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125-509: Later chronographers showed historical events within an imagined Ancient Greek temple ; the Temple of Time (1846), American Temple of Time (late 1840s), English Chronographer (1849) and Chronographer of Ancient History (1851) are examples of this type. In these chronographers the floor was occupied with the streams of civilizations, as in the Picture of Nations ; the walls (often colonnaded) denoted

250-681: A "pre-creation" event, which he identified as the "beginning of time" occurring the previous night. Ussher referred to his dating of creation on the first page of Annales in Latin and on the first page of its posthumous English translation Annals of the World (1658). In the following extract from the English translation, the phrase "in the year of the Julian Calendar" refers to the Julian Period, of which year 1

375-493: A century of time; they are numbered to the 40th century BC. The left columns are marked with a small number of significant events and the right columns with the names of major historical figures. The graphic notes that the rise of the Roman Empire is "coeval with that of Christianity". The temple roof is split into ten sections labelled: wise counsellors; philosophers, teachers &c; historians, orators &c; poets, musicians;

500-403: A class of graphics which she described as "chronographers", a depiction of historical events in a chronology with a geographic, though not strictly topographic, context. She believed that information presented visually was more readily memorized than that presented in text. Willard's first chronographer was Picture of Nations , published in her 1835 Universal History . Willard also referred to

625-406: A clear entasis ), is continued by architrave and triglyph frieze, the external walls of the naos also reflect it. Not one block of the building, not a single architrave or frieze element could be hewn as a simple rectilinear block. All architectural elements display slight variations from the right angle, individually calculated for each block. As a side effect, each preserved building block from

750-591: A creation in 4004 BC. In fixing the date of Jesus' birth, Ussher took account of an error perpetrated by Dionysius Exiguus , the founder of the Anno Domini numbering system. Ussher chose 5 BC as Christ's birth year because Josephus indicated that the death of Herod the Great occurred in 4 BC. Thus, for the Gospel of Matthew to be correct, Jesus could not have been born after that date. The season in which Creation occurred

875-507: A cult image, especially in cities. This process was certainly under way by the 9th century BC, and probably started earlier. The Mycenaean megaron (15th to the 13th century BC) was the precursor for later Archaic and Classical Greek temples, but during the Greek Dark Age the buildings became smaller and less monumental. The basic principles for the development of Greek temple architecture have their roots between

1000-492: A left-to-right chronology. Willard, a strong American nationalist, became one of the first writers to produce national histories which focussed on events in a specific territory. One of her works was the 1828 History of the United States, or Republic of America , in which she notably used a series of maps to chart the territorial expansion of the colonies and republic over a period of 250 years. This has also been described as

1125-404: A length of 100 feet (30 m). Since it was not technically possible to roof broad spaces at that time, these temples remained very narrow, at 6 to 10 metres in width. To stress the importance of the cult statue and the building holding it, the naos was equipped with a canopy , supported by columns. The resulting set of colonnade surrounding the temple on all sides (the peristasis )

1250-408: A precursor to her chronographers. Willard stood down from teaching in the 1840s, passing duties to her daughters, which allowed her to focus on the production of textbooks. Willard continued to develop her graphics as a means of placing historical events in geographic context and her publishers encouraged her as a means of differentiating her textbooks from others in a now-crowded market. She created

1375-631: A predecessor of the chronographers, was the Progress of the Roman Empire published in Willard and Woodbridge's 1824 A System of Universal Geography on the Principles of Comparison and Classification . This graphic depicted the tribes and civilizations absorbed by the Roman Empire as tributaries of the Amazon River, running from the top of the page to the bottom. Until this point timelines were usually presented in

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1500-451: A single row, rarely a double one, of columns. This produces a surrounding colonnade, the pteron , which offered shelter to visitors of the sanctuary and room for cult processions. These components allowed the realisation of a variety of different plan types in Greek temple architecture. The simplest example of a Greek temple is the templum in antis , a small rectangular structure sheltering

1625-539: A slight inclination towards the centre of the building. Curvature and entasis occur from the mid 6th century onwards. The most consistent use of these principles is seen in the Classical Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis . Its curvature affects all horizontal elements up to the sima , even the naos walls reflect it throughout their height. The inclination of its columns (which also have

1750-493: A teacher in her late teenage years and soon became a campaigner for reform of existing teaching methods, including for the teaching of subjects to girls which had before only been taught to boys. Geography was one of the subjects that was deemed suitable for teaching to girls and Willard came to focus upon it. She approved of the works of Jedidiah Morse in this field and published a number of textbooks in conjunction with William Channing Woodbridge . Another of Willard's focuses

1875-519: A third alternative arose in late 3rd century with the Corinthian order . A multitude of different ground plans were developed, each of which could be combined with the superstructure in the different orders. Temples would be destroyed due to warfare in the Greek World or from lack of repairs. Some of these temples such as the temple of Poseidon Soter (The Savior) would be rebuilt outside of Athens after

2000-414: A type of half-timbered technique. The elements of this simple and clearly structured wooden architecture produced all the important design principles that were to determine the development of Greek temples for centuries. Near the end of the 7th century, the dimensions of these simple structures were increased considerably. Temple C at Thermos is the first of the hekatompedoi , temples with

2125-469: A wider variety of colours and nuances. Recessed or otherwise shaded elements, like mutules or triglyph slits could be painted black. The paint was mostly applied to parts that were not load-bearing, whereas structural parts like columns or the horizontal elements of architrave and geison were left unpainted (if made of high-quality limestone or marble) or covered with a white stucco . Greek temples were often enhanced with figural decorations. especially

