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58-604: José María González was from Chimayó and replaced unpopular Mexican governor Albino Pérez before his replacement by Montoya. Both González and Pérez were killed during the rebellion, but Montoya would survive to lead the Taos Revolt ten years later. The revolt underlined how increased isolation from Mexico City combined with "Mexico's declarations of political equality for all ethnic groups" increased Pueblo and Hispano cooperation in Mexican New Mexico—"the two groups ousted

116-621: A genízara servant whose father was a Pueblo and whose mother was Apache- Quivira ( Wichita ). The term became more widely used after 1692 when the Spanish regained control of New Mexico after the Pueblo revolt . The word genízaro also had a military meaning in New Mexico. Genízaro militia and scouts were important in defending New Mexico from raiding Comanche, Apache, and Navajo warriors. The genízaros were organized formally in 1808 into

174-399: A genízaro Troop, commanded by a corporal from their ranks and with a supply system dedicated to them. Genízaros were typically indigenous people who had been captured and enslaved by other Indian tribes and whom Franciscan monks were legally obligated to rescue by paying a ransom. The former slaves were made indentured servants to repay such debt, typically for some years. During

232-464: A Cantón force of reportedly 3000 men on Santa Fe. Though Armijo had only about 1,000 soldiers, they were much better trained and equipped than the rebels, and Armijo negotiated a peace treaty that was signed September 21. The rebels surrendered Juan José Esquibel and three other men from Santa Cruz to be indicted, but Gonzales was released and the other rebels received amnesty (Lecompte 1985, pp. 55–58). (Montoya would later be executed for his part in

290-640: A civil servant named Ramón Abreu as prefect when others thought they were better candidates; Pérez's failure to rein in customs officials who defrauded American traders on the Santa Fe Trail , some of whom lived in Taos in Northern New Mexico ; and the inadequate food and bad conditions endured by men forced to serve in the militia against the Navajo and Apache . Some may also have resented his adultery (he openly had

348-417: A genízaro had the obligation to introduce them to Christianity and Spanish customs. Genízaros worked as indentured servants , shepherds, and laborers. They occupied the lowest rung of status-conscious Spanish society in New Mexico but slowly assimilated and intermarried into Spanish and later Mexican (1821-1846) and American (1846-present day) society. The descendants of genízaros are also called genízaros and

406-547: A new government and elected as governor José González , a genízaro of Taos Pueblo and Pawnee ancestry. The revolt was often referred to as the Chimayoso Revolt , after the community of Chimayó in northern New Mexico, which was home to José Ángel González and many other mixed-blood indigenous peoples. The Chimayoso revolt was one of many actions against the Mexican government by indigenous groups during this period, including

464-575: A prominent central motif. The central motif is usually diamond or hourglass shaped and very elaborate. Because of how Anglo-Americans were interested in native American designs, products from Chimayo were marketed as Indian goods up until the early 1940s. Chimayo is particularly known for the weaving traditions of the Ortega and Trujillo families, who have been weaving in the Spanish Colonial tradition for many generations and operate weaving businesses near

522-428: A ransomed Native American (a genízaro ), often a child, was usually 10 to 20 years of service to the person paying the ransom. Young women were especially prized. The experience of most ransomed Native Americans was "bondage on a continuum that ranged from near slavery to familial incorporation, but few shed the stigma of servility". Descendants of genízaros typically were also considered genízaros . But, as in

580-464: A relationship with his housekeeper, his wife being in Mexico City ) and his wealth and luxurious possessions, as most New Mexicans were poor. Opposition to Pérez increased, with his opponents circulating rumors of enormous taxes. The Departmental Assembly's list of three nominees for the next gubernatorial term did not include him. Opposition culminated in the summer of 1837, with the spark that set off

638-484: A specific period, after which they earned freedom. They were even encouraged to become landowners through Spanish government land grants or join the regional militia. In 1810, there was a growing movement to abolish slavery during Mexican independence , and the practice of slavery began to lose favor in the Spanish Empire . The support for abolishing slavery increased after José María Morelos officially included it in

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696-513: A young age and worked as domestic servants and sheepherders. Throughout the Spanish and Mexican period, Genízaros settled in several New Mexican villages such as Belén, Tomé, Valencia, Carnuel , Los Lentes, Socorro, and San Miguel del Vado . Genízaros also lived in Albuquerque, Atrisco, Santa Fe, Chimayó, Taos, Abiquiú , and Las Vegas, NM . By the mid-18th century, the Comanche dominated

