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46-588: The Celtic Cisalpine Gaulish inscriptions are frequently combined with the Lepontic inscriptions under the term Celtic language remains in northern Italy . While it is possible that the Lepontii were autochthonous to Northern Italy since the end of the 2nd millennium BC, it is known from ancient sources that the Gauls invaded the regions north of the river Po in several waves since the 5th century BC. They apparently took over

92-614: A limited period, approximately a century, after which it blended with the Ligurian aboriginal populations to create the new Golasecca culture . The Culture of Golasecca (9th to 4th centuries BC) spread between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age in the areas of northwestern Lombardy and Piedmont , and the Canton Ticino . At the end of the prehistoric period , this

138-566: A new phase called the Golasecca culture , which is nowadays identified with the Celtic Lepontii. According to Livy (v. 34), the Bituriges , Arverni , Senones , Aedui , Ambarri , Carnutes , and Aulerci led by Bellovesus , arrived in northern Italy during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus (7th–6th century BC) and occupied the area between Milan and Cremona . Milan ( Mediolanum ) itself

184-646: A possible relationship between them and the Ambrones of northern Europe. Little is known of the Ligurian language. Only place names and personal names remain. It appears to be an Indo-European language with both Italic and particularly strong Celtic affinities. Because of the strong Celtic influences on their language and culture, they were known in antiquity as Celto-Ligurians (in Greek Κελτολίγυες , Keltolígues). Modern linguists, like Xavier Delamarre , argue that Ligurian

230-640: A result, the Latins requested help from the Sabines and Etruscans . Choosing not to split up his military power, Tarquin chose to keep the attack on the Latins, leading to a Roman victory. After conquering the Latins Tarquin began his assault on the Sabines. Having their basecamp at the corner of two rivers, the Sabines were able to move their troops quickly and efficiently. Using his military cunning Tarquin chose to launch

276-450: A surprise attack on the base at night. He did this by setting a fleet of small boats aflame and then sending them down the river to set the Sabine camp on fire. While the Sabines were focused on dousing the flames, Tarquin and his troops moved in to dismantle the camp. Later, his military ability was then tested by an attack from the Sabines . Tarquin doubled the numbers of equites to help

322-608: The Battle of the Ticinus , leading all the Gauls except for the Cenomani to join the insurgency. Rome then sent the army of Tiberius Sempronius Longus who engaged Hannibal in the Battle of the Trebia , also resulting in a Roman defeat, forcing Rome to temporarily abandon Gallia Cisalpina altogether, returning only after the defeat of Carthage in 202 BC. Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica completed

368-510: The Etruscans , but they refused. Since Tarquin had kept the captured Etruscan auxiliaries prisoners for meddling in the war with the Sabines, the five Etruscan cities who had taken part declared war on Rome. Seven other Etruscan cities joined forces with them. The Etruscans soon captured the Roman colony at Fidenae, which thereupon became the focal point of the war. After several bloody battles, Tarquin

414-598: The Greek city of Corinth . As a result, his wife Tanaquil advised him to relocate to Rome . Legend has it that on his arrival in Rome in a chariot , an eagle took his cap, flew away and then returned it back upon his head. Tanaquil, who was skilled in prophecy, interpreted this as an omen of his future greatness. In Rome, he attained respect through his courtesy. King Ancus Marcius noticed Tarquinius and, by his will, appointed Tarquinius guardian of his own sons. Although Ancus Marcius

460-641: The Latins . Tarquinius took the Latin town of Apiolae by storm and took great booty from there back to Rome. According to the Fasti Triumphales , this war must have occurred prior to 588 BC. The Latins claimed that peace treaties developed by Romulus and the other Roman kings no longer applied and as such, launched the first set of attacks. Seeing the opportunity to incorporate the Latins into Rome's ranks, Tarquin quickly responded by conquering multiple Latin cities. As

506-549: The Po River ) and the Alps, while Gallia Cispadana was the part to the south of the river. Probably officially established around 81 BC, the province was governed from Mutina (modern-day Modena ), where, in 73 BC, forces under Spartacus defeated the legion of Gaius Cassius Longinus , the provincial governor. In 49 BC, with the Lex Roscia , Julius Caesar granted to the populations of