2250-530: A width of nine columns (enneastyle), and the Archaic temple at Thermos with a width of five columns (pentastyle). The elevation of Greek temples is always subdivided in three zones: the crepidoma , the columns and the entablature . Stereobate, euthynteria and crepidoma form the substructure of the temple. The underground foundation of a Greek temple is known as the stereobate . It consists of several layers of squared stone blocks. The uppermost layer,

2375-448: Is 4713 BC, and therefore year 710 is 4004 BC. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. Ge. 1:1 This beginning of time, according to our chronology, happened at the start of the evening preceding the 23rd day of October in the year of the Julian Calendar, 710. Ussher provides a slightly different time in his "Epistle to the Reader" in his Latin and English works: "I deduce that

2500-459: Is a major difference from Roman temples which were often designed as part of a planned urban area or square and had a strong emphasis on being viewed frontally. The foundations of Greek temples could reach dimensions of up to 115 by 55 m, i.e. the size of an average football pitch . Columns could reach a height of 20 m. To design such large architectural bodies harmoniously, a number of basic aesthetic principles were developed and tested already on

2625-627: Is a misnomer, as the chronology is based on Ussher's work alone and not that of Lightfoot. Ussher deduced that the first day of creation was October 22, 4004 BC on the proleptic Julian calendar , near the autumnal equinox . Lightfoot similarly deduced that Creation began at nightfall near the autumnal equinox, but in the year 3929 BC. Ussher's proposed date of 4004 BC differed little from other biblically based estimates , such as those of Jose ben Halafta (3761 BC), Bede (3952 BC), Ussher's near-contemporary Scaliger (3949 BC), Johannes Kepler (3992 BC), and Isaac Newton (c. 4000 BC). Ussher

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2750-465: Is decorated with an egg-and-dart band followed by a sculpted pillow forming two volutes , supporting a thin abacus . The eponymous Corinthian capital of the Corinthian order is crowned by rings of stylised acanthus leaves, forming tendrils and volutes that reach to the corners of the abacus . The capitals support the entablature . In the Doric order, the entablature always consists of two parts,

2875-450: Is determined by the number of columns at the front. Modern scholarship uses the following terms: The term dodekastylos is only used for the 12-column hall at the Didymaion . No temples with facades of that width are known. Very few temples had an uneven number of columns at the front. Examples are Temple of Hera I at Paestum , Temple of Apollo A at Metapontum , both of which have

3000-404: Is limited since many of these were destroyed, and the subject is controversial. A typical early sanctuary seems to have consisted of a temenos , often around a sacred grove, cave or spring, and perhaps defined only by marker stones at intervals, with an altar for offerings. Many rural sanctuaries probably stayed in this style, but the more popular were gradually able to afford a building to house

3125-430: Is mostly represented by a multitude of small temples in antis and prostyle temples, as well as tiny shrines ( naiskoi ). The latter had been erected in important places, on market squares, near springs and by roads, since the Archaic period, but reached their main flourish now. This limitation to smaller structures led to the development of a special form, the pseudoperipteros , which uses engaged columns along

3250-422: Is notable given Willard's nationalist and American exceptionalist views. He also notes the interactive nature of the graphic which helped support the general strategy of her textbooks to encourage interrogation and dialogue. Joyce describes the graphic as a "conceptual masterpiece" encouraging "a sort of fill-in-the-blank approach in which history is something unfinished, as you can see in the frontmost pillars of

3375-404: Is the pseudoperipteros , where the side columns of the peristasis are indicated only by engaged columns or pilasters directly attached to the external naos walls. A dipteros or dipteral is equipped with a double colonnade on all four sides, sometimes with further rows of columns at the front and back. A pseudodipteros has engaged columns in the inner row of columns at

3500-441: The antae without columns. An amphiprostylos or amphiprostyle repeats the same column setting at the back. In contrast, the term peripteros or peripteral designates a temple surrounded by ptera (colonnades) on all four sides, each usually formed by a single row of columns. This produces an unobstructed surrounding portico, the peristasis , on all four sides of the temple. A Hellenistic and Roman form of this shape

3625-413: The opisthodomos at the back of the naos indicated merely by half-columns and shortened antae , so that it can be described as a pseudo-opisthodomos . If the porch of a temple in antis has a row of usually four or six columns in front of its whole breadth, the temple is described as a prostylos or prostyle temples. The whole pronaos may be omitted in this case or just leave

3750-472: The euthynteria , partially protrudes above the ground level. Its surface is carefully smoothed and levelled. It supports a further foundation of three steps, the crepidoma . The uppermost level of the crepidoma provides the surface on which the columns and walls are placed; it is called stylobate . Placed on the stylobate are the vertical column shafts, tapering towards the top. They are normally made of several separately cut column drums. Depending on

3875-468: The hypotrachelion , and the capital , in Ionic columns, the capital sits directly on the shaft. In the Doric order, the capital consists of a circular torus bulge, originally very flat, the so-called echinus , and a square slab, the abacus . In the course of their development, the echinus expands more and more, culminating in a linear diagonal, at 45° to the vertical. The echinus of Ionic columns

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4000-686: The naos walls to produce the illusion of a peripteral temple. An early case of this is temple L at Epidauros , followed by many prominent Roman examples, such as the Maison Carrée at Nîmes . In the early 1st century BC, the Mithridatic Wars led to changes of architectural practice. The role of sponsor was increasingly taken by Roman magistrates of the Eastern provinces , who rarely demonstrated their generosity by building temples. Nevertheless, some temples were erected at this time, e.g.