754-545: Is Española Valley High School . It had two small private schools until 2002, when the John Hyson Memorial School Presbyterian, pre-kindergarten to sixth grade; closed, and the Camino de Paz School and Farm (Montessori, 7th to 12th grade) was suspended as of the 2023–24 school year. Chimayo is served by North Central Regional Transit District buses. Genizaro Genízaros (or Genizaros )

812-585: Is a Spanish word borrowed from the Italian word giannizzero , which was adopted from the Ottoman Turkish word yeniçeri . This Turkish word referred to slaves who were trained as soldiers for the Ottoman Empire . (The Turkish word was also adopted into English as " janissary "). The first known use of the word genízaro in New Mexico was in the early 1660s when a politician was accused of mistreating

870-684: The Sentimientos de la Nación of 1813. It became law after the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America of the First Mexican Republic during the era of the centralist Republic . In 1837, Genízaros joined other citizen-soldiers of New Mexico during the Chimayó Rebellion to fight for New Mexico's secession from the centralist Republic of Mexico. The rebellion

928-539: The Archdiocese of Santa Fe in 1929. The chapel is managed by the Archdiocese as a Catholic church. For its reputation as a healing site (believers claim that dirt from a back room of the church can heal physical and spiritual ills), it has become known as the "Lourdes of America," and attracts close to 300,000 visitors a year, including up to 30,000 during Holy Week (the week prior to Easter ). It has been called "no doubt

986-792: The Plains tribes who raided and enslaved members of tribes allied with the Spaniards, such as the Apaches. In 2007, genízaros and their contemporary descendants were recognized as indigenous people by the New Mexico Legislature . During the early 21st century, they comprised much of the population of the South Valley of Albuquerque and significant portions of the population of northern New Mexico , including Española , Taos , Santa Fe , Las Vegas , and southern Colorado . The term genízaro

1044-607: The Taos Rebellion .) In October, the rebellion flared up yet again in Las Truchas , east of Santa Cruz. Armijo ordered the execution of Esquibel and the three other prisoners, but to Armijo's anger, his subordinates postponed the execution. Armijo spent the next few months raising funds to feed and pay his soldiers, who were on the point of mutiny. In January 1838, federal troops from Zacatecas and Chihuahua arrived in response to Armijo's request, bringing his official appointment to

1102-533: The census of 2000, there were 2,924 people, 1,150 households, and 808 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 535.9 inhabitants per square mile (206.9/km ). There were 1,323 housing units at an average density of 242.5 per square mile (93.6/km ). The racial makeup of the CDP was 48.6% White , 0.1% African American , 0.7% Native American , 0.01% Asian , 44.8% from other races , and 5.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 90.8% of

1160-451: The Indians are not well treated in this servitude, no thought being given to the hardships of their captivity, and still less to the fact that they are neophytes, and should be cared for and treated with kindness. For this reason many desert and become apostates. The settlements of Tomé and Belén, just south of Albuquerque , were described by Juan Agustín Morfi as follows in 1778: "In all

1218-683: The June 2009 publication, Chimayo Chile: A Living History of Faith, Culture, and Art, by Marie Pilar Campos of the Native Hispanic Institute. Chimayo is sited in a valley within the Sangre de Cristo Mountains 24 miles (38.4 km) north of Santa Fe . Chimayo is approximately 6075 ft above sea level. According to the United States Census Bureau , the CDP has a total area of 5.5 square miles (14.1 km ), all land. As of

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1276-500: The Laws of the Indies. The newly independent Mexican government proclaimed social equality for all ethnic groups, and the genízaros were officially considered equals to their vecino (villagers of mainly mixed racial backgrounds) and Pueblo neighbors. During this period, the term genízaro was officially discontinued for church and government documents. In practice, however, Mexico

1334-515: The Mexican authorities, explaining the situation, and then marched to Santa Fe. He met little resistance; indeed Gonzales, who had gone to Taos to visit his family, was arrested in Santa Fe on September 11, before Armijo's arrival on the 14th. While in Santa Fe, Armijo wrote to Mexico again, stating what he had done and asking for troops to complete his victory and re-establish peace (Lecompte 1985, pages 50–53). A former mayor of Taos, Pablo Montoya , led

