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44-458: The Elementary Education Act 1870 ( 33 & 34 Vict. c. 75) had created local school boards to be responsible for the provision of elementary education. Some school boards also established classes for higher classes. These "higher tops" and even separate schools were provided for older pupils who showed ability and commitment, along with new types of evening school for adults. This competition angered churches who were lobbying for public money for

88-664: A Liberal MP, proposed for religious teaching in the new state schools to be non-denominational and so restricted in practice to learning the Bible and a few hymns. The Cabinet accepted that amendment on 14 June 1870, and Gladstone proposed it to the House of Commons two days later. It became the famous Cowper-Temple clause (Section 14 of the Act). HCG Matthew , the editor of Gladstone's diaries, believes that compromise to have hurt Gladstone more deeply than any other that he had to make. However, on 30 June 1870,

132-508: A Member of Parliament, was a prominent campaigner on the issue. However, like many grassroots Liberals, he opposed the bill because it was open to the possibility of subsidising Church of England schools with local ratepayers ' money. It was one of the Elementary Education Acts 1870 to 1893 . The Act was passed partly in response to political factors, such as the need to educate the citizens who were recently enfranchised by

176-570: A bill, as was Henry Bruce ( Home Secretary ). Although Gladstone was sympathetic to the argument that better education had helped the Prussians to their unexpected victory in the Austro-Prussian War (as he remarked, "Undoubtedly, the conduct of the campaign, on the German side, has given a marked triumph to the cause of systematic popular education"), he was a devout Anglican and did not want to see

220-463: A central authority could lead to indoctrination . Some poor people feared that mass education would equip people to defraud or mislead those without an education. Another reason was the vested interests of the Church and other social groups. The churches were funded by the state with public money to provide education for the poor and did not want to lose that influence on youth. It had been deduced from

264-459: A common motive for wanting to end their disadvantaged status relative to other castes, but that class is an arbitrary distinction in capitalist society where there is equality before the law. Mises believed that under capitalism, one's wealth does not very much affect how one is treated by legislators, law enforcement, or the courts. Mises' follower Murray Rothbard argued that Marx's effort to portray workers and capitalists as two monolithic groups

308-512: A county responsibility. State control increased the number of school inspectors after 1872. Medical and dental inspections were introduced after 1908, though reaching remote schools proved difficult. The leaving age was raised to 14 in 1883. The new system was co-ordinated nationally by the Scotch Education Department with the curriculum emphasising the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic (the three ‘Rs’). The churches made

352-510: A crucial contribution to the new system by handing over their schools without charge to the School Boards. At this time, the Free Church supported 548 schools across Scotland together with 584 teachers. The early 2000s rock band The Cooper Temple Clause was named after the provision familiar to generations of history students. Class consciousness In Marxism , class consciousness

396-404: A direct response to this Education Act, the founding father of British popular journalism, George Newnes , began his career in publishing in 1881 when he founded Tit-Bits . This was a weekly magazine which took the form of a mini-encyclopedia of information to appeal to the new generations of young readers. Tit-Bits reached a circulation of 700,000 by the end of the 19th century and paved

440-641: A legal obligation to ensure that their children were educated. Following continued campaigning by the National Education League, the Elementary Education Act 1880 ( 43 & 44 Vict. c. 23) ("the Mundella Act") required attendance to the age of 10 everywhere in England and Wales, with various exemptions. In 1891, elementary schooling became free in both board and voluntary (church) schools. As

484-404: A person's social class can be a determinant for their awareness of it. Marxists categorize classes based on their relation to the means of production , especially on whether or not members of the class own capital . Non-Marxists differentiate society's various groups based on social stratification , i.e., income, race, gender, ethnicity, education, occupation, or status. Whereas Marx believed