4125-399: The opisthodomos , which became necessary for entirely aesthetic reasons. After the reintroduction of stone architecture, the essential elements and forms of each temple, such as the number of columns and of column rows, underwent constant change throughout Greek antiquity . In the 6th century BC, Ionian Samos developed the double-colonnaded dipteros as an alternative to

4250-484: The Chronographer of American History within an updated version of her History of the United States . This was also published the following year in large format, 4 by 6 feet (1.2 m × 1.8 m), for use as a teaching aid in classrooms. While the tree analogy had been used before to depict historical events and family history Willard's was unusual in that it proceeded chronologically from left to right across

4375-590: The Constitution of the United States in 1789 and the last part running to the publication date. The parts each have several smaller branches representing key events in American history. The arrangement of branches was intended by Willard to organise the chaotic history of the United States into discrete parcels, conveying a sense of orderly progression. She ignored any mention of the impact upon Native Americans, or indeed any mention of pre-Columbian American history (which

4500-687: The Greek Revival architectural movement , Willard developed it into the Temple of Time in 1846. The streams of civilisations were relocated to the floor of an Ancient Greek temple , while the rest of the structure acts as a memory palace allowing the student to place themselves within the "vast imaginary edifice" and consider the geographical and chronological context of an historic event. In Willard's caption she states: "the teacher or parent who shall place it before his pupils and children will find that they will insensibly become possesses of an inner 'Temple' in which they may, through life, deposite[sic], in

4625-514: The Greek colonies of Magna Graecia . Only the west of Asia Minor maintained a low level of temple construction during the 3rd century. The construction of large projects, such as the temple of Apollo at Didyma near Miletus and the Artemision at Sardis did not make much progress. The 2nd century saw a revival of temple architecture, including peripteral temples. This is partially due to

4750-556: The Jewish calendar to establish the "first day" of creation as falling on a Sunday near the autumnal equinox. The day of the week was a backward calculation from the six days of creation with God resting on the seventh, which in the Jewish calendar is Saturday—hence, Creation began on a Sunday. The astronomical tables that Ussher probably used were Kepler 's Tabulae Rudolphinae ( Rudolphine Tables , 1627). Using them, he would have concluded that

4875-522: The Temple of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias . The introduction of the principate lead to few new buildings, mostly temples for the imperial cult or to Roman deities , e.g. the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek . Although new temples to Greek deities still continued to be constructed, e.g. the Tychaion at Selge they tend to follow the canonical forms of the developing Roman imperial style of architecture or to maintain local non-Greek idiosyncrasies, like

5000-475: The architrave and the Doric frieze (or triglyph frieze). The Ionic order of Athens and the Cyclades also used a frieze above an architrave, whereas the frieze remained unknown in the Ionic architecture of Asia Minor until the 4th century BC. There, the architrave was directly followed by the dentils . The frieze was originally placed in front of the roof beams, which were externally visible only in

5125-400: The dentil of the Ionic or Corinthian orders, the cornice protrudes notably. It consists of the geison (on the sloped sides or pediments of the narrow walls a sloped geison ), and the sima . On the long side, the sima , often elaborately decorated, was equipped with water spouts, often in the shape of lions' heads. The pedimental triangle or tympanon on the narrow sides of

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5250-458: The elevation . The central cult structure of the temple is the naos or cella , which usually contained a cult statue of the deity. In Archaic temples, a separate room, the so-called adyton was sometimes included after the naos for this purpose. In Sicily , this habit continued into the Classical period. In front of the naos , there is a porch, the pronaos , created by

5375-400: The frieze areas offered space for reliefs and relief slabs; the pedimental triangles often contained scenes of free-standing sculpture . In Archaic times, even the architrave could be relief-decorated on Ionic temples, as demonstrated by the earlier temple of Apollo at Didyma . Here, the architrave corners bore gorgons , surrounded by lions and perhaps other animals. On the other hand,

5500-403: The isotherm maps and charts developed by Alexander von Humboldt and, indeed, Willard and Woodbridge had incorporated some of Humboldt's illustrations in their geographical textbooks. Willard's textbooks were unusual in their use of illustrations, even the early historical atlases then being published were largely collections of tables or charts. One of her notable early graphics, regarded as

5625-399: The pediment . The rivers of time on the temple floor play a similar role to those in the Picture of Nations in depicting the geographical, cultural, political, economic, and military power of each civilisation as a proportion of the entire width of the floor. Barry Joyce, writing in 2015, notes that the technique "strikingly minimize[s] the overall importance of the United States", which

5750-452: The sacrifices and rituals dedicated to the deity took place outside them, within the wider precinct of the sanctuary, which might be large. Temples were frequently used to store votive offerings. They are the most important and most widespread surviving building type in Greek architecture . In the Hellenistic kingdoms of Southwest Asia and of North Africa , buildings erected to fulfill

5875-407: The 10th century BC and the 7th century BC. In its simplest form as a naos , the temple was a simple rectangular shrine with protruding side walls ( antae ), forming a small porch. Until the 8th century BC, there were also apsidal structures with more or less semi-circular back walls, but the rectangular type prevailed. By adding columns to this small basic structure,

