land-based route to the pole should the expedition fail to find a portal to
10656-629: The brief Arctic summer brought fresh hopes that Jeannette would at last be released from the ice, and on June 11, she was briefly free, afloat in a small pool. However, the next day the ice returned with renewed force, which battered the ship and finally penetrated the hull beyond repair. De Long supervised an orderly evacuation of men, dogs, equipment and provisions. In the early morning of June 13, 1881, Jeannette sank—her final recorded position being 77°15′N 155°0′E / 77.250°N 155.000°E / 77.250; 155.000 —around 300 nautical miles (560 km; 350 mi) off
10804-440: The charted position of Wrangel's Land, but with ice thickening all around, movement became slow and erratic. On September 4, from the crow's nest , Dunbar sighted the known landmark of Herald Island , but the ice now presented an almost insuperable obstacle to progress. De Long raised steam and repeatedly charged the pack, seeking to batter a way forward. The thick plume of smoke from Jeannette's stack, observed by whalers,
10952-468: The city their main political and military base of operations, holding it until November 1783 . The city became the destination for Loyalist refugees and a focal point of Washington's intelligence network . The British also took New Jersey, pushing the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. Washington crossed the Delaware River back into New Jersey in a surprise attack in late December 1776 and defeated
11100-529: The city. The army at Fort Point provided an eleven-gun salute; in contrast, De Long noted that none of the naval vessels in and around San Francisco made any formal acknowledgement of their sister-ship's departure, "[not even] the blast of a steam whistle". Bennett, absent in Europe, cabled that he hoped to be present when Jeannette made its triumphant return. The first weeks on the journey northwards were uneventful. On August 3, Jeannette reached Unalaska in
11248-542: The colonies "in all cases whatsoever". The repeal nonetheless caused widespread celebrations in the colonies. In 1767, the British Parliament passed the Townshend Acts , which placed duties on several staple goods, including paper, glass, and tea, and established a Board of Customs in Boston to more rigorously execute trade regulations. Parliament's goal was not so much to collect revenue but to assert its authority over
11396-507: The colonies exported agricultural products to Britain in return for manufactured goods. They also imported molasses, rum, and sugar from the British West Indies . The British government pursued a policy of mercantilism in order to grow its economic and political power. According to mercantilism, the colonies existed for the mother country's economic benefit, and the colonists' economic needs took second place. In 1651, Parliament passed
11544-722: The colonies were legally British corporations subordinate to the British Parliament. Parliament insisted that the colonists effectively enjoyed a " virtual representation ", as most British people did, since only a small minority of the British population were eligible to elect representatives to Parliament. However, Americans such as James Otis maintained that there was no one in Parliament responsible specifically to any colonial constituency, so they were not "virtually represented" by anyone in Parliament. The Rockingham government came to power in July 1765, and Parliament debated whether to repeal
11692-541: The colonies, acknowledged that he leaked the letters, which led to him being removed from his position. In Boston, Samuel Adams set about creating new Committees of Correspondence , which linked Patriots in all 13 colonies and eventually provided the framework for a rebel government. Virginia, the largest colony, set up its Committee of Correspondence in early 1773, on which Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson served. A total of about 7,000 to 8,000 Patriots served on these Committees; Loyalists were excluded. The committees became
11840-515: The colonies, establishing their independence as the United States of America in July 1776. Discontent with colonial rule began shortly after the defeat of France in the French and Indian War in 1763. Although the colonies had fought and supported the war, Parliament imposed new taxes to compensate for wartime costs and turned control of the colonies' western lands over to the British officials in Montreal . Representatives from several colonies convened
11988-549: The colonies. The new taxes were enacted on the belief that Americans only objected to internal taxes and not to external taxes such as custom duties. However, in his widely read pamphlet, Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania , John Dickinson argued against the constitutionality of the acts because their purpose was to raise revenue and not to regulate trade. Colonists responded to the taxes by organizing new boycotts of British goods. These boycotts were less effective, however, as
