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56-599: The School Board for London , commonly known as the London School Board ( LSB ), was an institution of local government and the first directly elected body covering the whole of London. The Elementary Education Act 1870 ( 33 & 34 Vict. c. 75) was the first to provide for education for the whole population of England and Wales . It created elected school boards , which had power to build and run elementary schools where there were insufficient voluntary school places; they could also compel attendance. In most places,

112-512: A county responsibility. State control increased the number of school inspectors after 1872. Medical and dental inspections were introduced after 1908, though reaching remote schools proved difficult. The leaving age was raised to 14 in 1883. The new system was co-ordinated nationally by the Scotch Education Department with the curriculum emphasising the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic (the three ‘Rs’). The churches made

168-577: A crucial contribution to the new system by handing over their schools without charge to the School Boards. At this time, the Free Church supported 548 schools across Scotland together with 584 teachers. The early 2000s rock band The Cooper Temple Clause was named after the provision familiar to generations of history students. By-law In the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries,

224-404: A direct response to this Education Act, the founding father of British popular journalism, George Newnes , began his career in publishing in 1881 when he founded Tit-Bits . This was a weekly magazine which took the form of a mini-encyclopedia of information to appeal to the new generations of young readers. Tit-Bits reached a circulation of 700,000 by the end of the 19th century and paved

280-504: A few hymns. The Cabinet accepted that amendment on 14 June 1870, and Gladstone proposed it to the House of Commons two days later. It became the famous Cowper-Temple clause (Section 14 of the Act). HCG Matthew , the editor of Gladstone's diaries, believes that compromise to have hurt Gladstone more deeply than any other that he had to make. However, on 30 June 1870, a stronger amendment by Jacob Bright ,

336-641: A legal obligation to ensure that their children were educated. Following continued campaigning by the National Education League, the Elementary Education Act 1880 ( 43 & 44 Vict. c. 23) ("the Mundella Act") required attendance to the age of 10 everywhere in England and Wales, with various exemptions. In 1891, elementary schooling became free in both board and voluntary (church) schools. As

392-417: A limited range of matters. A local council or municipal government derives its power to pass laws through a law of the national or regional government which specifies what things the town or city may regulate through by-laws. It is therefore a form of delegated legislation . Within its jurisdiction and specific to those areas mandated by the higher body, a municipal by-law is no different from any other law of

448-422: A national level until 1880, the board passed a by-law in 1871 that compelled parents to have their children schooled between the ages of five and thirteen. The LSB was largely successful in their aims and often struggled to keep up with the demand for their services. For instance, by the end of the 1880s, the board was providing school places for more than 350,000 children. This growth was frequently attributed to

504-515: A precept (a requisition) added to either the local poor rate or the municipal rate . They were also eligible to apply for capital funding in the form of a government loan. The boards could make grants to existing church schools, as had occurred since the 1830s, and erect their own board schools or elementary schools . Section 74 of the Act empowered boards to create a by-law and to table it before Parliament to make attendance compulsory unless there

560-582: A reasonable building led by a qualified head teacher. 62 temporary prefabricated buildings were constructed in London. Newly certified teachers like Elizabeth Burgwin became the head of a temporary school in 1874 until she and the staff moved to the newly constructed Orange Street Girls' School in Southwark that same year. Rural boards, run by parishes, had only one or two schools to manage, but industrial town and city boards had many. Rural boards favoured economy and

616-659: A response to this, the boards were abolished by the Education Act 1902 , which replaced them with local education authorities . In London, the London County Council had been created in 1889 to replace the Metropolitan Board of Works and in 1904 the responsibility for education in London was transferred to the LCC. The LSB held its final meeting on 28 April 1904, with the county council taking over on 1 May. The LCC itself

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672-586: A younger brother of John Bright , insisting that religious teaching not be for or against any denomination, was defeated by 251 votes to 130. The supporters of the amendment were all Liberals, and the government won only with Conservative support. Section 7 also gave parents the right to withdraw their children from any religious instruction provided in board schools and to withdraw their children at any time to attend any other religious instruction of their choice. Secondly, parents still had to pay fees for their children to attend school. Section 25 gave school boards

