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81-629: The Latin text of the codex represents a mixed form of text. It is generally a European Old Latin text, named Itala , strongly interpolated by Afra . Both text were contaminated by Jerome 's Vulgate . It contains the only complete exemplar of the Vetus Latina version of 1 Esdras . Two robbers who were crucified on either side of Jesus are named, in Matthew 27:38, as Zoatham (right-hand) and Camma (left-hand), in Mark 15:27, as Zoatham and Chammatha. The text of

162-501: A Hellenistic civilization ) by their Seleucid overlords, being executed for such crimes as observing the Sabbath , circumcising their boys or refusing to eat pork or meat sacrificed to foreign gods . However, the notion of martyrdom in the Jewish and Christian traditions differ considerably. In Christianity , a martyr, in accordance with the meaning of the original Greek term martys in

243-415: A commemoration on 30 September. Jerome is also often depicted with a lion, in reference to the popular hagiographical belief that Jerome once tamed a lion in the wilderness by healing its paw. The source for the story may actually have been the second century Roman tale of Androcles , or confusion with the exploits of Gerasimus (Jerome in later Latin is "Geronimus"); it is "a figment" found in

324-799: A crucial source of information on the pronunciation of the Hebrew language in Byzantine Palestine . Due to his work, Jerome is recognized as a saint and Doctor of the Church by the Catholic Church , and as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Lutheran Church , and the Anglican Communion . His feast day is 30 September ( Gregorian calendar ). Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus

405-514: A form of memoralizing the dead within some narrative, such as how the victims of the 2020 Beirut explosion were called ‘martyrs of corruption’ as a form of protest against the government. The wide usage of ‘martyr’ is not restricted to Arabic. Armenian culture likewise uses the term for the victims of the Armenian genocide , who are called Holy Martyrs . April 24 is Armenian Genocide Memorial Day , and also called "Armenian Martyrs Day". Martyrdom

486-563: A group of Italian pro-independence fighters condemned to death by hanging in 1853 during the Italian Risorgimento . They included Tito Speri and the priest Enrico Tazzoli and are named after the site where the sentence was carried out, in the valley of Belfiore at the south entrance to Mantua . The Tolpuddle Martyrs were a group of 19th century agricultural labourers in Dorset , England, who were arrested for and convicted of swearing

567-582: A humantiarian activist, he is called a martyr by Al-Jazeera . Martyrdom is also tied with nationalism, because a martyr can be a person who died in the context of national struggle. For example, in Beirut, Martyrs' Square is a public square that's dedicated to Lebanese nationalists who were executed by the Ottomans. In Palestine, the word ‘martyr’ is traditionally used to mean a person killed by Israeli forces, regardless of religion. For example, Shireen Abu Akleh

648-509: A political belief or cause. The Manchester Martyrs were three Irishmen executed after being condemned for association with the killing of a policeman in Manchester , England in 1867. The day after the executions, Frederick Engels wrote to Karl Marx : "Yesterday morning the Tories, by the hand of Mr Calcraft, accomplished the final act of separation between England and Ireland. The only thing that

729-407: A religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In colloquial usage, the term can also refer to any person who suffers a significant consequence in protest or support of a cause. In the martyrdom narrative of the remembering community, this refusal to comply with the presented demands results in the punishment or execution of an individual by an oppressor. Accordingly, the status of

810-465: A secret oath as members of the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers. The rules of the society showed it was clearly structured as a friendly society , that is, a mutual association for the purposes of insurance, pensions, savings or cooperative banking; and it operated as a trade-specific benefit society . But at the time, friendly societies had strong elements of what are now considered to be

891-527: Is an Arabic term in Islam meaning "witness", and is also used to denote a martyr; a female martyr is named shahida . The term Shahid occurs frequently in the Quran in the generic sense "witness", but only once in the sense "martyr, one who dies for his faith"; this latter sense acquires wider use in the ḥadīth literature . Islam views a martyr as a man or woman who dies while conducting jihad , whether on or off

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972-461: Is depicted alongside his red cardinal hat. Jerome is often depicted in connection with the vanitas motif, the reflection on the meaninglessness of earthly life and the transient nature of all earthly goods and pursuits. In the 16th century Saint Jerome in his study by Pieter Coecke van Aelst and workshop, the saint is depicted with a skull. Behind him on the wall is pinned an admonition, Cogita Mori ("Think upon death"). Further reminders of

1053-528: Is extensive. In addition to his biblical works, he wrote polemical and historical essays, always from a theologian's perspective. Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially those in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. He often focused on women's lives and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life. This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families . In addition, his works are