6000-511: The 19th century to the birth of Christ (which is again marked by a white star), beyond which they are un-numbered and only contain two entries. The left wall is annotated with key events and the right wall with a list of rulers of England from the first century. These are initially the Roman emperors, followed by the Heptarchy and the kings of England and Britain; the royal houses are named and coloured,

6125-467: The 19th century. Published in 1650, the full title of Ussher's work in Latin is Annales Veteris Testamenti, a prima mundi origine deducti, una cum rerum Asiaticarum et Aegyptiacarum chronico, a temporis historici principio usque ad Maccabaicorum initia producto ('Annals of the Old Testament, deduced from the first origins of the world, the chronicle of Asiatic and Egyptian matters together produced from

6250-514: The 4004 BC date for biblical creation, giving 59 pairs of columns. The last set of columns are incomplete, to denote the date of publication. The columns are marked with the names of "those sovereigns by which the age is chiefly distinguished". The columns support a roof on the underside of which are the names of significant figures in history. They are split into five categories: "statesmen; philosophers, discoverers &c; theologians &c; poets, painters &C and warriors", which are labelled on

6375-474: The 6th century BC, the ancient Greek temples developed from the small mud brick structures into double- porched monumental "peripteral" buildings with colonnade on all sides, often reaching more than 20 metres in height (not including the roof). Stylistically, they were governed by the regionally specific architectural orders . Whereas the distinction was originally between the Doric and Ionic orders,

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6500-569: The Earth was tens, perhaps even hundreds of millions of years old. Ussher fell into disrepute among theologians as well; in 1890, Princeton professor William Henry Green wrote a highly influential article in Bibliotheca Sacra entitled "Primeval Chronology" in which he strongly criticised Ussher. He concluded: We conclude that the Scriptures furnish no data for a chronological computation prior to

6625-589: The Greeks triggered the development and variety of their temple architecture. The Temple of Isthmia , built in 690–650 BC was perhaps the first true Archaic temple. Its size, colonnade , and roof made it different from then-contemporary buildings. The first temples were mostly mud , brick , and marble structures on stone foundations. The columns and superstructure ( entablature ) were wooden, door openings and antae were protected with wooden planks. The mud brick walls were often reinforced by wooden posts, in

6750-413: The Ionic temples of Asia Minor did not possess a separate frieze to allow space for relief decoration. The most common area for relief decoration remained the frieze, either as a typical Doric triglyph frieze, with sculpted metopes, or as a continuous frieze on Cycladic and later on Eastern Ionic temples. Ussher chronology The Ussher chronology is a 17th-century chronology of the history of

6875-470: The Northwest Territory, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, Oregon and land ceded by Mexico. The pillars of the temple represented the 15th-19th centuries and were engraved with the names of famous persons, Americans on the left pillars and Europeans on the right. The roof was split into sections by century and class of person: statesmen, historians, theologians, poets and warriors. The back wall of the temple

7000-502: The Parthenon, its columns, naos walls or entablature, can be assigned its exact position today. In spite of the immense extra effort entailed in this perfection, the Parthenon, including its sculptural decoration, was completed in the record time of sixteen years (447 to 431). Only three basic colours were used: white, blue and red, occasionally also black. The crepidoma , columns, and architrave were mostly white. Only details, like

7125-458: The United States, Or Republic of America contained only two chapters on Native Americans and consigns them to a "timeless space prior to human history". In 1849 Willard published an English Chronographer , similar in style to the Temple of Time and its American version. The graphic depicts the history of the British Empire within an Ancient Greek temple. The floor shows the development of

7250-539: The architects choose the alignment of the outer wall face with the adjacent column axis as the obligatory principle for Doric temples. Doric temples in Greater Greece rarely follow this system. The basic proportions of the building were determined by the numeric relationship of columns on the front and back to those on the sides. The classic solution chosen by Greek architects is the formula "frontal columns : side columns = n : (2n+1)", which can also be used for

7375-423: The architectural order, a different number of flutings are cut into the column shaft: Doric columns have 18 to 20 flutings, Ionic and Corinthian ones normally have 24. Early Ionic columns had up to 48 flutings. While Doric columns stand directly on the stylobate, Ionic and Corinthian ones possess a base, sometimes additionally placed atop a plinth . In Doric columns , the top is formed by a concavely curved neck,

7500-508: The beginning of historical time up to the beginnings of Maccabees '). Ussher's work was his contribution to the long-running theological debate on the age of the Earth . This was a major concern of many Christian scholars over the centuries. The chronology is sometimes called the Ussher–Lightfoot chronology because John Lightfoot published a similar chronology in 1642–1644. This, however,

7625-517: The branches, rather than from root to branch. Willard's tree depicted the history of the United States from Columbus (1492) to the then modern time. Willard separated the chronology into four "parts" (depicted as principal branches) the first of which ended with the New England Confederation of 1643, the second with the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, the third with the adoption of

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7750-452: The broadest widths of any civilisation at the bottom of the chart, is depicted as the culmination of human progress. The chronographer shows time as pyramidal in shape, narrow in the distant past and broader in the modern period. Willard explained this as an attempt to show how the importance of events diminishes with time passed. The broader base allows her to show more detail of the periods of more relevance to contemporary students. All of

7875-611: The chart as a "map of time". The Picture of Nations attempted to depict all of human history on a single chart. It showed individual civilisations as streams running from biblical creation, which she dates to 4004 BC in accordance with the Ussher chronology , to the date of publication. The civilisations are not arranged according to strict geographical position but in accordance with their relationships to one another. Some, like China, are separated with thick black lines from other civilisations in an attempt to show their isolation. The width of