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528-582: A reasonable building led by a qualified head teacher. 62 temporary prefabricated buildings were constructed in London. Newly certified teachers like Elizabeth Burgwin became the head of a temporary school in 1874 until she and the staff moved to the newly constructed Orange Street Girls' School in Southwark that same year. Rural boards, run by parishes, had only one or two schools to manage, but industrial town and city boards had many. Rural boards favoured economy and

572-626: A stronger amendment by Jacob Bright , a younger brother of John Bright , insisting that religious teaching not be for or against any denomination, was defeated by 251 votes to 130. The supporters of the amendment were all Liberals, and the government won only with Conservative support. Section 7 also gave parents the right to withdraw their children from any religious instruction provided in board schools and to withdraw their children at any time to attend any other religious instruction of their choice. Secondly, parents still had to pay fees for their children to attend school. Section 25 gave school boards

616-469: A vanguard party. In Main Currents of Marxism and his other writings, he stated that in order to achieve a unity of theory and praxis , theory must not only tend toward reality in an attempt to change it; reality must also tend towards theory. Otherwise, the historical process leads a life of its own, while theorists make their own little theories, desperately waiting for some kind of possible influence over

660-483: Is the set of beliefs that persons hold regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their common class interests. According to Karl Marx , class consciousness is an awareness that is key to sparking a revolution which would "create a dictatorship of the proletariat , transforming it from a wage-earning, propertyless mass into the ruling class". Although Marxists tend to focus on class consciousness (or its absence) among

704-583: The Board of Education established, by Minute dated 6 April 1900, a new system of " Higher elementary schools ". The subsequent Education Act 1902 (Balfour Act), which Morant drafted, created all-embracing local education authorities which had a wider remit and powers to provide public monies to the church schools. Morant became Permanent Secretary of the Board of Education in April 1903. This article relating to law in

748-1072: The Education Act 1633 , a similar act to the English Elementary Education Act was passed in 1872 for Scotland, the Education (Scotland) Act 1872 . It required compulsory attendance from the start. It allowed post-elementary schools, but not public funding of them. There were around 1,000 school boards in Scotland at the time they were eventually abolished. The 1872 Education Act brought in compulsory education for all children between 5 and 13, although fees still had to be paid until 1890. Teacher shortages continued and problems arose in areas where teachers who spoke no Gaelic attempted to teach children who had no English. Pupil-teachers could later qualify after attending Teacher Training College. Local school boards made sure sufficient schools were built and that children attended them. After 1918, this became

792-605: The London School Board . The District Auditor – Cockerton – ruled that the London School Board could not use the rates to fund higher-grade classes in science and art. The London School Board unsuccessfully appealed twice. A new education act was needed. The Cockerton Judgement halted advanced, or secondary, teaching fostered by the more radical and enterprising School Boards. It prevented school boards from funding anything but elementary schools. As an interim measure,

836-623: The Reform Act 1867 to vote "wisely". It also came about due to demands for reform from industrialists, who feared that Britain's competitive status in world trade, manufacture and improvement was being threatened by the lack of an effective education system. There were objections to the concept of universal education . One was that many people remained hostile to the idea of mass education . They claimed it would make labouring classes 'think' and thus attain class consciousness , possibly encouraging them to revolt. Others feared that handing children to

880-668: The United Kingdom Census 1861 that out of 4.3 million children of primary school age in England & Wales, 1 million were in purely voluntary (church) schools and 1.3 million were in state aided voluntary schools but 2 million had no schooling. Lord Ripon ( Lord President of the Council ) and William Forster (Vice-President of the Council) were responsible for education in the Gladstone government of 1868–1874 and were keen to introduce

924-405: The "objective theory of class consciousness is only the theory of its objective possibility". Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises asserted that "Marx confus[ed] the notions of caste and class". Mises allowed that class consciousness and the associated class struggle were valid concepts in some circumstances where rigid social castes exist, e.g., when slavery is legal and slaves have

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968-527: The 1830s, and erect their own board schools or elementary schools . Section 74 of the Act empowered boards to create a by-law and to table it before Parliament to make attendance compulsory unless there was an excuse, such as sickness, living more than three miles from a school or having been certified as reaching a certain standard of education. In 1873, 40% of the population lived in compulsory attendance districts. All schools would be inspected by making use of