1134-423: Is killed because of their religion, it is more generally used to mean a person who died a violent death. Thus it can arguably mean a general ‘victim’. A person is a martyr if they were killed because of their identity, because of natural disasters like earthquakes, or while performing relief or health care work. For example, İbrahim Bilgen was killed by Israel in the 2010 Gaza flotilla raid . Because he died as

1215-655: Is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon". His Preface to the Books of Samuel and Kings (commonly called the Helmeted Preface ) includes the following statement: This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a "helmeted" introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst

1296-405: Is one of the main examples of Kiddush Hashem , meaning "sanctification of God's name" through public dedication to Jewish practice. Religious martyrdom is considered one of the more significant contributions of Hellenistic Judaism to Western Civilization . 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees recount numerous martyrdoms suffered by Jews resisting Hellenizing (adoption of Greek ideas or customs of

1377-568: Is the belief of righteous duty ( dharma ), where violence is used as a last resort to resolution after all other means have failed. Examples of this are found in the Mahabharata . Upon completion of their exile, the Pandavas were refused the return of their portion of the kingdom by their cousin Duruyodhana; and following which all means of peace talks by Krishna , Vidura and Sanjaya failed. During

1458-861: The Vulgate ; the Vulgate eventually superseded the preceding Latin translations of the Bible (the Vetus Latina ). The Council of Trent in 1546 declared the Vulgate authoritative "in public lectures, disputations, sermons, and expositions". Jerome showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. He lived as an ascetic for 4~5 years in the Syrian desert, and later near Bethlehem for 34 years. Nevertheless, his writings show outstanding scholarship and his correspondence has great historical importance. The Church of England honours Jerome with

1539-558: The Baháʼí Faith , martyrs are those who sacrifice their lives serving humanity in the name of God. However, Bahá'u'lláh , the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, discouraged the literal meaning of sacrificing one's life. Instead, he explained that martyrdom is devoting oneself to service to humanity. In politics, a martyr is someone who suffers persecution and/or death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, and/or refusing to advocate

1620-520: The Fenians still lacked were martyrs. ... To my knowledge, the only time that anybody has been executed for a similar matter in a civilised country was the case of John Brown at Harpers Ferry. The Fenians could not have wished for a better precedent." Ten Irish Republican Army members died during a 1981 hunger strike , including Bobby Sands . The Belfiore martyrs (in Italian , Martiri di Belfiore ) were

1701-647: The Longhua Martyrs' Memorial . Many communist activists have died as martyrs in India, due to their allegiance to various communist parties, such as the CPI(M) and the CPI . Most of them hail from mainly leftist states such as Kerala , and Tripura . In Kerala, many are killed in protests by the police, and some are assassinated by activists in other political parties, such as the INC and

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1782-790: The New Testament , is one who brings a testimony, usually written or verbal. In particular, the testimony is that of the Christian Gospel , or more generally, the Word of God . A Christian witness is a biblical witness whether or not death follows. The concept of Jesus as a martyr has recently received greater attention. Analyses of the Passion narratives in the Gospels have led many scholars to conclude that they are martyrdom accounts in terms of genre and style. Several scholars have also concluded that Paul

1863-613: The RSS . The district of Kannur has reported to have had the most political murders. Here, the RSS are known to have used brutal violence to eliminate CPI(M) workers. In the United States , the assassinations of Malcolm X in 1965 and Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968 have been linked to their leadership in movements to improve the rights and quality of life of black citizens, black nationalism and

1944-451: The archetypal martyr. The word martyr is used in English to describe a wide variety of people. However, the following table presents a general outline of common features present in stereotypical martyrdoms. In contemporary Middle Eastern cultures, the term for 'martyr’ (Arabic shahid ) has more uses than the English word ‘martyr’. While the term can be narrowly used for a person who

2025-451: The civil rights movement respectively. A political martyr is someone who suffers persecution or death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, or refusing to advocate a political belief or cause. The term "revolutionary martyr" usually relates to those dying in revolutionary struggle. During the 20th century, the concept was developed in particular in the culture and propaganda of communist or socialist revolutions, although it

2106-521: The philologist Aelius Donatus . There he learned Latin and at least some Koine Greek , though he probably did not yet acquire the familiarity with Greek literature that he later claimed to have acquired as a schoolboy. As a student, Jerome engaged in the superficial escapades and sexual experimentation of students in Rome; he indulged himself quite casually but he suffered terrible bouts of guilt afterwards. To appease his conscience , on Sundays he visited