8000-551: The chronographers at the 1851 Great Exhibition in London; they were described as a "new and true method" of visualising history. Willard was afterwards awarded a medal and certificate from Albert, Prince Consort . In 1854 she returned to London to represent the United States at the World's Educational Convention. Willard died on April 15, 1870. Willard's methods were disparaged by later educational writers. The chronographers were criticised by literary historian Matt Cohen for ignoring

8125-421: The colour extending in a band across the roof and down the left wall. The roof is split into ten sections labelled: statesmen; philosophers, discoverers &c; historians &c; prose writers; theologians; poets; painters, sculptors, architects &c; admirals; remarkable women and warriors. In 1851 Willard produced a Chronographer of Ancient History depicting events in world history from biblical creation to

8250-445: The cult statue. In front of the naos , a small porch or pronaos was formed by the protruding naos walls, the antae . The pronaos was linked to the naos by a door. To support the superstructure, two columns were placed between the antae ( distyle in antis ). When equipped with an opisthodomos with a similar distyle in antis design, this is called a double anta temple. A variant of that type has

8375-539: The defeat of the Persian Empire in 449. From the 3rd century onward, the construction of large temples became less common; after a short 2nd century BC flourish, it ceased nearly entirely in the 1st century BC. Thereafter, only smaller structures were started, while older temples continued to be renovated or brought to completion if in an unfinished state. Greek temples were designed and constructed according to set proportions, mostly determined by

8500-517: The development led from simpler early forms which often appear coarse and bulky up to the aesthetic perfection and refinement of the later structures; from simple experimentation to the strict mathematical complexity of ground plans and superstructures. From the early Hellenistic period onwards, the Greek peripteral temple lost much of its importance. With very few exceptions, Classical temple construction ceased both in Hellenistic Greece and in

8625-437: The earlier temples of Asia Minor. The Doric frieze was structured by triglyphs . These were placed above the axis of each column, and above the centre of each intercolumniation . The spaces between the triglyphs contained metopes , sometimes painted or decorated with relief sculpture. In the Ionic or Corinthian orders, the frieze possesses no triglyphs and is simply left flat, sometimes decorated with paintings or reliefs. With

8750-571: The empire in several regions labelled: India, the Cape of Good Hope, New Holland, Jamaica, Gibraltar, Hanover, Great Britain, the Republic of America, Canada and France. The river format is reused, with nations forming and merging in streams. The floor is marked with the names of major national leaders and, at the far right, the names of key battles. The walls are solid and not colonnaded as in previous chronographers. The walls are marked in centuries back from

8875-447: The end of Greek temple construction. New temples now belonged to the tradition of the Roman temple , which, in spite of the very strong Greek influence on it, aimed for different goals and followed different aesthetic principles (for a comparison, see the other article ). The main temple building sat within a larger precinct or temenos , usually surrounded by a peribolos fence or wall;

9000-517: The end of her life. Willard's textbooks reflected her geographical education; she considered that geography was, with chronology, one of the two "axes of history". Willard was inspired partly by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 's theories that advocated associating history to the neighbourhood of the student. At a time when contemporary works failed to depict the geographical context of historical events her works contained many maps and other visual depictions of geography. Willard's work had been inspired by

9125-567: The equinox occurred on Tuesday, October 25, only one day earlier than the traditional day of its creation, on the fourth day of Creation week, Wednesday, along with the Sun, Moon, and stars Genesis 1:16 . Modern equations place the autumnal equinox of 4004 BC on Sunday, October 23 (by the Julian calendar). Ussher's understanding of creation placed the "first day" referred to in Genesis 1:5 on October 23, but with

9250-426: The field of culture), combined to release much energy into the revival of complex Greek temple architecture. During this phase, Greek temples became widespread in southern Asia Minor, Egypt and Northern Africa . But in spite of such examples and of the positive conditions produced by the economic upturn and the high degree of technical innovation in the 3rd and 2nd centuries, Hellenistic religious architecture

9375-570: The floor, including iterations of the Temple in Jerusalem , the Parthenon and Egyptian Pyramids as well as the biblical Noah's Ark and Tower of Babel . Biblical creation is shown as the back wall of the temple, it is undated and at an undetermined number of centuries beyond the 40th century BC. The first events shown are the Ark and Tower of Babel which are dated to the 24th century BC, they are followed by

9500-471: The form of reliefs and sculptures on the pediment . The construction of temples was usually organised and financed by cities or by the administrations of sanctuaries. Private individuals, especially Hellenistic rulers, could also sponsor such buildings. In the late Hellenistic period , their decreasing financial wealth, along with the progressive incorporation of the Greek world within the Roman state , whose officials and rulers took over as sponsors, led to

9625-512: The foundation of Babylon and Nineveh. There is relatively little detail on non-European civilizations: India and China are given only narrow sections of the floor, of constant width, and China has no events marked at all. The last events include the birth of Christ which is marked on the floor by a white star, this time labelled "the star of Bethlehem", and the foundation of the Roman Empire (described as encompassing "the civilized world"). The temple walls are colonnaded with each column representing

9750-409: The frieze, now started at a higher level, behind the geison . This ended the structural link between frieze and roof; the structural elements of the latter could now be placed independent of axial relationships. As a result, the naos walls lost their fixed connection with the columns for a long time and could be freely placed within the peristasis . Only after a long phase of developments did