12136-462: The colonies—and for that matter by the ministries that followed up to 1776." The national debt had grown to £133 million with annual debt payments of £5 million (out of an £8 million annual budget). Stationing troops in North America on a permanent basis would cost another £360,000 a year. On a per capita basis, Americans only paid 1 shilling in taxes to the empire compared to 26 shillings paid by
12284-511: The cook and steward were recruited by Danenhower from San Francisco's Chinatown district. De Long quickly found himself at odds with the naval engineers at Mare Island, whose estimates of the work required to prepare Jeannette for the Arctic greatly exceeded his own judgement of what was necessary. De Long spent much time negotiating on Bennett's behalf with the Navy Department in an effort to reduce costs. In this he
12432-412: The crowd. They hit 11 people; three civilians died of wounds at the scene of the shooting, and two died shortly after. The event quickly came to be called the Boston Massacre . The soldiers were tried and acquitted (defended by John Adams ), but the widespread descriptions soon began to turn colonial sentiment against the British. This accelerated the downward spiral in the relationship between Britain and
12580-606: The current would weaken or even penetrate the protective ice ring, and that a sturdily-built steamer following the course of the stream might thus be able to break through into the supposed polar sea. After two expeditions sponsored by Petermann—the German North Polar Expedition of 1869 led by Carl Koldewey , and the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition of 1872 under Karl Weyprecht and Julius von Payer —had followed separate branches of
12728-409: The direct payment of colonial officials, which had been paid by local authorities. This would have reduced the influence of colonial representatives over their government. The letters' contents were used as evidence of a systematic plot against American rights, and discredited Hutchinson in the eyes of the people; the colonial Assembly petitioned for his recall. Benjamin Franklin, postmaster general for
12876-598: The expedition, was a serving United States Navy officer with previous Arctic experience. Although essentially a private venture, in which Bennett paid all the bills, the expedition had the full support of the U.S. government. Before departure the ship was commissioned into the U.S. Navy as USS Jeannette , and sailed under navy laws and discipline. Before its demise, the expedition discovered new islands—the De Long Islands —and collected valuable meteorological and oceanographic data. Although Jeannette ' s fate demolished
13024-508: The expedition. Two others from Jeannette ' s voyage from Le Havre, carpenter Albert Sweetman and boatswain John Cole, were enlisted, as was the Herald ' s meteorologist, Jerome Collins . Dubbed "chief scientist," he was in charge of the Edison apparatus and of a rudimentary telephone system that De Long hoped to utilize. The remaining places were filled from a long list of applicants;
13172-571: The fall of 1781, when the combined American and French armies captured an entire British army in the Siege of Yorktown . The defeat led to the collapse of King George's control of Parliament, with a majority now in favor of ending the war on American terms. On September 3, 1783, the British signed the Treaty of Paris giving the United States nearly all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of
13320-562: The first Henrietta Island , after Bennett's mother, and the second Jeannette Island . A sledge party under Melville was dispatched to Henrietta Island, to claim the territories for the United States. At around this time, the USRC ; Thomas Corwin was in Alaskan waters, seeking news of De Long's expedition. Corwin ' s captain, Calvin Hooper, heard stories of a shipwreck in the far north and set off to investigate. For five weeks he circled
13468-458: The first in a series of Navigation Acts , which restricted colonial trade with foreign countries. The Thirteen Colonies could trade with the rest of the empire but only ship certain commodities like tobacco to Britain. Any European imports bound for British America had to first pass through an English port and pay customs duties. Other laws regulated colonial industries, such as the Wool Act of 1699 ,
13616-529: The first state constitution. In May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. New Jersey , South Carolina , and Virginia created their constitutions before July 4. Rhode Island and Connecticut simply took their existing royal charters and deleted all references to the crown. The new states were all committed to republicanism, with no inherited offices. On May 26, 1776, John Adams wrote James Sullivan from Philadelphia warning against extending