2187-515: The sepulchers of the martyrs and the Apostles in the catacombs. This experience reminded him of the terrors of Hell : Often I would find myself entering those crypts, deep dug in the earth, with their walls on either side lined with the bodies of the dead, where everything was so dark that almost it seemed as though the Psalmist's words were fulfilled, Let them go down quick into Hell. Here and there

2268-419: The state religion , which greatly diminished persecution (although not for non-Nicene Christians). As some wondered how then they could most closely follow Christ there was a development of desert spirituality characterized by a eremitic lifestyle , renunciation , self-mortification , and separation from the world, practiced by several desert monks and Christian ascetics in late antiquity (such as Paul

2349-552: The vanitas motif of the passage of time and the imminence of death are the image of the Last Judgment visible in the saint's Bible, the candle and the hourglass. Both Agostino Carracci and Domenichino portrayed Jerome's last communion . Jerome is also sometimes depicted with an owl , the symbol of wisdom and scholarship. Writing materials and the trumpet of final judgment are also part of his iconography . A four and three quarters foot tall limestone statue of Jerome

2430-426: The 'martyr' can be considered a posthumous title as a reward for those who are considered worthy of the concept of martyrdom by the living, regardless of any attempts by the deceased to control how they will be remembered in advance. Insofar, the martyr is a relational figure of a society's boundary work that is produced by collective memory . Originally applied only to those who suffered for their religious beliefs,

2511-615: The Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi , Vandals , Sarmatians , Alans , Gepids , Herules, Saxons , Burgundians , Allemanni , and – alas! for the commonweal! – even Pannonians . His Commentary on Daniel was expressly written to offset the criticisms of Porphyry , who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and

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2592-748: The Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God." Jerome identified the four prophetic kingdoms symbolized in Daniel ;2 as the Neo-Babylonian Empire , the Medes and Persians , Macedon , and Rome. Jerome identified the stone cut out without hands as "namely, the Lord and Savior". Jerome refuted Porphyry's application of the little horn of chapter seven to Antiochus. He expected that at

2673-585: The Apocryphal writings. Wisdom , therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of Jesus, the Son of Sirach , and Judith , and Tobias , and the Shepherd are not in the canon. The first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style. The following passage, taken from Jerome's Life of St. Hilarion which was written c.  392 , appears to be

2754-567: The Apostle understood Jesus' death as a martyrdom. In light of such conclusions, some have argued that the early Christians of the first three centuries would have interpreted the crucifixion of Jesus as a martyrdom. In the context of church history , from the time of the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire under the Julio-Claudian dynasty , it developed that a martyr

2835-596: The Baptist , Jesus's possible cousin and his prophet and forerunner. The first Christian witness, after the establishment of the Christian faith at Pentecost , to be killed for his testimony was Saint Stephen (whose name means "crown"), and those who suffer martyrdom are said to have been "crowned". From the time of the Roman Emperor Constantine , Christianity was decriminalized, and then, under Theodosius I , became

2916-622: The Canadian physician Tillson Harrison —are honored and commemorated as martyrs. The red scarf worn by the 100+ million Young Pioneers honors their spilt blood. Jiang Zhuyun and Liu Hulan are notable female martyrs who have been commemorated in various media. Notable monuments include the Monument to the People's Heroes at the confluence of Suzhou Creek and the Huangpu River in central Shanghai and

2997-537: The Church authorities in England in the 16th and 17th centuries. Even more modern day accounts of martyrdom for Christ exist, depicted in books such as Jesus Freaks , though the numbers are disputed. The claim that 100,000 Christians are killed for their faith annually is greatly exaggerated according to the BBC , with many of those deaths due to war, but the fact of ongoing Christian martyrdoms remains undisputed. Shahid

3078-611: The Church of England after 1534. Two hundred and eighty-eight Christians were martyred for their faith by public burning between 1553 and 1558 by the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I in England leading to the reversion to the Church of England under Queen Elizabeth I in 1559. "From hundreds to thousands" of Waldensians were martyred in the Massacre of Mérindol in 1545. Three-hundred Roman Catholics were said to have been martyred by

3159-576: The Hebrews") translation of the Old Testament. However, detailed studies have shown that to a considerable degree Jerome was a competent Hebraist. Jerome also produced two onomastica : For the next 15 years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices in using the original Hebrew rather than suspect translations. His patristic commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in allegorical and mystical subtleties after