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552-711: The Po River , respectively. The Roman province of the 1st century BC was bounded on the north and west by the Alps, in the south as far as Placentia by the river Po , and then by the Apennines and the river Rubicon , and in the east by the Adriatic Sea . In 49 BC, all inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul received Roman citizenship , and eventually the province was divided among four of the eleven regions of Italy : Regio VIII Gallia Cispadana , Regio IX Liguria , Regio X Venetia et Histria , and Regio XI Gallia Transpadana . The Canegrate culture (13th century BC) may represent

598-617: The Second Punic War , the Boii and Insubres allied themselves with the Carthaginians, laying siege to Mutina ( Modena ). In response, Rome sent an expedition led by L. Manlius Vulso . Vulso's army was ambushed twice, and the Senate sent Scipio with an additional force to provide support. These were the Roman forces encountered by Hannibal after he crossed the Alps. The Romans were defeated in

644-659: The Veneti had been so Celticized that Polybius wrote that the Veneti of the 2nd century BC were identical to the Gauls except for their language. The Greek historian Strabo (64 BC–AD 24), on the other hand, conjectured that the Adriatic Veneti were descended from Celts, who in turn were related to a later Celtic tribe of the same name whose members lived on the Armorican coast and fought against Julius Caesar . He further suggested that

690-444: The sceptre of the king; the trabea , a purple garment that varied in form, but was perhaps most often used as a mantle; the fasces carried by the lictors ; the curule chair ; the toga praetexta , later worn by various magistrates and officials; the rings worn by senators ; the paludamentum , a cloak associated with military command; and the phalera , a disc of metal worn on a soldier's breastplate during parades, or displayed on

736-765: The 9th century BC. There is some debate whether the Lepontic language should be considered as a Gaulish dialect or an independent branch within Continental Celtic . Apart from Lepontic, the "Cisalpine Gaulish language" proper would be the Gaulish language as spoken by the Gauls invading northern Italy in the 4th century BC. This is a dialect of the larger Gaulish language, with some known phonetic features distinguishing it from Transalpine dialects, such as -nn- replacing -nd- and s(s) replacing -χs- . Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Priscus ( Classical Latin : [tarˈkʷɪniʊs ˈpriːskʊs] ), or Tarquin

782-478: The Elder , was the legendary fifth king of Rome and first of its Etruscan dynasty. He reigned for thirty-eight years. Tarquinius expanded Roman power through military conquest and grand architectural constructions. His wife was the prophetess Tanaquil . Not much is known about the early life of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. According to Livy , Tarquin came from Etruria . Livy claims that his original Etruscan name

828-602: The Latin magister ), a companion of the Etruscan heroes Aulus and Caelius Vibenna , who helped free the brothers from captivity, slaying their captors, including a Roman named Gnaeus Tarquinius. This episode is depicted in a fresco at the tomb of the Etruscan Saties family at Vulci , now known as the François Tomb . This tradition suggests that perhaps the sons of the elder Tarquin attempted to seize power, but were defeated by

874-417: The Sabines. Tarquinius was the first Roman ruler to ever celebrate a Roman triumph. According to Florus, Tarquin celebrated his triumphs in the Etruscan fashion, riding a golden chariot drawn by four horses, while wearing a gold-embroidered toga and the tunica palmata, a tunic upon which palm-leaves were embroidered. He also introduced other Etruscan insignia of civilian authority and military distinction:

920-496: The arrival of Urnfield migratory wave of populations from the northwest part of the Alps that, crossing the alpine passes, had infiltrated and settled in the western Po area between Lake Maggiore and the Lake of Como (see Scamozzina culture ). They were bearers of a new funerary practice, which supplanted the old culture of inhumation and instead introduced cremation . The population of Canegrate maintained its own homogeneity for

966-487: The art of writing from the Lepontii, including some of the orthographic peculiarities. There are 20 Cisalpine Gaulish inscriptions, five of them longer than just one or two words. The inscriptions stem largely from the area south of the Lepontians. There is an ongoing debate whether Cisalpine Gaulish is a dialect of Gaulish (e.g. Schumacher 2004), or a historical or dialectical continuation of Lepontic (e.g. Eska 2010). In

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1012-622: The beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (16th–15th century BC), when, regarding the production of bronze artefacts, including ornaments, North Western Italy appears to have been closely linked to the western groups of the Tumulus culture ( Central Europe , 1600 BC – 1200 BC). The bearers of the Canegrate culture maintained its homogeneity for only a century, after which it melded with the Ligurian aboriginal populations and with this union gave rise to