728-451: Is incorrect to claim that the word is related to the prepositional phrase "by law"; that is a modern conjecture contradicted by the evidence. Municipal by-laws are public regulatory laws; which apply in a certain area. The main difference between a by-law and a law passed by a national/federal or regional/state body is that a by-law is made by a non-sovereign body, which derives its authority from another governing body, and can only be made on

784-541: The Conservative cabinet minister, William Henry Smith . The original intention of the board was to provide a sufficient number of school places for the poorest children in London, which were originally estimated at little more than 100,000. The policy adopted by the LSB was to provide London with modern, high-quality schools, whilst compelling parents, by law, to educate their children. Although education would not be compulsory on

840-598: The Constitution of Japan , regional governments have limited autonomy and legislative powers to create by-laws. In practice, such powers are exercised in accordance with the Local Autonomy Law . By-laws therefore constitute part of the legal system subordinate to the Japanese constitution. In terms of its mandatory powers and effective, it is considered the lowest of all legislation possible. Such powers are used to govern

896-605: The Danelaw , wherein by is the Old Norse word for a larger settlement as in Whitby and Derby (compare with the modern Danish-Norwegian word by meaning town, or the modern Swedish word by , meaning village). However, it is also possible that this usage was forgotten and the word was "reinvented" in modern times through the use of the adverbial prefix by- giving the meaning of subsidiary law or side-law (as in byway ). In any case, it

952-1017: The Education Act 1633 , a similar act to the English Elementary Education Act was passed in 1872 for Scotland, the Education (Scotland) Act 1872 . It required compulsory attendance from the start. It allowed post-elementary schools, but not public funding of them. There were around 1,000 school boards in Scotland at the time they were eventually abolished. The 1872 Education Act brought in compulsory education for all children between 5 and 13, although fees still had to be paid until 1890. Teacher shortages continued and problems arose in areas where teachers who spoke no Gaelic attempted to teach children who had no English. Pupil-teachers could later qualify after attending Teacher Training College. Local school boards made sure sufficient schools were built and that children attended them. After 1918, this became

1008-481: The cumulative voting system gave electors a number of votes equal to the number of seats in the division in which they were voting. The elector could use up as many of their votes on a single candidate as they wished, which meant that minority interests often found representation. The LSB, at the time of its creation had one of the broadest mandates of any elected body in Britain. Unusually, women were permitted to vote on

1064-402: The 1870 session although Gladstone was at least as concerned about the abolition of University Tests at the same time. Local authorities were required to make returns of the number of children in their area and existing educational provision. That was done by comparing the results of a census of existing school places with the number of children of school age recorded in the census . If there

1120-452: The Act became, for religious reasons, matters of contention within the governing Liberal Party. Firstly, nonconformists objected to their children being taught Anglican doctrine. As a compromise, William Cowper-Temple (pronounced "Cooper-Temple"), a Liberal MP, proposed for religious teaching in the new state schools to be non-denominational and so restricted in practice to learning the Bible and

1176-668: The Council ) and William Forster (Vice-President of the Council) were responsible for education in the Gladstone government of 1868–1874 and were keen to introduce a bill, as was Henry Bruce ( Home Secretary ). Although Gladstone was sympathetic to the argument that better education had helped the Prussians to their unexpected victory in the Austro-Prussian War (as he remarked, "Undoubtedly,

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1232-499: The LSB's importance can be seen in the number of notable figures who stood for election to the board. The board attracted a number of the leading figures of the day, including the scientist Thomas Huxley , Helen Taylor, stepdaughter of John Stuart Mill , and Lord Lawrence , who served as the LSB's first chairman. The board was also responsible for launching a number of political careers, including those of Charles Reed , Benjamin Waugh , and