3240-572: The Hermit and Anthony the Great ). This was a kind of white martyrdom , dying to oneself every day, as opposed to a red martyrdom , the giving of one's life in a violent death. In the history of Christianity, death due to sectarian persecutions by other Christians has been regarded as martyrdom as well. There were martyrs recognized on both sides of the schism between the Roman Catholic Church and

3321-429: The actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist". "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist," he wrote to Pope Damasus I . He believed that "the mystery of iniquity" written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when "every one chatters about his views." To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force

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3402-554: The battlefield (see greater jihad and lesser jihad ). The concept of martyrdom in Islam became prominent during the Islamic Revolution in Iran (1979) and the subsequent Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), so that the cult of the martyr had a lasting impact on the course of revolution and war. Since the early 2000s, it has been primarily associated with Islamic extremism and jihadism . In

3483-561: The codex was edited by Belsheim in 1888, Vogels in 1953, and by Jülicher. Currently, the manuscript is housed at the National Library of France (Lat. 254) at Paris. This article about a manuscript is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Jerome Jerome ( / dʒ ə ˈ r oʊ m / ; Latin : Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus ; Ancient Greek : Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος ; c.  342–347 – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon ,

3564-446: The earliest account of the etiology , symptoms and cure of severe vitamin A deficiency : From his thirty-first to his thirty-fifth year he had for food six ounces of barley bread , and vegetables slightly cooked without oil. But finding that his eyes were growing dim, and that his whole body was shrivelled with an eruption and a sort of stony roughness ( impetigine et pumicea quad scabredine ) he added oil to his former food, and up to

3645-467: The end of the world, Rome would be destroyed, and partitioned among ten kingdoms before the little horn appeared. Jerome believed that Cyrus of Persia is the higher of the two horns of the Medo-Persian ram of Daniel 8:3. The he-goat is Greece smiting Persia. Jerome opposed the doctrine of Pelagianism , and wrote against it three years before his death. Jerome, despite being opposed to Origen,

3726-399: The equipment of a scholar, or in a rocky desert, or in a setting that combines both aspects, with him studying a book under the shelter of a rock-face or cave mouth. His study is often shown as large and well-provided for, he is often clean-shaven and well-dressed, and a cardinal's hat may appear. These images derive from the tradition of the evangelist portrait , though Jerome is often given

3807-562: The extended meaning of believers who are called to witness for their religious belief, and on account of this witness, endure suffering or death. The term, in this later sense, entered the English language as a loanword . The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom . The early Christians who first began to use the term martyr in its new sense saw Jesus as the first and greatest martyr, on account of his crucifixion . The early Christians appear to have seen Jesus as

3888-666: The great war which commenced, even Arjuna was brought down with doubts, e.g., attachment, sorrow, fear. This is where Krishna instructs Arjuna how to carry out his duty as a righteous warrior and fight. Martyrdom (called shahadat in Punjabi) is a fundamental concept in Sikhism and represents an important institution of the faith. Sikhs believe in Ibaadat se Shahadat (from love to martyrdom). Some famous Sikh martyrs include: Martyrdom in Judaism

3969-591: The guidance of a converted Jew ; and he seems to have been in correspondence with Jewish Christians in Antioch. Around this time he had copied for himself a Hebrew Gospel, of which fragments are preserved in his notes. It is known today as the Gospel of the Hebrews , which the Nazarenes considered to be the true Gospel of Matthew . Jerome translated parts of this Hebrew Gospel into Greek. As protégé of Pope Damasus I , Jerome

4050-487: The library and desk of a serious scholar. His attribute of the lion, often shown at a smaller scale, may be beside him in either setting. The subject of "Jerome Penitent" first appears in the later 15th century in Italy; he is usually in the desert, wearing ragged clothes, and often naked above the waist. His gaze is usually fixed on a crucifix and he may beat himself with his fist or a rock. In one of Georges de La Tour's 17th century French versions of St. Jerome his penitence

4131-418: The light, not entering in through windows, but filtering down from above through shafts, relieved the horror of the darkness. But again, as soon as you found yourself cautiously moving forward, the black night closed around and there came to my mind the line of Virgil, "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent". The quotation from Virgil reads, in translation, "On all sides round, horror spread wide;

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4212-402: The mainstream Rabbinical Judaism had rejected the Septuagint as invalid Jewish scriptural texts because of what were ascertained as mistranslations along with its Hellenistic heretical elements. He completed this work by 405. Prior to Jerome's Vulgate, all Latin translations of the Old Testament were based on the Septuagint, not the Hebrew. Jerome's decision to use a Hebrew text instead of