1058-605: The conquest of the Boii in 191 BC, although the Ligurians were only finally subdued when the Apuani were defeated by Marcus Claudius Marcellus in 155 BC. Sometimes referred to as Gallia Citerior ("Hither Gaul"), Provincia Ariminum , or Gallia Togata ("Toga-wearing Gaul", indicating the region's early Romanization). Gallia Transpadana denoted that part of Cisalpine Gaul between the Padus (now

1104-530: The damp lowlands of Rome by constructing the Cloaca Maxima , Rome's great sewer. The arch was constructed in 578 BC and took inspiration from Etruscan structures of the earlier period. He also constructed a stone wall around the city, and began the construction of a temple in honour of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill . The latter is said to have been funded in part by the plunder seized from

1150-417: The father of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , the seventh and last King of Rome, but some stated that the younger Tarquin was his grandson. As the younger Tarquin died about 496 BC, more than eighty years after Tarquinius Priscus, the chronology seems to support the latter tradition. An Etruscan legend related by the emperor Claudius equates Servius Tullius with Macstarna (apparently the Etruscan equivalent of

1196-514: The first Roman king to ever actively succeed at lobbying for the throne. In one tradition, the sons were away on a hunting expedition at the time of their father's death, and were thus unable to affect the assembly's choice. According to Livy, Tarquin increased the number of the Senate to 300 by adding one hundred men from the leading minor families. Among these was the family of the Octavii , from whom

1242-414: The first emperor, Augustus , was descended. He did so with the hope that those added to the Senate would be grateful for their position and thus loyal to him, strengthening his rule as king. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus is accredited with expanding Rome's borders. He did so through conquest of the surrounding tribes. Those tribes were the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. Tarquin's first war was waged against

1288-461: The first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the Alpine passes , penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como ( Scamozzina culture ). They brought a new funerary practice— cremation —which supplanted inhumation . It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to

1334-542: The identification of the Adriatic Veneti with the Paphlagonian Enetoi led by Antenor — which he attributes to Sophocles (496–406 BC) — had been a mistake caused by the similarity of the names. In 391 BC, Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps, streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the Apennine mountains and the Alps" according to Diodorus Siculus . The Roman army

1380-506: The latter case, the term Cisalpine Celtic refers to the two together, contrasting with Transalpine Celtic (traditionally Transalpine Gaulish ) for the Celtic language on the other side of the Alps. Cisalpine Gaul After its conquest by the Roman Republic in the 200s BC, it was considered geographically part of Roman Italy but remained administratively separated until 42 BC. It

1426-548: The law appoints two viri and four viri juri dicundo and also mentions a Prefect of Mutina. Virgil , Catullus and Livy , three famous sons of the province , were born in Gallia Cisalpina . The Canegrate culture reflects a late Bronze Age to early Iron Age culture in the Pianura Padana . These areas are now known as western Lombardy , eastern Piedmont and Canton Ticino . The Canegrate culture testifies to

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1472-467: The point of no return". The province was merged into Italia about 42 BC, as part of Octavian's "Italicization" program during the Second Triumvirate . The dissolution of the provincia required a new governing law or lex , although its contemporary title is unknown. The parts of it inscribed on a bronze tablet preserved in the museum at Parma are entirely concerned with arranging the judiciary:

1518-581: The province full Roman citizenship. The Rubicon River marked its southern boundary with Italia proper. By crossing this river in 49 BC with his loyal XIII Legion , returning from the conquest of Gaul , Julius Caesar precipitated the civil war within the Roman Republic which led, eventually, to the establishment of the Roman Empire . To this day the term "crossing the Rubicon" means, figuratively, "reaching

1564-574: The son of Servius Tullius, a prince of Corniculum who had fallen in battle against Tarquin, was brought to the palace as a child with his mother, Ocreisia. According to legend, Tanaquil discovered his potential for greatness by means of various omens, and therefore preferred him to her own sons. Tullius married Tarquinia , one of the daughters of Priscus, thus providing a vital link between the families. His own daughters were subsequently married to Tarquin's sons (or, in some traditions, grandsons), Lucius and Arruns . Most ancient writers regarded Tarquin as