13764-750: The franchise too far: Depend upon it, sir, it is dangerous to open so fruitful a source of controversy and altercation, as would be opened by attempting to alter the qualifications of voters. There will be no end of it. New claims will arise. Women will demand a vote. Lads from twelve to twenty one will think their rights not enough attended to, and every man, who has not a farthing, will demand an equal voice with any other in all acts of state. It tends to confound and destroy all distinctions, and prostrate all ranks, to one common level[.] The resulting constitutions in states, including those of Delaware , Maryland , Massachusetts , New York , and Virginia featured: In Pennsylvania , New Jersey , and New Hampshire ,
13912-673: The goods taxed by the Townshend Acts were widely used. In February 1768, the Assembly of Massachusetts Bay Colony issued a circular letter to the other colonies urging them to coordinate resistance. The governor dissolved the assembly when it refused to rescind the letter. Meanwhile, a riot broke out in Boston in June 1768 over the seizure of the sloop Liberty , owned by John Hancock , for alleged smuggling. Customs officials were forced to flee, prompting
14060-417: The hated new tax. In most instances, the consignees were forced by the Americans to resign and the tea was turned back, but Massachusetts governor Hutchinson refused to allow Boston merchants to give in to pressure. A town meeting in Boston determined that the tea would not be landed, and ignored a demand from the governor to disperse. On December 16, 1773, a group of men, led by Samuel Adams and dressed to evoke
14208-578: The issuance of the Declaration of Independence, each colony began operating as independent and sovereign states. The next step was to form a union to facilitate international relations and alliances. On November 5, 1777, the Congress approved the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union and sent it to each state for ratification. The Congress immediately began operating under the Articles' terms, providing
14356-643: The king proclaimed Massachusetts to be in a state of open defiance and rebellion . The Continental Army surrounded Boston, and the British withdrew by sea in March 1776, leaving the Patriots in control in every colony. In July 1776, the Second Continental Congress began to take on the role of governing a new nation . It passed the Lee Resolution for national independence on July 2, and on July 4, 1776, adopted
14504-412: The lack of anesthetic —left the navigator largely incapacitated and unable to perform his duties. On the last day of 1880 De Long wrote in his journal: "I begin the new year by turning over a new leaf, and I hope to God we are turning over a new leaf in our book of luck". Early in 1881, De Long noted that after sixteen months, Jeannette was still only 220 nautical miles (410 km; 250 mi) from
14652-532: The leaders of the American resistance to British actions, and later largely determined the war effort at the state and local level. When the First Continental Congress decided to boycott British products, the colonial and local Committees took charge, examining merchant records and publishing the names of merchants who attempted to defy the boycott by importing British goods. Meanwhile, Parliament passed
14800-534: The legitimate king for more than a year after his coronation . In King Philip's War (1675–1678), the New England colonies fought a handful of Native American tribes without military assistance from England, thereby contributing to the development of a uniquely American identity separate from that of the British people . In the 1680s, Charles and his brother, James II , attempted to bring New England under direct English control. The colonists fiercely opposed this, and
14948-489: The most politically active. The British government lacked the resources and information needed to control the colonies. Instead, British officials negotiated and compromised with colonial leaders to gain compliance with imperial policies. The colonies defended themselves with colonial militias , and the British government rarely sent military forces to America before 1755. According to historian Robert Middlekauff , "Americans had become almost completely self-governing" before
15096-580: The navy and would be subject to naval discipline. Bennett remained responsible for financing the enterprise, and undertook to reimburse the government for all costs incurred. Meanwhile, De Long was released from active duty to oversee Pandora ' s refit in England. In June 1878, after a thorough overhaul at Deptford on the Thames Estuary , Pandora was sailed to Le Havre in France where, on July 4, she
15244-429: The news value of Arctic exploration; two Herald reporters had accompanied Juniata , and in 1874 Bennett was helping to fund British sailor Allen Young and his decommissioned former gunboat Pandora , on one of the final Franklin searches. Bennett was interested in Petermann's theories, and in 1877 traveled to Gotha to discuss possible Arctic routes with the geographer. Petermann thought that as well as providing