1392-530: The Mexican government drafted a constitution that tightened administration and tax-collection and imposed property qualifications on political participation. New Mexicans assumed that Pérez would attempt to levy the taxes and completely restructure the regional political system in accordance with the new constitution. Other grievances included Pérez's reinstatement of Francisco Sarracino , a former governor who had been suspended for fraud from his position as subcomisario (a customs official); Pérez's appointment of

1450-558: The Mexicans, they responded: "over half the tribe." Most of the captives never returned to the Navajo nation but remained as the lower classes in the Hispanic villages. Members of different tribes intermarried in these communities. Presently, genízaros descendants comprise much of the population of Atrisco , Pajarito , and Barelas in the South Valley of Albuquerque, and significant portions of

1508-581: The Native Hispanic Institute's founder Marie Pilar Campos authored the Chimayo Chile Project to replenish the 300-year-old native seed stock and revive the industry. The Chimayo Chile Project began planting in the spring of 2005, which is the foundation of its ongoing seed-distribution services to local farmers. The project's job development operations were funded by the United States Office of Community Services from 2005 through 2008. As part of

1566-626: The Plaza del Cerro (plaza by the hill). The cluster of plazas called Chimayo lies near Santa Cruz , approximately 25 miles north of Santa Fe . The population was 3,177 at the 2010 census . The Potrero plaza of Chimayo is known internationally for a Catholic chapel, the Santuario de Nuestro Señor de Esquipulas, commonly known as El Santuario de Chimayó . A private individual built it by 1816 so that local people could worship Jesus as depicted at Esquipulas ; preservationists bought it and handed it over to

1624-528: The Plaza del Cerro and in the placita of Centinela. Their traditional craft is but one of several still practiced in the region, including tin smithing, wood carving, and making religious paintings. These activities, along with the local architecture and the landscape of irrigated fields, create a historic ambiance that attracts much tourism. Chimayo figures prominently in Now Eleanor's Idea , an opera by Robert Ashley . Ashley describes Chimayo in his foreword to

1682-456: The Spanish settlements and the Spanish authorities. The following description from the 1740s of the Tome-Valencia settlements by a Spanish religious official, Fray Menchero, describes genízaros and their settlement on land grants: "This is a new settlement, composed of various nations [tribes], who are kept in peace, union, and charity by the special providence of God and the efforts of

1740-466: The Spanish towns of New Mexico there exists a class of Indians called genízaros. These are made up of captive Comanches, Apaches, etc. who were taken as youngsters and raised among us, and who have married in the province ... They are forced to live among the Spaniards, without lands or other means to subsist except the bow and arrow which serves them when they go into the back country to hunt deer for food ... They are fine soldiers, very warlike ... Expecting

1798-452: The Spanish. Based on a policy established by the Governors of New Mexico, they were settled in land grants on the periphery of Spanish settlements. These settlements became buffer communities for larger Spanish towns in case of an attack by enemy tribes surrounding the province. The genízaros in the frontier communities acted as mediators between the often-hostile Indian tribes surrounding

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1856-634: The United States Army under the command of General Stephen W. Kearny in 1846. Chimayo, New Mexico Chimayo is a census-designated place (CDP) in Rio Arriba and Santa Fe counties in the U.S. state of New Mexico . The name is derived from a Tewa name for a local landmark, the hill of Tsi Mayoh. The town is unincorporated and includes many neighborhoods, called plazas or placitas, each with its own name, including El Potrero de Chimayó (the plaza near Chimayo's communal pasture ) and

1914-572: The Veracruz dragoons) prevailed in the battle (Lecompte 1985, pp. 68–71; Salpointe 1898, p. 168). Gonzales fled to Santa Cruz where, by Armijo's order, he was executed in the public square. Armijo was to remain Governor of New Mexico through the Texan Santa Fe Expedition until 1844. He became Governor again in 1845 until he withdrew without a fight while New Mexico was taken over by

1972-402: The average family size was 3.05. In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 25.3% under the age of 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 23.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.9 males. The median income for a household in the CDP

2030-452: The bribe, had him put in jail in irons. At the end of July a mob freed Esquibel, and he organized a rebellion. On August 1, rebels from the northern New Mexican communities gathered at Santa Cruz de la Cañada (near Chimayó ) with Indians from the surrounding pueblos . They called themselves the Cantón (neighborhood or district). On August 3, their twelve leaders, including Esquibel, issued