1012-603: The United Kingdom , or its constituent jurisdictions, is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Elementary Education Act 1870 The Elementary Education Act 1870 ( 33 & 34 Vict. c. 75), commonly known as Forster's Education Act , set the framework for schooling of all children between the ages of 5 and 12 in England and Wales. It established local education authorities with defined powers, authorized public money to improve existing schools, and tried to frame conditions attached to this aid so as to earn

1056-414: The board. The franchise was different from national elections since female householders could vote and stand for office. The boards financed themselves by a precept (a requisition) added to either the local poor rate or the municipal rate . They were also eligible to apply for capital funding in the form of a government loan. The boards could make grants to existing church schools, as had occurred since

1100-562: The building of board schools or divert the school rate funds into church schools. Many factory owners feared the removal of children as a source of cheap labour. However, with the simple mathematics and English that they were acquiring, factory owners now had workers who could read and make measurements. It is sometimes incorrectly claimed that the 1870 act forbid the use of the Welsh language at schools in Wales. The act does not mention Welsh and English

1144-411: The church schools, and some older grammar schools who were also having problems with finance. It was seen by leading conservatives as an unacceptable extension to local government, and an unacceptable use of the rates. In 1899, Sir John Gorst 's private secretary Sir Robert Morant (1863–1920) engineered a test case in which a School of Art in London complained of competition from evening classes run by

1188-471: The existing Church of England schools absorbed into any kind of National Education system. Education was not a legislative priority after Irish Disestablishment and the First Irish Land Act . A bill was eventually introduced in the 1870 session although Gladstone was at least as concerned about the abolition of University Tests at the same time. Local authorities were required to make returns of

1232-439: The existing regime. The individual schools continued to be eligible for an annual government grant calculated on the basis of the inspection ('payment by results'). Two provisions of the Act became, for religious reasons, matters of contention within the governing Liberal Party. Firstly, nonconformists objected to their children being taught Anglican doctrine. As a compromise, William Cowper-Temple (pronounced "Cooper-Temple"),

1276-543: The first time. In areas served by school boards that had implemented by-laws requiring attendance, compulsory attendance until 13 was exempted if a child over 10 had been certified by the inspector as satisfying the required standard for that board. The standards required varied between 4th Standard (such as in Birmingham) and 6th Standard (such as in Bolton) . Although universal primary education had been established in Scotland by

1320-575: The goodwill of managers. It has long been seen as a milestone in educational development, but recent commentators have stressed that it brought neither free nor compulsory education, and its importance has thus tended to be diminished rather than increased. The law was drafted by William Forster , a Liberal MP , and it was introduced on 17 February 1870 after campaigning by the National Education League , although not entirely to their requirements. In Birmingham, Joseph Chamberlain , not yet

1364-456: The government to pass necessary labour legislation." To overcome this (in Lenin's opinion) limited worldview, a vanguard party of the most politically advanced section of the working class was needed to help replace trade union consciousness with class consciousness. The Polish political philosopher Leszek Kolakowski disputed the notion that class consciousness could be instilled from outside by

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1408-431: The historical process. Henceforth, reality itself must tend toward the theory, making it the "expression of the revolutionary process itself". In turn, a theory which has as its goal helping the proletariat achieve class consciousness must first be an "objective theory of class consciousness". However, theory in itself is insufficient, and ultimately relies on the struggle of humankind and of the proletariat for consciousness:

1452-521: The new gentry who owed their success to commerce, industry, and the professions, evolved into an ' upper class ' (its consciousness formed in large part by the Public Schools and Universities) which tenaciously maintained control over the political system, depriving not only the working classes but the middle classes of a voice in the political process." As the Industrial Revolution progressed,