4293-460: The manner of Philo and the Alexandrian school . Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible "Apocrypha" and the Hebraica veritas of the protocanonical books . In his Vulgate's prologues , he describes some portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non- canonical (he called them apocrypha ); for Baruch , he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it

4374-455: The one to whom he was writing. Due to the time he spent in Rome among wealthy families belonging to the Roman upper class, Jerome was frequently commissioned by women who had taken a vow of virginity to write to them in guidance of how to live their life. As a result, he spent a great deal of his life corresponding with these women about certain abstentions and lifestyle practices. Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for

4455-417: The point that she died just four months after starting to follow his instructions; much of the Roman populace was outraged that Jerome, in their view, thus caused the premature death of such a lively young woman. Additionally, his insistence to Paula that Blaesilla should not be mourned and complaints that her grief was excessive were seen as heartless, which further polarized Roman opinion against him. Jerome

4536-413: The previously translated Septuagint went against the advice of most other Christians, including Augustine , who thought the Septuagint inspired . Modern scholarship, however, has sometimes cast doubts on the actual quality of Jerome's Hebrew knowledge. Many modern scholars believe that the Greek Hexapla is the main source for Jerome's "iuxta Hebraeos" (i.e. "close to the Hebrews", "immediately following

4617-416: The principal role of trade unions , and wages were at issue. The Tolpuddle Martyrs were sentenced not to death but to transportation to Australia , a harsh form of exile. In the People's Republic of China , people who died in the cause of the Communist Party —most particularly the many victims of the 1927 Shanghai massacre but also including devoted humanitarians during the Chinese Civil War such as

4698-457: The sixty-third year of his life followed this temperate course, tasting neither fruit nor pulse, nor anything whatsoever besides. Jerome's letters or epistles , both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form an important portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging

4779-430: The ten kings. ... After they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor. In his Commentary on Daniel , he noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form." Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought

4860-467: The term has come to be used in connection with people killed for a political cause. Most martyrs are considered holy or are respected by their followers, becoming symbols of exceptional leadership and heroism in the face of difficult circumstances. Martyrs play significant roles in religions. Similarly, martyrs have had notable effects in secular life, including such figures as Socrates , among other political and cultural examples. In its original meaning,

4941-402: The thirteenth-century Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine . Hagiographies of Jerome talk of his having spent many years in the Syrian desert, and artists often depict him in a "wilderness", which for West European painters can take the form of a wood. From the late Middle Ages, depictions of Jerome in a wider setting became popular. He is either shown in his study, surrounded by books and

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5022-404: The time, he was criticized for it. Even in his time, Jerome noted Porphyry's accusation that the Christian communities were run by women and that the favor of the ladies decided who could accede to the dignity of the priesthood. In Rome, Jerome was surrounded by a circle of well-born and well-educated women, including some from the noblest patrician families. Among these women were such as

5103-469: The very silence breathed a terror on my soul". Although at first afraid of Christianity, he eventually converted . Seized with a desire for a life of ascetic penance , Jerome went for a time to the desert of Chalcis , to the southeast of Antioch , known as the "Syrian Thebaid " from the number of eremites (hermits) inhabiting it. During this period, he seems to have found time for studying and writing. He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under

5184-507: The vices and corruptions of the time and against sexual immorality among the clergy, exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world , or debating his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics. (See Plowboy trope .) Because there was no distinct line between personal documents and those meant for publication, his letters frequently contain both confidential messages and treatises meant for others besides

5265-475: The view that all Christians would eventually be reunited to God was criticized by Augustine in his treatise "on faith and works". Jerome is the second-most voluminous writer – after Augustine of Hippo (354–430) – in ancient Latin Christianity. The Catholic Church recognizes him as the patron saint of translators, librarians, and encyclopedists . Jerome translated many biblical texts into Latin from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. His translations formed part of

5346-433: The widows Lea , Marcella , and Paula , and Paula's daughters Blaesilla and Eustochium . The resulting inclination of these women towards the monastic life, away from the indulgent lasciviousness in Rome, and his unsparing criticism of the secular clergy of Rome, brought a growing hostility against him among the Roman clergy and their supporters. Soon after the death of his patron Pope Damasus I on 10 December 384, Jerome

5427-401: The word martyr, meaning witness , was used in the secular sphere as well as in the New Testament of the Bible . The process of bearing witness was not intended to lead to the death of the witness, although it is known from ancient writers (e.g., Josephus ) and from the New Testament that witnesses often died for their testimonies. During the early Christian centuries, the term acquired