15392-464: The north of Svalbard before being stopped by ice. The prevalent theory of polar geography throughout this period was that of a temperate " Open Polar Sea " surrounding the North Pole. The observable southward drift of Arctic ice was thought to result from the "pushing" effect of this warmer water. According to the historian Hampton Sides , despite the lack of scientific evidence the theory "gathered
15540-403: The past. The ship's surgeon, James Ambler, was assigned to the expedition by the Navy's Bureau of Medicine and Surgery , only because he was next on the list of medical officers available for sea duty. Ambler deduced from Danenhower's medical records that a probable cause of the navigator's medical lapses was syphilis , but Danenhower's influential connections ensured that he kept his place on
15688-436: The point where she had been trapped. He wrote: "We are drifting about like a modern Flying Dutchman ... thirty-three people are wearing out their lives and souls". On May 16, an island was sighted, followed almost immediately by another—the first land seen for well over a year. "There is something then beside ice in the world!", wrote De Long. They were in uncharted seas, so these islands were discoveries. De Long named
15836-466: The polar sea. "My idea", he told Bennett, "is that if one door will not open, try another". He offered Bennett full use of his maps and charts. Petermann's advice convinced Bennett that a new American polar venture should go ahead. On his return from Gotha, he cabled De Long requesting him to seek leave of absence from the Navy, and to begin the search for a ship suitable for Arctic exploration using Petermann's Bering Strait route. As no suitable ship
15984-455: The province of Massachusetts. A new ministry under Lord North came to power in 1770, and Parliament repealed most of the Townshend duties, except the tax on tea. This temporarily resolved the crisis, and the boycott of British goods largely ceased, with only the more radical patriots such as Samuel Adams continuing to agitate. In June 1772, American patriots, including John Brown , burned
16132-640: The rebels' weapons and arrest their leaders, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. The Patriots assembled a militia 15,000 strong and laid siege to Boston, occupied by 6500 British soldiers. The Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia on June 14, 1775. The congress was divided on the best course of action. They authorized formation of the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as its commander-in-chief, and produced
16280-445: The resulting constitutions embodied: The radical provisions of Pennsylvania 's constitution lasted 14 years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to
16428-535: The revenue themselves. Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765, which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets were required to have the stamps—even decks of playing cards. The colonists did not object that the taxes were high; they were actually low. They objected to their lack of representation in the Parliament, which gave them no voice concerning legislation that affected them, such as
16576-602: The search for trade routes became secondary to the prestige objective of reaching the North Pole itself, or at least of registering a " Farthest North ". In 1773, a British naval expedition under captain Constantine Phipps sought a route to the pole from the Seven Islands , but found the way impassably blocked by ice. On May 28, 1806, whaling captain William Scoresby achieved a new record northern latitude of 81°30' to
16724-505: The ship's complement died, including De Long. The chief exponent of the theory of a warm-water gateway to the North Pole was the German cartographer August Petermann . He encouraged James Gordon Bennett Jr. , the proprietor of The New York Herald , to finance a polar expedition based on the untried Pacific route. Bennett acquired a former Royal Navy gunboat , Pandora , and changed her name to Jeannette . De Long, whom Bennett chose to lead
16872-528: The stamp tax or to send an army to enforce it. Benjamin Franklin appeared before them to make the case for repeal, explaining that the colonies had spent heavily in manpower, money, and blood defending the empire, and that further taxes to pay for those wars were unjust and might bring about a rebellion. Parliament agreed and repealed the tax on February 21, 1766, but they insisted in the Declaratory Act of March 1766 that they retained full power to make laws for
17020-544: The tax, violating the unwritten English constitution . This grievance was summarized in the slogan "No taxation without representation". Shortly following adoption of the Stamp Act, the Sons of Liberty formed, and began using public demonstrations, boycotts, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws became unenforceable. In Boston , the Sons of Liberty burned the records of