1496-413: The number of children in their area and existing educational provision. That was done by comparing the results of a census of existing school places with the number of children of school age recorded in the census . If there was a shortfall, a school board for the district would be created. The boards were to provide elementary education for children aged 5–12 (inclusive). Board members were elected by

1540-404: The power to pay the fees of poor children, including those attending voluntary (church) schools. Although few school boards actually did so, the provision caused great anger among nonconformists, who saw it as a new source of local ratepayers' money being spent on Church of England schools. A large conference was held at Manchester in 1872 to lead resistance to the section, and one of the campaigners

1584-513: The proletariat, the upper classes in society can also think and act in a class-conscious way. As Leonard Fein pointed out, "The very rich have been well aware of their class privilege and have labored mightily to protect and defend it". Early in the 19th century, the labels " working classes " and " middle classes " were coming into common usage in British society. David Cody writes about this time period: "The old hereditary aristocracy, reinforced by

1628-476: The ratepayers under a system of cumulative voting . The number of members was determined by the size of the population of the district. Each voter could choose three or more members from a list of candidates, and those with the highest number of votes were chosen for the existing number of seats available. A voter could cast all their votes for one person. Known as 'plumping', that ensured that religious and later political minorities could ensure some representation on

1672-482: The release of children for agricultural labour. Town boards tended to be more rigorous in their provisions, and by 1890, some had special facilities for gymnastics, art and crafts and domestic science. There were ongoing political clashes between the vested interests of Church, private schools and the National Education League followers. In some districts, the creation of boards was delayed by local vote. In others, church leaders managed to be voted onto boards and restrict

1716-463: The sharpening of socioeconomic divisions caused each group to become more acutely conscious of its position in the hierarchy. While Karl Marx rarely used the term "class consciousness", he did make the distinction between "class in itself", which is defined as a stratum of society sharing common grievances and a unified perspective; and a "class for itself", which is defined as a stratum organized in active pursuit of its own interests. Categorizing

1760-776: The way for popular journalism. Most significantly, the Daily Mail was founded by Alfred Harmsworth , a contributor to Tit-Bits , and the Daily Express was launched by Arthur Pearson , who worked at Tit-Bits for five years after winning a competition to get a job on the magazine. The school boards were abolished by the Balfour Education Act 1902 , which replaced them with around 300 local education authorities (LEAs), by which time there were 5,700 board schools (2.6 million pupils) and 14,000 voluntary schools (3 million pupils). The LEAs remit included secondary education for

1804-467: The working class would gain class consciousness as a result of its experience of exploitation , later orthodox Marxism , in particular as formulated by Vladimir Lenin , argued that the working class, by itself, could only develop "trade union consciousness", which Lenin characterized in What Is to Be Done? as "the conviction that it is necessary to combine in unions, fight the employers, and strive to compel

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1848-630: Was assumed to be the language of instruction; as had been the case in Welsh day schools since early in the 19th century. A trend towards more use of Welsh at schools in Welsh-speaking areas had begun prior to the act and continued after it. The Act established the foundations of English elementary education although it was not taken up in all areas and would be more firmly enforced through later reforms. The state's Gladstonian liberalism became increasingly involved. Lord Sandon 's Elementary Education Act 1876 ( 39 & 40 Vict. c. 70) gave parents

1892-499: Was false because workers and capitalists routinely compete within themselves, such as capitalist entrepreneurs competing with each other for market dominance, or native workers competing with immigrant workers for jobs. Rothbard said that if there is constant conflict among members of the same class (like, for example, among landowners, nobility or slaveowners), then it is absurd to claim these landowners, nobles and slaveowners can also have shared objective interests with one another against

1936-530: Was the Birmingham politician Joseph Chamberlain , who emerged as a national figure for the first time. The resulting splits (some education campaigners, including Chamberlain, stood for Parliament as independent candidates) helped to cost the Liberals the 1874 election . Between 1870 and 1880, 3,000 to 4,000 schools were started or taken over by school boards. The act required that every child should be taught in

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