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105-601: The Chimakum , also spelled Chemakum and Chimacum Native American people (known to themselves as Aqokúlo and sometimes called the Port Townsend Indians ), were a group of Native Americans who lived in the northeastern portion of the Olympic Peninsula in Washington state , between Hood Canal and Discovery Bay until their virtual extinction in 1902. Their primary settlements were on Port Townsend Bay , on
210-547: A Cherokee ancestor on the Dawes Rolls, although all Cherokee Freedmen and their descendants had been members since 1866. As of 2004, various Native Americans are wary of attempts by others to gain control of their reservation lands for natural resources, such as coal and uranium in the West. The State of Maine is the only State House Legislature that allows Representatives from Indian Tribes. The three nonvoting members represent
315-465: A body of law, Jim Crow institutionalized economic, educational, and social disadvantages for Native Americans, and other people of color living in the south. Native American identity was especially targeted by a system that only wanted to recognize white or colored, and the government began to question the legitimacy of some tribes because they had intermarried with African Americans. Native Americans were also discriminated and discouraged from voting in
420-740: A ceremonial one. These skeletal remains are theoretically from the Chimakum tribe, although this is unproven at present. Chimakum Creek [ d ] and Chimacum, Washington , both located in the Chimacum Valley [ d ] , are all named after the Chimakum. There is also a Washington State Ferry , the M/V Chimacum . Native Americans in the United States Native Americans (also called American Indians , First Americans , or Indigenous Americans ) are
525-485: A dozer doing some work around the Chimacum Creek area, and after proper excavation by Lewis Agnew, a retired archaeologist recently relocated to Port Townsend, two Indian skeletal remains were unearthed with stone arrows still lodged in their bones from sometime prior to the road being constructed through that area in 1860. The Indian skeletons were of individuals killed violently and left for an earthen burial rather than
630-490: A federal Indian trust relationship are based. Cultural activism since the late 1960s has increased the participation of Indigenous peoples in American politics. It has also led to expanded efforts to teach and preserve Indigenous languages for younger generations, and to establish a more robust cultural infrastructure: Native Americans have founded independent newspapers and online media outlets, including First Nations Experience ,
735-653: A great flood through a passageway in the Olympic Mountains and deposited on the other side of the Olympic Peninsula. The last remaining floods of this region were thought to be 3000 years ago. Around 1789, there were about 400 Chimacum Indians living on the Quimper Peninsula and along Hood Canal, about 2000 Clallams spread in 16 villages from Discovery to Clallam Bay, another 2000 Makahs and Ozettes at Neah Bay and west of Lake Ozette, and another 500 Quileutes to
840-467: A large degree of tribal sovereignty . For this reason, many Native American reservations are still independent of state law and the actions of tribal citizens on these reservations are subject only to tribal courts and federal law. The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted US citizenship to all Native Americans born in the US who had not yet obtained it. This emptied the "Indians not taxed" category established by
945-724: A more collective basis than the culture which Europeans were familiar with. Most Indigenous American tribes treated their hunting grounds and agricultural lands as land that could be used by their entire tribe. Europeans had developed concepts of individual property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. The differences in cultures, as well as the shifting alliances among different nations during periods of warfare, caused extensive political tension, ethnic violence, and social disruption. Native Americans suffered high fatality rates from contact with European diseases that were new to them, and to which they had not acquired immunity . Smallpox epidemics are thought to have caused
1050-468: A resolution recommending that the federal and legislative branches of the U.S. government terminate tribal governments. In 2007, a group of Democratic Party congressmen and congresswomen introduced a bill in the U.S. House of Representatives to terminate Federal recognition of the Cherokee Nation . This was related to their voting to exclude Cherokee Freedmen as members of the tribe unless they had
1155-502: A tribal member named Louise as his source for over 1200 original Chimakum words and dialects. Louise, a dual speaker of both Clallam and Chimakum, was able to verbally recite words for Boas to document into his extensive logging of local Native American Languages in the Pacific Northwest Region. According to Quileute tradition, the Chimakum were a remnant of a Quileute band. The Chimakum had been carried away in their canoes by