9875-520: The functions of a temple often continued to follow the local traditions. Even where a Greek influence is visible, such structures are not normally considered as Greek temples. This applies, for example, to the Graeco-Parthian and Bactrian temples, or to the Ptolemaic examples, which follow Egyptian tradition . Most Greek temples were oriented astronomically. Between the 9th century BC and

10000-530: The gradual closure of Greek temples, or their conversion into Christian churches . Thus ends the history of the Greek temples' original purpose, although many of them remained in use for a long time afterwards. For example, the Athenian Parthenon , first reconsecrated as a church was turned into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest and remained structurally unharmed until the 17th century AD. Only

10125-459: The horizontally cut grooves at the bottom of Doric capitals ( annuli ), or decorative elements of Doric architraves (e.g. taenia and guttae ) might be painted in different colours. The frieze was clearly structured by use of colours. In a Doric triglyph frieze, blue triglyphs alternated with red metopes, the latter often serving as a background for individually painted sculptures. Reliefs, ornaments, and pedimental sculptures were executed with

10250-459: The imaginary temple and to consider events in their historic and geographic context. She presented her chronographers at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851 and received a medal and certificate from Albert, Prince Consort . Willard's work has been disparaged by later writers, including for their almost complete omission of non-Western peoples and events. Emma Willard (1787–1870) became

10375-613: The indigenous peoples of the Americas, or events and peoples of Africa and Asia. He says that where they are included, they exist only as "a vaguely hinted-at darkness, a shadowy uncivilization". Ancient Greek temple Greek temples ( Ancient Greek : ναός , romanized :  nāós , lit.   'dwelling', semantically distinct from Latin templum , " temple ") were structures built to house deity statues within Greek sanctuaries in ancient Greek religion . The temple interiors did not serve as meeting places, since

10500-420: The influence of the architect Hermogenes of Priene , who redefined the principles of Ionic temple construction both practically and through theoretical work. At the same time, the rulers of the various Hellenistic kingdoms provided copious financial resources. Their self-aggrandisation, rivalry, desires to stabilise their spheres of influence, as well as the increasing conflict with Rome (partially played out in

10625-429: The introduction of stone architecture, the protection of the porticos and the support of the roof construction was moved upwards to the level of the geison , depriving the frieze of its structural function and turning it into an entirely decorative feature. Frequently, the naos is also decorated with architrave and frieze, especially at the front of the pronaos . Above the frieze, or an intermediate member, e.g.

10750-455: The invention of the eustylos . The Temple of Dionysos at Teos , normally ascribed to Hermogenes, does indeed have intercolumnia measuring 2 1/6 of the lower column diameters. To loosen up the mathematical strictness and to counteract distortions of human visual perception, a slight curvature of the whole building, hardly visible with the naked eye, was introduced. The ancient architects had realised that long horizontal lines tend to make

10875-407: The leaders of the principal modern nations are shown while only a few of the most important persons of the ancient period are included. Such an arrangement also allowed Willard to convey the sense that the passage of time had accelerated with the technological advancements following the industrial revolution, an aspect she found lacking in traditional linear timelines. In 1844 Willard first published

11000-664: The life of Abraham; and that the Mosaic records do not fix and were not intended to fix the precise date either of the Flood or of the creation of the world. The similarly conservative theologian B. B. Warfield reached the same conclusion in "On The Antiquity and Unity of the Human Race", commenting that "it is precarious in the highest degree to draw chronological inferences from genealogical tables". Archbishop Ussher's chronology has in recent years been subject to artistic criticism, including in

11125-440: The lower diameter of the columns or by the dimensions of the foundation levels. The nearly mathematical strictness of the basic designs thus reached was lightened by optical refinements. In spite of the still widespread idealised image, Greek temples were painted, so that bright reds and blues contrasted with the white of the building stones or of stucco . The more elaborate temples were equipped with very rich figural decoration in

11250-434: The number of columns per side, they also determined the dimensions of stylobate and peristasis , as well as of the naos proper. The rules regarding vertical proportions, especially in the Doric order, also allow for a deduction of the basic design options for the entablature from the same principles. Alternatives to this very rational system were sought in the temples of the late 7th and early 6th centuries, when it

11375-462: The number of intercolumniations. As a result, numerous temples of the Classical period in Greece ( c.  500 to 336) had 6 × 13 columns or 5 × 11 intercolumniations. The same proportions, in a more abstract form, determine most of the Parthenon , not only in its 8 × 17 column peristasis , but also, reduced to 4:9, in all other basic measurements, including the intercolumniations, the stylobate,

11500-426: The optical impression of sagging towards their centre. To prevent this effect, the horizontal lines of stylobate and/or entablature were raised by a few centimetres towards the middle of a building. This avoidance of mathematically straight lines also included the columns, which did not taper in a linear fashion, but were refined by a pronounced "swelling" ( entasis ) of the shaft. Additionally, columns were placed with

11625-550: The passage of time and were marked with historical leaders and the roof was split into categories to list other historic persons. The back wall of the temple was often marked as the point of biblical creation , sometimes with the date of 4004 BC from the Ussher chronology , though in her American Temple of Time a map of the continent is used. The birth of Christ was often denoted with a white star and other biblical figures included. Willard's chronographers were intended as learning aids, allowing students to place themselves within

11750-409: The peripteral temple and to ensure its visibility from all sides, the execution of the front has to be repeated at the rear. A restricted space, the adyton , may be included at the far end of the naos , backing up on the opisthodomos . The complex formed by the naos , pronaos , opisthodomos and possibly the adyton is enclosed on all four sides by the peristasis , usually