1288-562: The building of board schools or divert the school rate funds into church schools. Many factory owners feared the removal of children as a source of cheap labour. However, with the simple mathematics and English that they were acquiring, factory owners now had workers who could read and make measurements. It is sometimes incorrectly claimed that the 1870 act forbid the use of the Welsh language at schools in Wales. The act does not mention Welsh and English

1344-413: The by-laws are generally the supreme governing document of an organization , superseded only by the charter of an incorporated society . The by-laws contain the most fundamental principles and rules regarding the nature of the organization. It was once common practice for organizations to have two separate governing documents, a constitution and by-laws, but this has fallen out of favor because of

1400-517: The conduct of the campaign, on the German side, has given a marked triumph to the cause of systematic popular education"), he was a devout Anglican and did not want to see the existing Church of England schools absorbed into any kind of National Education system. Education was not a legislative priority after Irish Disestablishment and the First Irish Land Act . A bill was eventually introduced in

1456-404: The content of their by-laws. This book has a sample set of by-laws of the type that a small, independent society might adopt. The wording of the by-laws has to be precise. Otherwise, the meaning may be open to interpretation. In such cases, the organization decides how to interpret its by-laws and may use guidelines for interpretation. Usually, one of the last sections in the by-laws describes

1512-451: The ease of use, increased clarity, and reduced chance of conflict inherent in a single, unified document. This single document, while properly referred to as the by-laws, is often referred to as a constitution or a constitution and by-laws . Unless otherwise provided by law, the organization does not formally exist until by-laws have been adopted. In some countries, trade unions generally have constitutions , which govern activities of

1568-543: The first time. In areas served by school boards that had implemented by-laws requiring attendance, compulsory attendance until 13 was exempted if a child over 10 had been certified by the inspector as satisfying the required standard for that board. The standards required varied between 4th Standard (such as in Birmingham) and 6th Standard (such as in Bolton) . Although universal primary education had been established in Scotland by

1624-489: The following: In the United Kingdom, by-laws are laws of local or limited application made by local councils or other bodies, using powers granted by an Act of Parliament, and so are a form of delegated legislation. In Australian Law there are five types of by-law, and they are established by statute: Corporate and organizational by-laws regulate only the organization to which they apply and are generally concerned with

1680-548: The framework for schooling of all children between the ages of 5 and 12 in England and Wales. It established local education authorities with defined powers, authorized public money to improve existing schools, and tried to frame conditions attached to this aid so as to earn the goodwill of managers. It has long been seen as a milestone in educational development, but recent commentators have stressed that it brought neither free nor compulsory education, and its importance has thus tended to be diminished rather than increased. The law

1736-459: The general appearance of the districts in which they were constructed. Although school board architecture drew a considerable amount of criticism at the time, the schools were often sturdy and practical structures, and many schools constructed during this period are still in use. Although the school boards had been largely successful in increasing the number of children attending school in Britain, they were perceived as bureaucratic and expensive. As

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1792-408: The highest number of votes were chosen for the existing number of seats available. A voter could cast all their votes for one person. Known as 'plumping', that ensured that religious and later political minorities could ensure some representation on the board. The franchise was different from national elections since female householders could vote and stand for office. The boards financed themselves by

1848-762: The international office of the union as well as how it interfaces with its locals. The locals themselves can set up their own by-laws to set out internal rules for how to conduct activities. In other countries, such as the United Kingdom , union by-laws are sometimes a subset of the union's constitution or implement the union's rules in more detail. Nonprofit organizations in the United States applying for Federal Tax-Exemption Status are required to adopt bylaws for their organizations. Bylaws for nonprofit organizations by themselves are more of an internal organizing document than required by most states but are necessary for filing for nonprofit 501(c)(3) tax-exemption application using

1904-534: The lack of an effective education system. There were objections to the concept of universal education . One was that many people remained hostile to the idea of mass education . They claimed it would make labouring classes 'think' and thus attain class consciousness , possibly encouraging them to revolt. Others feared that handing children to a central authority could lead to indoctrination . Some poor people feared that mass education would equip people to defraud or mislead those without an education. Another reason