17168-423: The theory that Smith Sound , a northerly channel between Greenland and Ellesmere Island , was one of the fabled gateways to the polar sea. This brought a succession of expeditions to this area: Elisha Kane in 1853–1855 , Isaac Israel Hayes in 1860–1861, Charles Francis Hall in 1872–1874, and George Nares in 1875–1876. No gateway was found, although both Kane and Hayes claimed, mistakenly, to have seen
17316-535: The unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America. In April 1776, the North Carolina Provincial Congress issued the Halifax Resolves explicitly authorizing its delegates to vote for independence. By June, nine Provincial Congresses were ready for independence; Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and New York followed. Richard Henry Lee was instructed by
17464-627: The unwritten British constitution , with its guarantees of the rights of Englishmen , protected personal liberty better than any other government. It served as the model for colonial governments . The Crown appointed a royal governor to exercise executive power. Property owners elected a colonial assembly with powers to legislate and levy taxes, but the British government reserved the right to veto colonial legislation. Radical Whig ideology profoundly influenced American political philosophy with its love of liberty and opposition to tyrannical government. With little industry except shipbuilding,
17612-409: The vessel was lost and headed back to San Francisco. After a week's rest, the party departed Bennett Island on August 6, leaving a message in a cairn . The ice was now too loose for sled travel, so the party transferred to the boats. Having no further use for the dogs, De Long ordered them shot. The general direction of the ice flow carried the party south-west, and on August 20 the most easterly of
17760-568: The vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson . Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October. Moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that the colonists were equal to all other British citizens and that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen , and Congress emphasized their determination by organizing
17908-400: The weather that would release them from the ice, writing in his journal: "I am told that in the later part of September and early part of October there is experienced in these latitudes quite an Indian Summer". The following weeks brought no increase in temperature, and De Long reluctantly accepted that Jeannette was trapped for the winter. The initial direction of Jeannette ' s drift
18056-652: The west and foreign populations in newly acquired territories (the French in Canada and the Spanish in Florida ). In addition, British soldiers could prevent white colonists from instigating conflict with Native Americans and help collect customs duties. Migration beyond the Appalachian Mountains increased after the French threat was removed, and Native Americans launched Pontiac's War (1763–1766) in response. The Grenville ministry issued
18204-515: The west of the 180° meridian, but two months later had retreated back to the other side of the line. The summer brought no relief; although it briefly seemed possible in August that Jeannette might break free and find open water, this proved a false hope. The condition of Danenhower was a further source of anxiety. His syphilis began to take toll of his body, particularly his left eye which, despite Ambler's repeated operations—stoically endured, given
18352-572: The widely believed Open Polar Sea theory, the appearance in 1884 of debris from the wreck on the south-west coast of Greenland indicated the existence of an ocean current moving the permanent Arctic ice from east to west. This discovery inspired Fridtjof Nansen to mount his Fram expedition nine years later. A monument to the Jeannette ' s dead was erected at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland , in 1890. European exploration of
18500-454: The wind, managed to hold a course to the west. The storm had largely subsided by the morning of September 14, but progress was erratic in the absence of the sail, and it was three more days before the cutter ran aground at the most northerly limit of the Lena Delta. De Long and his crew waded ashore, carrying their provisions from the boat, and prepared for a long foot journey. Based on their map,
18648-579: The worst offenders were shot for food. On July 12, land appeared to the south; fleetingly, De Long thought this was part of the New Siberian Islands, but it was another uncharted island. When the party reached it on July 29, De Long named it Bennett Island , and called the point of landing "Cape Emma", after his wife. Meanwhile, hundreds of miles to the east, Corwin had given up on its rescue mission. After months of searching vainly for definite news or traces of Jeannette , Hooper had concluded that