11875-545: The play Inherit the Wind (based on the Scopes Monkey Trial ) and the fantasy novel Good Omens which alleges that it is inaccurate "by almost a quarter of an hour". A different viewpoint comes from Stephen Jay Gould , who, while totally disagreeing with Ussher's chronology, nevertheless wrote: I shall be defending Ussher's chronology as an honorable effort for its time and arguing that our usual ridicule only records

12000-506: The proper order of time, the facts of history as they shall acquire them. This we repeat is as important to the student of time as maps are to the student of place". The mind palace is itself an ancient Greek technique that Willard had come across in her studies of Ancient Greek writings on history and memory. The temple is formed of two parallel lines of columns which recede into the distance, following conventional perspective . Each column represents one century of time and they run back to

12125-407: The protruding side walls of the naos (the antae ) , and two columns placed between them. A door allows the naos to be accessed from the pronaos . A similar room at the back of the naos is called the opisthodomos . There is no door connecting the opisthodomos with the naos ; its existence is necessitated entirely by aesthetic considerations: to maintain the consistency of

12250-457: The reign of Roman Emperor Augustus. The familiar format of the Ancient Greek temple is reused. The floor is once again marked with streams showing the rise and fall of civilisations and with key historical events and personalities. The far right section of the floor is marked with major conflicts. Solid black lines demark the 30th, 20th and 10th centuries BC. Prominent structures are shown on

12375-420: The roof sections. Willard considered her American Temple of Time achieved "the goal, to which, step by step, I had been approaching" with regards to the teaching of American history. Her views on the matter were framed by nationalism, a belief in manifest destiny and the right of settlers of European ancestry to displace native Americans. This is evident in Willard's other works of this time; her History of

12500-536: The same method to calculate key events recorded in the Bible . Establishing the chronologies is complicated by the fact that the Bible was compiled by different authors over several centuries with lengthy chronological gaps, making it difficult to do a simple totaling of Biblical ages and dates. In his article on Ussher's calendar, James Barr has identified three distinct periods that Ussher and others had to tackle: After reckoning

12625-406: The self-sacrificing; writers of the Old Testament &c; law givers & founders of states; painters, sculptors, architects &c; distinguished women; and warriors. The earliest figure is the mythological Chinese emperor Fuxi (labelled Fohi here), a number of biblical characters are also included. Willard continued to revise her textbooks and chronographers throughout her life. She exhibited

12750-564: The sides. Circular temples form a special type. If they are surrounded by a colonnade, they are known as peripteral tholoi . Although of sacred character, their function as a temple can often not be asserted. A comparable structure is the monopteros , or cyclostyle which, however, lacks a naos . To clarify ground plan types, the defining terms can be combined, producing terms such as: peripteral double anta temple, prostyle in antis , peripteral amphiprostyle, etc. An additional definition, already used by Vitruvius (IV, 3, 3)

12875-494: The single peripteros . This idea was later copied in Didyma , Ephesos and Athens . Between the 6th and the late 4th century, innumerable temples were built; nearly every polis , every Greek colony contained one or several. There were also temples at extra-urban sites and at major sanctuaries like Olympia and Delphi . The observable change of form indicates the search for a harmonious form of all architectural elements:

13000-558: The six days of Creation, on the grounds that "one day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day" ( 2 Peter 3:8 ). This tradition was believed to indicate that Jesus would return in AD 2000, more than six thousand years after 4004 BC. Modern proponents of this interpretation hold that the creation date 4004 BC could be inaccurate. The chronologies of Ussher and other biblical scholars corresponded so closely because they used much

13125-541: The smaller temples. The main measurement was the foot, varying between 29 and 34 cm from region to region. This initial measurement was the basis for all the units that determined the shape of the temple. Important factors include the lower diameter of the columns and the width of their plinths. The distance between the column axes ( intercolumniation or bay ) could also be used as a basic unit. These measurements were in set proportions to other elements of design, such as column height and column distance. In conjunction with

13250-464: The streams varies in an attempt to show the rise and fall of civilisations, in what she called the "ancestry of nations". The birth of Christ is shown as a bright star and marks the boundary between her ancient world and the Middle Ages . She marks the start of modern history with the 1492 landing of Christopher Columbus in the Americas. The emergence of the United States, which is given one of

13375-478: The temple of time". Willard considered her work approximated "God's perspective" of history. Willard conceived of an American history sequel to the Temple of Time in the late 1840s. This was similar in design to the original except that the floor was divided into eight sections of varying widths representing the territory of the United States. These pieces were labelled as the Thirteen Colonies, New France,

13500-571: The temple was created by the Doric introduction of the gabled roof , earlier temples often had hipped roofs . The tympanon was usually richly decorated with pedimental sculpture of mythical scenes or battles. The corners and ridges of the roof were decorated with acroteria , originally geometric, later floral or figural decorations. As far as topographically possible, the temples were freestanding and designed to be viewed from all sides. They were not normally designed with consideration for their surroundings, but formed autonomous structures. This

13625-580: The temples in Petra or Palmyra . The increasing romanisation of the east entailed the end of Greek temple architecture, although work continued on the completion of unfinished large structures like the temple of Apollo at Didyma or the Olympieion at Athens into the later 2nd century AD. The edicts of Theodosius I and his successors on the throne of the Roman Empire , banning pagan cults , led to