5508-401: Was a Palestinian Christian journalist who was killed by Israeli forces, and Arabic media calls her a ‘martyr’. This reflects a communal belief that every Palestinian death is part of a resistance against Israeli occupation. Children are likewise called martyrs, such as the late children of journalist Wael Al-Dahdouh who were killed in an Israeli airstrike. The label of martyrdom is used as

5589-449: Was a scholar at a time when being a scholar implied a fluency in Greek. He knew some Hebrew when he started his translation project , but moved to Jerusalem to strengthen his grip on Jewish scripture commentary. A wealthy Roman aristocrat, Paula, funded Jerome's stay in a monastery in the nearby city of Bethlehem , where he settled next to the Church of the Nativity – built half a century prior on orders of Emperor Constantine over what

5670-475: Was an early Christian priest , confessor , theologian , translator , and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome . He is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin (the translation that became known as the Vulgate ) and his commentaries on the whole Bible. Jerome attempted to create a translation of the Old Testament based on a Hebrew version, rather than the Septuagint , as prior Latin Bible translations had done. His list of writings

5751-403: Was born at Stridon around 342–347 AD. He was of Illyrian ancestry. He was not baptized until about 360–369 in Rome, where he had gone with his friend Bonosus of Sardica to pursue rhetorical and philosophical studies. (This Bonosus may or may not have been the same Bonosus whom Jerome identifies as his friend who went to live as a hermit on an island in the Adriatic.) Jerome studied under

5832-765: Was extensively promoted by the Tongmenghui and the Kuomintang party in modern China. Revolutionaries who died fighting against the Qing dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution and throughout the Republic of China period, furthering the cause of the revolution, were recognized as martyrs. According to Stephen Knapp, despite the promotion of ahimsa (non-violence) within Sanatana Dharma , and there being no concept of martyrdom, there

5913-698: Was forced to leave his position at Rome after an inquiry was brought up by the Roman clergy into allegations that he had an improper relationship with the widow Paula. Still, his writings were highly regarded by women who were attempting to maintain vows of becoming consecrated virgins . His letters were widely read and distributed throughout the Christian empire and it is clear through his writing that he knew these virgin women were not his only audience. Additionally, Jerome's condemnation of Blaesilla's hedonistic lifestyle in Rome led her to adopt ascetic practices, but these affected her health and worsened her physical weakness to

5994-622: Was given duties in Rome, and he undertook a revision of the Vetus Latina Gospels based on Greek manuscripts. He also updated the Psalter containing the Book of Psalms then in use in Rome, based on the Septuagint . Throughout his epistles he shows himself to be surrounded by women and united with close ties; it is estimated that 40% of his epistles were addressed to someone of the female sex and, at

6075-513: Was influenced by Origenism in his soteriology. Although he taught that the Devil and the unbelieving will be eternally punished (unlike Origen), he believed that the punishment for Christian sinners, who have once believed but sin and fall away will be temporal in nature. Some scholars such as J.N.D Kelly have also interpreted Ambrose to have held similar views considering the judgement of Christians. Although Augustine does not name Jerome personally,

6156-614: Was installed above the entrance of O'Shaughnessy Library on the campus of the University of St. Thomas (then College of St. Thomas) in St. Paul Minnesota in October 1950. The sculptor was Joseph Kiselewski and the stone carver was Egisto Bertozzi. Martyr A martyr ( Greek : μάρτυς , mártys , 'witness' stem μαρτυρ- , martyr- ) is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate,

6237-601: Was one who was killed for maintaining a religious belief , knowing that this will almost certainly result in imminent death (though without intentionally seeking death). This definition of martyr is not specifically restricted to the Christian faith. Christianity recognizes certain Old Testament Jewish figures, like Abel and the Maccabees , as holy, and the New Testament mentions the imprisonment and beheading of John

6318-559: Was partially fulfilled by Antiochus. Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist: We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of

6399-487: Was removed. He warned a noblewoman of Gaul : He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth". "Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days." ... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun all parts of Gaul. The whole country between

6480-515: Was reputed to be the site of the Nativity of Jesus – and he completed his translation there. He began in 382 by correcting the existing Latin-language version of the New Testament, commonly referred to as the Vetus Latina . By 390 he turned to translating the Hebrew Bible from the original Hebrew, having previously translated portions from the Septuagint which came from Alexandria. He believed that

6561-410: Was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC. Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and eleven was more complex. Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a "type" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but

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