2088-551: The capital, Pérez attempted to flee the city by night, but a group of Santo Domingo Indians intercepted and killed him. The rebels decapitated Pérez and returned his head to Santa Fe for public display. Secretary of the Department Jesús María Alarid, former interim governor Santiago Abreú (one of Ramón's brothers), and approximately 20 officials from the Pérez government were also killed, some by mutilation. That same day,

2146-407: The case of the rest of colonial Mexico, this classification was not an absolute impediment to social mobility. The Comanche and other tribes brought their captives to trade fairs and offered them for sale. In 1770, a female captive from 12 to 20 years old sold for two good horses and some small items; a male was worth only one-half as much. Many of the genízaros complained of mistreatment by

2204-446: The following declaration: When Pérez heard of the rebellion, he attempted to raise a militia of volunteers, but his call did not meet with an encouraging answer. On August 9, Pérez started for Santa Cruz with the troops at his command, meeting the rebels near San Ildefonso . Most of Pérez's men promptly abandoned him and joined the rebels. Pérez retreated to Santa Fe with the few men who remained loyal to him. Unable to find security in

2262-624: The genízaros to work for daily wages is a folly because of the abuses they have experienced, especially from the alcaldes mayores in the past ... In two places, Belen and Tome, some sixty families of genizaros have congregated." According to DNA studies, Hispanos of New Mexico have significant proportions of Amerindian genes (between 30 and 40% of the Nuevomexicano genome ) due to the interbreeding between Spanish and genízaros. Most genízaros were Navajo , Pawnee , Apache , Kiowa Apache , Ute , Comanche, and Paiute , who had been purchased at

2320-551: The governor and briefly established an Independent state—the Cantón—with an Indian serving as its governor. Governor Pérez had arrived from central Mexico in 1835. The Pérez administration was opposed by the people and especially by the inhabitants of the northern part of the territory, who resented the "outsider" forced upon them by President Santa Anna . Their dissatisfaction was exacerbated when, following Santa Anna's defeat in Texas ,

2378-508: The governorship (Lecompte 1985, pp. 65–68). On January 23, Armijo sent an ultimatum to the rebels in Truchas. The following day, when they did not surrender, he had his four prisoners executed. On the 27th he marched toward Santa Cruz, where Gonzales and Antonio Vigil of Truchas were gathering their forces to return to Santa Fe. The two armies met between Santa Cruz and Pojoaque , and Armijo's forces (commanded by Lt. Col. Cayetano Justiniani of

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2436-409: The late 1700s and early 1800s, genízaros comprised a significant proportion of the population of what is now the southwest United States. They founded a number of localities, such as Belén, Tomé, Valencia, Carnué, Los Lentes, Las Trampas, Socorro and San Miguel del Vado. There were also genízaros in towns such as Albuquerque, Atrisco, Santa Fe, Chimayó, Taos, Abiquiú and Las Vegas. The debt of

2494-454: The libretto as "the spiritual center of the lowrider world...Now Eleanor conceives of a television documentary program to study the exotic lowrider community...in the car shops" of Chimayo. Act II, Scene 2 is a recorded interview with Chimayo residents LowLow and Joan Medina. The town is also known for its heirloom chile cultivar , the Chimayo pepper ( Capsicum annuum 'Chimayo'). In 2003

2552-469: The missionaries,... the Indians are of the various nations that have been taken captive by the Comanche Apaches , a nation so bellicose and so brave that it dominates all those of the interior country...They sell people of all these nations to the Spaniards of the kingdom, by whom they are held in servitude, the adults being instructed by the fathers and the children baptized . It sometimes happens that

2610-472: The most important Catholic pilgrimage center in the United States." The sanctuary was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970. Chimayo has long been an important site for the Hispanic weaving traditions of northern New Mexico, and an important style of weaving which developed between 1920 and 1940 is named after the town. The Chimayó style is characterized by well-developed transverse bands and

2668-543: The population of Las Vegas in Eastern New Mexico. In 1821, Mexico became independent of Spain, and New Mexico became a territory within the First Mexican Empire . The Treaty of Córdoba , enacted by Mexico, decreed that indigenous tribes within its borders were citizens of Mexico. During Spanish rule, genízaros and Pueblo natives were often treated as second-class citizens, although they were protected by

2726-408: The population. There were 1,150 households, out of which 34.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.3% were married couples living together, 15.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.7% were non-families. 26.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and