13750-442: The time from the creation until midnight, January 1, 1 AD was 4003 years, seventy days and six hours." Six hours before midnight would be 6 pm. By the middle of the 19th century, Ussher's chronology came under increasing attack from supporters of uniformitarianism , who argued that Ussher's "young Earth" was incompatible with the increasingly accepted view of an Earth much more ancient than Ussher's. It became generally accepted that

13875-413: The unfortunate impact of a Venetian cannonball into the building, then used to store gunpowder, led to the destruction of much of this important temple, more than 2,000 years after it was built. Canonical Greek temples maintained the same basic structure throughout many centuries. The Greeks used a limited number of spatial components, influencing the plan , and of architectural members, determining

14000-512: The whole is usually called a "sanctuary". The Acropolis of Athens is the most famous example, though this was apparently walled as a citadel before a temple was ever built there. This might include many subsidiary buildings, sacred groves or springs, animals dedicated to the deity, and sometimes people who had taken sanctuary from the law, which some temples offered, for example to runaway slaves. The earliest Greek Sanctuaries probably did not contain temple buildings, though our knowledge of these

14125-593: The width-height proportion of the entire building, and the geison (here reversed to 9:4). Since the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the proportion of column width to the space between columns, the intercolumnium, played an increasingly important role in architectural theory, reflected, for example, in the works of Vitruvius . According to this proportion, Vitruvius (3, 3, 1 ff) distinguished between five different design concepts and temple types: The determination and discussion of these basic principles went back to Hermogenes , whom Vitruvius credits with

14250-547: The work through her lifetime. The 1844 edition ended with the 1841 death of President William Henry Harrison and later versions with the 1846-48 Mexican–American War or the Compromise of 1850 . Willard's last edition of the chronographer, created in 1861, ignored the American Civil War that was then in progress and she chose to label her last branch as 1860. Following good review for Picture of Nations , and inspired by

14375-509: The world formulated from a literal reading of the Old Testament by James Ussher , the Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland . The chronology is sometimes associated with young Earth creationism , which holds that the universe was created only a few millennia ago by God as described in the first two chapters of the biblical book of Genesis . Ussher's work fell into disrepute in

14500-401: The years from creation to the last kings of Judah, Ussher used 2 Kings 25:27 to establish the length of time from the creation to the accession of Babylonian king Amel-Marduk (also known as Evil-Merodach). He then used information from Babylonian, Greek, and Roman sources to fix the date of Amel-Marduk's enthronement at 562 BC (after Nebuchadnezzar's death), from which he was able to deduce

14625-468: Was a map of North America running from the Pacific to Atlantic Oceans. It was sparse in geographical detail and was intended more as a logo of the country rather than a topographical resource. Students were encouraged to redraw the temple and fill in the details such as shading in the floor to denote the acquisition of territory and adding labels for important battles. Important figures were also to be added to

14750-527: Was attempted to develop the basic measurements from the planned dimensions of naos or stylobate, i.e. to reverse the system described above and deduce the smaller units from the bigger ones. Thus, for example, the naos length was sometimes set at 100 feet (30 m) (100 is a sacred number, also known from the hecatomb , a sacrifice of 100 animals), and all further measurements had to be in relation to this number, leading to aesthetically quite unsatisfactory solutions. Another determining design feature

14875-408: Was exclusively used for temples in Greek architecture. The combination of the temple with colonnades ( ptera ) on all sides posed a new aesthetic challenge for the architects and patrons: the structures had to be built to be viewed from all directions. This led to the development of the peripteros , with a frontal pronaos (porch), mirrored by a similar arrangement at the back of the building,

15000-428: Was influenced by the same account as the apocryphal Book of Jasher , dating the worldwide flood to 2349 BC and the birth of Terah in 2127 BC. The date of 4000 BC as the creation of Adam was at least partially influenced by the widely held belief that the Earth was approximately 5600 years old (2000 from Adam to Abraham, 2000 from Abraham to the birth of Christ , and 1600 years from Christ to Ussher), corresponding to

15125-478: Was instructed to point the rod in a consistent manner and not allow the end to move while discussing a specific date to avoid confusing the students. Students were to be encouraged to develop their own "internal" chronographer of key dates to aid memory. Willard was particularly fond of the Chronographer of American History and it featured in all subsequent editions of the History of the United States and she updated

15250-427: Was on history, she was one of the first to propose that American history be taught as a distinct subject from general history, arguing that it was critical to the survival of the young nation. By the 1820s the teaching of American history had been mandated in all publicly funded schools in five states. Interest in the subject grew over the next decades and Willard would go on to sell over a million history textbooks by

15375-406: Was poorly understood at the time). Willard referred to the sky above the tree, where she placed her timeline scale, as the "circle of time". The ends of the branches touch this timeline to mark key dates. Willard included instructions to teachers with her Chronographer of American History . They were told to point to dates with a 4 feet (1.2 m) long, black-tipped "pointing rod". The teacher

15500-425: Was the relationship linking naos and peristasis . In the original temples, this would have been subject entirely to practical necessities, and always based on axial links between naos walls and columns, but the introduction of stone architecture broke that connection. Nevertheless, it did survive throughout Ionic architecture. In Doric temples, however, the wooden roof construction, originally placed behind

15625-506: Was the subject of considerable theological debate in Ussher's time. Many scholars proposed it had taken place in the spring, the start of the Babylonian, Chaldean and other cultures' chronologies. Others, including Ussher, thought it more likely that it had occurred in the autumn , largely because that season marked the beginning of the Jewish year. Ussher further narrowed down the date by using

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