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#17328378932181260-400: A variety of diseases, but in many cases this happened long after Europeans first arrived. When severe epidemics did hit, it was often less because Native bodies lack immunity than because European colonialism disrupted Native Communities and damaged their resources, making them more vulnerable to pathogens." After the thirteen British colonies revolted against Great Britain and established
1365-537: Is condescending for such lands to be considered "held in trust" and regulated in any fashion by any entity other than their own tribes. Some tribal groups have been unable to document the cultural continuity required for federal recognition. To achieve federal recognition and its benefits, tribes must prove continuous existence since 1900. The federal government has maintained this requirement, in part because through participation on councils and committees, federally recognized tribes have been adamant about groups' satisfying
1470-595: Is known as the " Kelp Highway ". The early inhabitants by land were classified as Paleo-Indians , who spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into numerous culturally distinct nations. Major Paleo-Indian cultures included the Clovis and Folsom traditions , identified through unique spear points and large-game hunting methods, especially during the Lithic stage . Around 8000 BCE, as the climate stabilized, new cultural periods like
1575-492: Is more remembered by the Suquamish for his strategic vision and leadership, than his wealth and strength, and his ability to bring together an alliance to achieve "what none could have accomplished alone". Kitsap's attempts to ally with white settlers would set a precedent for the politics of the Suquamish. Another leader of the Suquamish, Challacum, made good relations with the settlers, likely influenced by Kitsap's attempts. As
1680-729: Is the largest tribe if only full-blood individuals are counted; the Navajo are the tribe with the highest proportion of full-blood individuals, 86.3%. The Cherokee have a different history; it is the largest tribe, with 819,000 individuals, and it has 284,000 full-blood individuals. As of 2012, 70% of Native Americans live in urban areas, up from 45% in 1970 and 8% in 1940. Urban areas with significant Native American populations include Minneapolis, Denver, Phoenix, Tucson, Chicago, Oklahoma City, Houston, New York City, and Los Angeles. Many live in poverty. Racism, unemployment, drugs and gangs are common problems which Indian social service organizations such as
1785-543: The American Indian Movement (AIM) drawing attention to Indigenous rights. Landmark legislation like the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 recognized tribal autonomy, leading to the establishment of Native-run schools and economic initiatives. Tribal sovereignty has continued to evolve, with legal victories and federal acknowledgments supporting cultural revitalization. By
1890-533: The Archaic stage arose, during which hunter-gatherer communities developed complex societies across North America. The Mound Builders created large earthworks, such as at Watson Brake and Poverty Point , which date to 3500 BCE and 2200 BCE, respectively, indicating early social and organizational complexity. By 1000 BCE, Native societies in the Woodland period developed advanced social structures and trade networks, with
1995-511: The Census Bureau until 1930: American Indians and Alaska Natives as percentage of the total population between 1880 and 2020: Absolute numbers of American Indians and Alaska Natives between 1880 and 2020 (since 1890 according to the Census Bureau ): 78% of Native Americans live outside a reservation. Full-blood individuals are more likely to live on a reservation than mixed-blood individuals. The Navajo , with 286,000 full-blood individuals,
2100-455: The Cowlitz people , holding competitions to raise the massive logs into place. In total, the project took four years. Kitsap lived in a central section of the longhouse, painted red and black. His "apartment" was flanked by two carved images: one of a man with muskets and another of a man with a top hat and frock coat , possibly deriving from his memories of Vancouver's crew. Above the longhouse
2205-636: The Dawes Act , which undermined communal landholding. A justification for the policy of conquest and subjugation of the Indigenous people emanated from the stereotyped perceptions of Native Americans as "merciless Indian savages" (as described in the United States Declaration of Independence ). Sam Wolfson in The Guardian writes, "The declaration's passage has often been cited as an encapsulation of
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#17328378932182310-761: The Hopewell tradition connecting the Eastern Woodlands to the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico . This period led to the Mississippian culture , with large urban centers like Cahokia —a city with complex mounds and a population exceeding 20,000 by 1250 CE. From the 15th century onward, European contact drastically reshaped the Americas. Explorers and settlers introduced diseases, causing massive Indigenous population declines, and engaged in violent conflicts with Native groups. By