1960-524: The land, and can be enforced with penalties, challenged in court, and must comply with other laws of the land, such as the country's constitution. Municipal by-laws are often enforceable through the public justice system, and offenders can be charged with a criminal offence for breach of a by-law. Common by-laws include vehicle parking and stopping regulations, animal control, building and construction, licensing, noise, zoning and business regulation, and management of public recreation areas. Under Article 94 of

2016-602: The local laws established by municipalities are referred to as by(e)-laws because their scope is regulated by the central governments of those nations. Accordingly, a bylaw enforcement officer is the Canadian equivalent of the American Code Enforcement Officer or Municipal Regulations Enforcement Officer. In the United States , the federal government and most state governments have no direct ability to regulate

2072-486: The operation of the organization, setting out the form, manner, or procedure in which a company or organisation should be run. Corporate by-laws are drafted by a corporation's founders or directors under the authority of its charter or articles of incorporation . By-laws widely vary from organization to organization, but generally cover topics such as the purpose of the organization, who are its members, how directors are elected, how meetings are conducted, and what officers

2128-404: The organization will have and a description of their duties. A common mnemonic device for remembering the typical articles in by-laws is NOMOMECPA, pronounced "No mommy, see pa!" It stands for name, object, members, officers, meetings, executive board, committees, parliamentary authority, amendment. Organizations may use a book such as Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised for guidelines on

2184-404: The power to pay the fees of poor children, including those attending voluntary (church) schools. Although few school boards actually did so, the provision caused great anger among nonconformists, who saw it as a new source of local ratepayers' money being spent on Church of England schools. A large conference was held at Manchester in 1872 to lead resistance to the section, and one of the campaigners

2240-402: The procedures for amending them. It describes who can amend them (usually the membership, but it could be the organization's board of directors ), how much notice is needed, and how much of a vote is needed. A typical requirement is a two-thirds vote provided that previous notice was given or a majority of all the members . In parliamentary procedure , including Robert's Rules of Order ,

2296-473: The quality of school premises, which were often far superior to those of private or charity schools. The board was responsible for constructing over four hundred schools across London. An important figure in this process was Edward Robert Robson , the board's first chief architect. Robson was responsible for designing many of the school buildings erected by the board. The board's policy was to construct schools which would be attractive, and would serve to improve

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2352-482: The release of children for agricultural labour. Town boards tended to be more rigorous in their provisions, and by 1890, some had special facilities for gymnastics, art and crafts and domestic science. There were ongoing political clashes between the vested interests of Church, private schools and the National Education League followers. In some districts, the creation of boards was delayed by local vote. In others, church leaders managed to be voted onto boards and restrict

2408-504: The same terms as men for the school boards and also to stand for election. Three women stood in the first board election in 1870: Elizabeth Garrett , who topped the poll, Emily Davies , who also won election, and Maria Georgina Grey . When the second elections were held, in 1873, Garrett and Davies stood down, to be replaced by Jane Agnes Chessar and Alice Cowell, while in 1876, Florence Fenwick Miller , Elizabeth Surr , Helen Taylor and Alice Westlake all won election. One measure of

2464-402: The school boards were based on borough districts or civil parishes , but in London the board covered the whole area of the Metropolitan Board of Works – the area today known as Inner London . Between 1870 and 1904, the LSB was the single largest educational provider in London and the infrastructure and policies it developed were an important influence on London schooling long after the body

2520-518: The single provisions of municipal law. As a result, terms such as code , ordinance , or regulation , if not simply law , are more common. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary indicates that the origin of the word by-law is from the English word bilawe , probably from Old Norse *bȳlǫg , from Old Norse bȳr town + lag-, lǫg law. The earliest use of the term, which originates from the Viking town law in

2576-776: The way for popular journalism. Most significantly, the Daily Mail was founded by Alfred Harmsworth , a contributor to Tit-Bits , and the Daily Express was launched by Arthur Pearson , who worked at Tit-Bits for five years after winning a competition to get a job on the magazine. The school boards were abolished by the Balfour Education Act 1902 , which replaced them with around 300 local education authorities (LEAs), by which time there were 5,700 board schools (2.6 million pupils) and 14,000 voluntary schools (3 million pupils). The LEAs remit included secondary education for