2784-602: The project's work with the state to revive the industry, two joint memorials have passed the New Mexico State Legislature. The Chimayo Chile Project incorporated the local farmers, Chimayo Chile Farmers, Inc. Chimayo Chile Farmers, Inc. applied for the certification mark "Chimayo" with the USPTO in 2006 and was granted registration in 2009. The 2008 New Mexico State Legislature, via New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs, appropriated preservation support that resulted in

2842-465: The rebellion having to do with the alcalde (mayor) of Santa Cruz de la Cañada , Juan José Esquibel. Esquibel had accepted a bribe from a relative to release him from jail when charged with a "grave crime" and had defied Pérez's order to pay a fine and return his relative to jail. Then Esquibel supported two merchants against a man who had documentation that they owed him money. Pérez's appointee as prefect, Ramón Abreu, suspended Esquibel and on learning of

2900-516: The rebels entered the capital and placed José Gonzales, a Genizaro (of Taos Pueblo and Pawnee ancestry) from Chimayo, in possession of the palace and as governor of the territory. Initially the rebel government was widely popular in the Department, but it soon made enemies by committing atrocities in gaining power and confiscating the massacre victims' property (at the expense of not only their heirs but also their creditors). The ruling junta popular

2958-468: The town of Tomé in southern New Mexico, the priest, Francisco Antonio de Madariaga, began agitating for a counterrevolution. On September 8, he and other "citizens who love their country" adopted the "Plan of Tomé", which named former governor Manuel Armijo to command their force. The 600-man army detachment of Santa Fe, which Gonzales had disbanded, reorganized and marched south to join Armijo. Armijo wrote to

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3016-477: The weaker tribes in the eastern plains and sold children that they kidnapped from these tribes to the Spanish villagers. By the Mexican and early American period (1821–1880), almost all genízaros were of Navajo ancestry. During negotiations with the United States military, Navajo spokesmen raised the issue of Navajos being held as servants in Spanish/Mexican households. When asked how many Navajos were among

3074-453: The word has become a term of pride for the descendants of the original Indian captives and slaves. In 1793, genízaros were estimated to have comprised up to one-third of the 29,041 people living under Spanish rule in New Mexico. From 1543, New Spain implemented a ban on indigenous slavery, except for those captured during wartime. The restrictions of slavery also meant that genízaros were to be convicted and sentenced to servitude for

3132-525: Was $ 31,474, and the median income for a family was $ 35,938. Males had a median income of $ 28,009 versus $ 24,357 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $ 17,023. About 14.1% of families and 19.0% of the population were below the poverty line , including 27.4% of those under age 18 and 28.6% of those age 65 or over. Chimayo is in Española Public Schools . It has an elementary school, Chimayo Elementary. The comprehensive public high school

3190-535: Was contentious and indecisive, its minutes full of crossed-out sections. Meanwhile, in Santa Cruz, the Cantón did not dissolve, instead continuing to imprison people and threaten them with death, outside the control of Gonzales's government (Lecompte 1985, pp. 40–46). In Taos, unrest broke out against the Catholic Church and its leader there, Padre Martínez , in early September (Lecompte 1985, pages 47–48). In

3248-522: Was far from egalitarian. Many genízaros remained culturally and economically marginal in New Mexican society. Economic and social conditions during the Mexican period were so bad that in 1837, the Pueblo, genízaros , coyotes , and vecinos revolted against the Mexican government. Rebels beheaded Albino Perez (the Governor of New Mexico) and killed all of the Mexican troops in Santa Fe. They formed

3306-500: Was led by José Gonzales, who was a genízaro . Genízaros settled in several New Mexican villages, such as Belén , Tomé , Valencia , Carnuel , Los Lentes, Las Trampas , Socorro , and San Miguel del Vado . Genízaros also lived in Albuquerque , Bernalillo , Atrisco, Santa Fe , Chimayó , Taos , Abiquiú , and Las Vegas, NM . Most genízaros were, or their ancestors had been, slaves of Indian tribes, particularly

3364-462: Was the name for detribalized Native Americans (Indians) from the 17th to 19th century in the Spanish colony of New Mexico and neighboring regions of the American southwest. Genízaros were usually women and children who had been captured in war by the Spanish or purchased from Indian tribes who had held them captive as slaves. To circumvent Spanish laws forbidding slavery, the purchaser (or rescuer) of

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