1610-421: The standards of various military units. Strabo reports that Tarquin introduced Etruscan sacrificial and divinatory rites, as well as the tuba , a straight horn used chiefly for military purposes. As a result, most classical Roman symbols for war harken back to his time as king. Tarquin is said to have reigned for thirty-eight years. According to legend, the sons of his predecessor, Ancus Marcius, believed that

1656-461: The throne should have been theirs. They arranged the king's assassination , disguised as a riot, during which Tarquin received a fatal blow to the head by an ax. However, the queen, Tanaquil, gave out that the king was merely wounded, and took advantage of the confusion to establish Servius Tullius as regent; when the death of Tarquin was confirmed, Tullius became king, in place of Tarquin's sons, or those of Ancus Marcius. Tullius, said to have been

1702-571: The war effort. The Sabines were defeated after difficult street fighting in the city of Rome. In the peace negotiations that followed, Tarquin received the town of Collatia , and appointed his nephew, Arruns Tarquinius , better known as Egerius , as commander of the garrison there. Tarquin returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph on September 13, 585 BC. Subsequently, the Latin cities of Corniculum , old Ficulea , Cameria , Crustumerium , Ameriola , Medullia , and Nomentum were subdued and became Roman. Tarquin also wished to seek peace with

1748-482: Was Lucumo , but since lucumo is the latinized form of the Etruscan word lauchume "king", there is reason to believe that his name and title have been confused in the official tradition. After inheriting his father's entire fortune, Lucius attempted to gain a political office. However, he was prohibited from obtaining political office in Tarquinii because of the ethnicity of his father, Demaratus , who came from

1794-516: Was a Roman province from c. 81 BC until 42 BC, when it was de jure merged into Roman Italy as already planned by Julius Caesar . Cisalpine means "on this side of the Alps " (from the perspective of the Romans), as opposed to Transalpine Gaul ("on the far side of the Alps"). Gallia Cisalpina was further subdivided into Gallia Cispadana and Gallia Transpadana , i.e., its portions south and north of

1840-452: Was a Celtic language with some similarity to Gaulish. The Ligurian-Celtic question is also discussed by Barruol (1999). Ancient Ligurian is listed either as Celtic (epigraphic) or Para-Celtic (onomastic). The Veneti were Indo-European people who inhabited north-eastern Italy , in an area corresponding to the modern-day region of the Veneto , Friuli , and Trentino . By the 4th century BC

1886-594: Was an area where travellers frequently stopped and had contact with the Hallstatt culture to the west, the Urnfield culture to the north and with the Villanova culture to the south. The Golasecca culture was initially concentrated in the foothills area south of the Alps. It later spread throughout the lakes area, and established many settlements representing this original culture. The oldest remains found thus far can be dated from

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1932-413: Was erected privately by the senators and equites, and other areas were marked out for private citizens. There the king established a series of annual games; according to Livy, the first horses and boxers to participate were brought from Etruria. It received the name Circus Maximus as a way to set it apart from the other stadiums built at this time in a similar fashion. After a great flood, Tarquin drained

1978-488: Was once again victorious, and he subjugated the Etruscan cities who had taken part in the war. At the successful conclusion of each of his wars, Rome was enriched by Tarquin's plunder. Tarquin is said to have built the Circus Maximus , the first and largest stadium at Rome, for chariot racing. The Circus Maximus started out as an underwhelming piece of land, but was built into a grand and beautiful stadium. Raised seating

2024-890: Was presumably founded by Gauls in the early 6th century BC; its name has a Celtic etymology: "[city] in the middle of the [Padanic] plain". Polybius , in the 2nd century BC, wrote that the Celts in northern Italy co-existed with Etruscan nations during a period before the Sack of Rome in 390 BC. Ligures lived on the Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling southeast French and North-west Italian coasts, including parts of Tuscany , Elba island and Corsica . Ligurian tribes were also present in Latium (see Rutuli ) and in Samnium. According to Plutarch they called themselves Ambrones , which suggests

2070-561: Was routed in the battle of Allia , and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the Senones . The defeat of the combined Samnite , Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the Third Samnite War ending in 290 BC sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe. At the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC, a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed. In

2116-508: Was the grandson of Numa Pompilius , the second King of Rome, the principle of hereditary monarchy was not yet established at Rome; none of the first three kings had been succeeded by their sons, and each subsequent king had been acclaimed by the people. Upon the death of Marcius, Tarquin addressed the Comitia Curiata and convinced them that he should be elected king over his predecessor's natural sons, who were still only youths, making him

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