2632-412: Was a shortfall, a school board for the district would be created. The boards were to provide elementary education for children aged 5–12 (inclusive). Board members were elected by the ratepayers under a system of cumulative voting . The number of members was determined by the size of the population of the district. Each voter could choose three or more members from a list of candidates, and those with

2688-567: Was abolished in 1965, with education for the former School Board area passing to the Inner London Education Authority , a committee of the Greater London Council . The ILEA was abolished in 1990, with the inner London borough councils becoming education authorities. Elementary Education Act 1870 The Elementary Education Act 1870 ( 33 & 34 Vict. c. 75), commonly known as Forster's Education Act , set

2744-852: Was abolished. The entire board was elected every three years, with the first elections held in November 1870. The LSB originally consisted of forty-nine members elected from ten divisions, based around London's constituencies or the Districts formed under the Metropolis Management Act 1855 . Four divisions, representing the City , Southwark, Chelsea and Greenwich returned four members each. The divisions of Lambeth, Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Westminster returned five members each. Finally, Finsbury and Marylebone returned six and seven members respectively. The membership increased over time: to 50 in 1876 when Lambeth

2800-455: Was an excuse, such as sickness, living more than three miles from a school or having been certified as reaching a certain standard of education. In 1873, 40% of the population lived in compulsory attendance districts. All schools would be inspected by making use of the existing regime. The individual schools continued to be eligible for an annual government grant calculated on the basis of the inspection ('payment by results'). Two provisions of

2856-630: Was assumed to be the language of instruction; as had been the case in Welsh day schools since early in the 19th century. A trend towards more use of Welsh at schools in Welsh-speaking areas had begun prior to the act and continued after it. The Act established the foundations of English elementary education although it was not taken up in all areas and would be more firmly enforced through later reforms. The state's Gladstonian liberalism became increasingly involved. Lord Sandon 's Elementary Education Act 1876 ( 39 & 40 Vict. c. 70) gave parents

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2912-549: Was drafted by William Forster , a Liberal MP , and it was introduced on 17 February 1870 after campaigning by the National Education League , although not entirely to their requirements. In Birmingham, Joseph Chamberlain , not yet a Member of Parliament, was a prominent campaigner on the issue. However, like many grassroots Liberals, he opposed the bill because it was open to the possibility of subsidising Church of England schools with local ratepayers ' money. It

2968-460: Was given an extra member, to 51 in 1882 when the representation of Chelsea increased to five members and to 55 in 1885 when Lambeth was sub-divided into two smaller divisions: Lambeth East and Lambeth West with four and six members respectively. The electoral system of the LSB contained several innovations. Firstly, the board's election of 1870 was polled by secret ballot , being the first large-scale election to use this approach in Britain. Secondly,

3024-534: Was one of the Elementary Education Acts 1870 to 1893 . The Act was passed partly in response to political factors, such as the need to educate the citizens who were recently enfranchised by the Reform Act 1867 to vote "wisely". It also came about due to demands for reform from industrialists, who feared that Britain's competitive status in world trade, manufacture and improvement was being threatened by

3080-530: Was the Birmingham politician Joseph Chamberlain , who emerged as a national figure for the first time. The resulting splits (some education campaigners, including Chamberlain, stood for Parliament as independent candidates) helped to cost the Liberals the 1874 election . Between 1870 and 1880, 3,000 to 4,000 schools were started or taken over by school boards. The act required that every child should be taught in

3136-630: Was the vested interests of the Church and other social groups. The churches were funded by the state with public money to provide education for the poor and did not want to lose that influence on youth. It had been deduced from the United Kingdom Census 1861 that out of 4.3 million children of primary school age in England & Wales, 1 million were in purely voluntary (church) schools and 1.3 million were in state aided voluntary schools but 2 million had no schooling. Lord Ripon ( Lord President of

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