18796-499: Was Vega and that Nordenskiöld's expedition had therefore safely completed the Northeast Passage. De Long left a note of his findings for transmission to Washington. On August 31, Jeannette left, in the assumed direction of Wrangel's Land, where De Long hoped to establish his winter quarters. Jeannette initially made good speed northward; on September 2 she was about 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi) from
18944-583: Was a rebellion and political movement in the Thirteen Colonies which peaked when colonists initiated an ultimately successful war for independence against the Kingdom of Great Britain . Leaders of the American Revolution were colonial separatist leaders who originally sought more autonomy as British subjects, but later assembled to support the Revolutionary War, which ended British colonial rule over
19092-519: Was an experimental arc lamp system devised by Thomas Edison , which would supposedly provide light equivalent to 3,000 candles and thus transform the Arctic winter darkness. Having successfully undergone her sea trials, on June 28, ten days before her scheduled departure, Jeannette was formally commissioned into the Navy as USS Jeannette . In selecting his crew, De Long's priority was men with Arctic experience. For his second-in-command he chose lieutenant Charles W. Chipp , who had served with him on
19240-464: Was available in the U.S., De Long went to England, where he found Young's Pandora on offer at $ 6,000. The vessel's Arctic pedigree made it seem ideal, but Young's hesitancy about selling delayed the purchase until late 1877. At Bennett's instigation, Congress passed legislation that gave the Navy Department full control over the expedition; it would fly the American flag and the crew would be engaged by
19388-404: Was breached by the ice and she began to take in water rapidly. De Long prepared to abandon ship, but she was saved by the actions of Nindemann and Sweetman, who waded into the freezing water in the hold and staunched the inflow by stuffing whatever materials were available into the breaches. Melville used elements of the discarded Edison apparatus to build a mechanical pumping system, and the problem
19536-606: Was broadly successful, but in other areas he faced setbacks. In April he learned that the navy was unable to provide a supply ship to accompany Jeannette northward, a decision which, he thought, left the fate of the expedition "hanging by a thread". Bennett eventually resolved this difficulty by chartering a schooner , the Frances Hyde , to carry extra coal and provisions as far as Alaska. Late in his preparations, De Long received orders from Secretary Thompson that, before proceeding with his own Arctic mission he should enquire along
19684-490: Was enforced by new local committees authorized by the Congress. It also began coordinating Patriot resistance by militias which existed in every colony and which had gained military experience in the French and Indian War. For the first time, the Patriots were armed and unified against Parliament. King George declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion in February 1775 and the British garrison received orders to seize
19832-575: Was first awarded in 1776 by the Second Continental Congress to General George Washington . Although the first recipients were military figures who participated in the American Revolution , the War of 1812 and the Mexican–American War , Congress broadened the scope of the medal to include actors, authors, entertainers, musicians, pioneers in aeronautics and space, explorers, lifesavers, notables in science and medicine, athletes, humanitarians, public servants, and foreign recipients. The medal
19980-541: Was forced to retreat a few miles from Cape York. De Long returned to Juniata in mid-August, having found no trace of the Polaris crew—who had meanwhile been rescued by the Scottish whaler SS Ravenscraig —but the experience had profoundly affected his outlook. Having earlier described the Greenland coast in a letter to his wife Emma as "a dreary land of desolation ... I hope I may never find myself cast away in such
20128-420: Was haphazard, back and forth—on October 13, nearly a month after the ship was first trapped, Herald Island was still in sight. As October developed, the direction of drift shifted to the northwest, and it became apparent to De Long that "Wrangel's Land" was not after all a land mass, but was a relatively small island. At the same time, analyses of sea currents, salinity and temperature provided data confirming
20276-401: Was instructed to collect evidence of said treason, and the threat caused widespread outrage, though it was not carried out. On March 5, 1770, a large crowd gathered around a group of British soldiers on a Boston street. The crowd grew threatening, throwing snowballs, rocks, and debris at them. One soldier was clubbed and fell. There was no order to fire, but the soldiers panicked and fired into
20424-457: Was largely resolved by the construction of a new watertight bulkhead. De Long noted in his journal that the efforts of Nindemann and Sweetman were at least worthy of recommendation for the Medal of Honor . For months on end Jeannette hardly moved at all; De Long recorded on March 2 that their position was almost precisely what it had been three months earlier. On May 5, the ship passed to
20572-484: Was much too slow and became trapped in northern New York state. It surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777. From early October 1777 until November 15, a siege distracted British troops at Fort Mifflin , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and allowed Washington time to preserve the Continental Army by safely leading his troops to harsh winter quarters at Valley Forge . Jeannette Expedition The Jeannette expedition of 1879–1881, officially called
20720-481: Was not prepared to offer financial support, instead advising De Long to approach James Gordon Bennett Jr. , owner and publisher of The New York Herald and a known sponsor of bold schemes. De Long met Bennett in New York City early in 1874; the newspaperman was impressed by De Long, and assured him that his Arctic ambitions would have the enthusiastic support of the Herald . In the meantime De Long had applied to
20868-405: Was on the tiny Semyonovsky Island , fewer than 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi) from the Siberian coast. The entire crew were still together on Semenovsky Island. The boats left the island early in the morning of September 12, in fair weather. Thirteen men were with De Long in the large cutter , Chipp with seven others took the smaller cutter, while Melville and ten men sailed in
21016-427: Was renamed Jeannette , after Bennett's sister who performed the ceremony. On July 15, the ship, manned by De Long and a small crew, sailed from Le Havre to begin the 18,000-nautical-mile (33,000 km) voyage to San Francisco , the port from which the Arctic expedition was to sail. They arrived on December 27, 1878, and transferred Jeannette to Mare Island Naval Shipyard to undergo further work in readiness for
21164-400: Was still about 15 nautical miles (28 km; 17 mi) away; a sled party under Chipp set off across the ice to investigate the possibility of a winter harbor should Jeannette regain maneuverability. Chipp's party was unable to get closer to the island than six nautical miles (11 km) before the volatile ice conditions forced their return to the ship. De Long still hoped for a change in
21312-718: Was the Massachusetts Government Act which altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted town meetings. The second was the Administration of Justice Act which ordered that all British soldiers to be tried were to be arraigned in Britain, not in the colonies. The third was the Boston Port Act , which closed the port of Boston until the British had been compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party. The fourth
21460-653: Was the Quartering Act of 1774 , which allowed royal governors to house British troops in the homes of citizens without permission of the owner. In response, Massachusetts patriots issued the Suffolk Resolves and formed an alternative shadow government known as the Provincial Congress, which began training militia outside British-occupied Boston. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened, consisting of representatives from each colony, to serve as
21608-472: Was the final sighting of Jeannette by the outside world. The next day, September 5, the crew caught a brief glimpse of Wrangel's Land—or perhaps, as De Long surmised, a mirage . Ice conditions now made it impossible to move closer to this tantalizing shore, and De Long made Herald Island his new objective. Shortly afterwards, Jeannette was sealed within the pack, "as tightly as a fly in amber" according to historian Leonard Guttridge . Herald Island
21756-525: Was the originator, protested that this requirement would jeopardize his primary mission, but was forced to modify his plans. De Long was unaware, as he prepared to sail, that the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey was studying the latest hydrographical and meteorological data obtained from its research ships in the Bering Sea. The material indicated conclusively that, contrary to Bent's theories,
21904-567: Was trapped by ice and drifted for nearly two years before she was crushed and sunk north of the Siberian coast. De Long then led his men on a perilous journey by sled, dragging the Jeannette 's whaleboat and two cutters , eventually switching to these small boats to sail for the Lena Delta in Siberia. During this journey, and in the subsequent weeks of wandering in Siberia before rescue, twenty of
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