2415-667: The Indigenous peoples of the United States , particularly of the lower 48 states and Alaska . They may also include any Americans whose origins lie in any of the indigenous peoples of North or South America. The United States Census Bureau publishes data about "American Indians and Alaska Natives ", whom it defines as anyone "having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America ... and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment". The census does not, however, enumerate "Native Americans" as such, noting that
2520-807: The Indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations , Inuit and Métis ( FNIM ). The history of Native Americans in the United States began before the founding of the U.S., tens of thousands of years ago with the settlement of the Americas by the Paleo-Indians . The Eurasian migration to the Americas occurred over millennia via Beringia , a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska , as early humans spread southward and eastward, forming distinct cultures and societies. Archaeological evidence suggests these migrations began 60,000 years ago and continued until around 12,000 years ago. Some may have arrived even before this time fishing in kayaks along what
2625-523: The Kitsap Peninsula are named for him. Kitsap was born to a Skopamish ( Lushootseed : sxʷq̓ʷupabš ) man of Yakama ancestry, who had married into the Suquamish, giving him strong ties to the Green River people. Kitsap was related to Schweabe, the father of Seattle . Kitsap lived in a longhouse on Bainbridge Island , located west of Restoration Point on Rich Passage . The name Kitsap
2730-613: The Mississippi River , in order to accommodate continued European American expansion. This resulted in what amounted to the ethnic cleansing or genocide of many tribes, who were subjected to brutal forced marches . The most infamous of these came to be known as the Trail of Tears . Contemporary Native Americans have a unique relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes, or bands that have sovereignty and treaty rights upon which federal Indian law and
2835-599: The Quimper Peninsula , and Port Ludlow Bay to the south. Today, Chimakum people are enrolled in three federally recognized tribes : the Skokomish , Jamestown S'Klallam , and Port Gamble S'Klallam tribes, although lineage is not traceable at present. The Chimakum population was estimated at 400 in 1780 and 90 in 1855. The Census of 1910 enumerated just three, according to the census of Franz Boas. The three remaining tribe members spoke only broken Chimakum language. In
2940-602: The Senate Indian Affairs Committee endorsed a bill that would grant federal recognition to tribes in Virginia. As of 2000 , the largest groups in the United States by population were Navajo , Cherokee , Choctaw , Sioux , Chippewa , Apache , Blackfeet , Iroquois , and Pueblo . In 2000, eight of ten Americans with Native American ancestry were of mixed ancestry. It is estimated that by 2100 that figure will rise to nine out of ten. The civil rights movement
3045-696: The United States Constitution , allowed Natives to vote in elections, and extended the Fourteenth Amendment protections granted to people "subject to the jurisdiction" of the United States. However, some states continued to deny Native Americans voting rights for decades. Titles II through VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 comprise the Indian Civil Rights Act, which applies to Native American tribes and makes many but not all of
3150-565: The first written accounts of the contact were provided by Europeans . Ethnographers classify the Indigenous peoples of North America into ten geographical regions which are inhabited by groups of people who share certain cultural traits, called cultural areas. The ten cultural areas are: At the time of the first contact, the Indigenous cultures were different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some Northeastern and Southwestern cultures, in particular, were matrilineal and they were organized and operated on
3255-530: The "old Indian" and chief of the Suquamish who met with a contingent of armed settlers led by one Alexander McLeod. McLeod was sent by the Hudson Bay Company (HBC) to retaliate against the S'Klallam for raiding HBC traders. The Suquamish offered to come with them, seeking to become allies with the HBC. Although the S'Klallam attempted to negotiate, the HBC ship Cadboro blasted the S'Klallam party sent to parley, and
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3360-522: The 19th century, westward U.S. expansion, rationalized by Manifest destiny , pressured tribes into forced relocations like the Trail of Tears , which decimated communities and redefined Native territories. Despite resistance in events like the Sioux Uprising and Battle of Little Bighorn , Native American lands continued to be reduced through policies like the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and later
3465-554: The 19th century. Kitsap was the orchestrator of a region-wide coalition that sought to end the constant slave raids perpetrated by the Cowichan . His wealth and prestige allowed him to build the Old Man House , one of the most famous longhouses on Puget Sound . Kitsap, who met one of the first European expeditions into Puget Sound, was quick to ally with European traders, and set a precedent for Suquamish attitudes toward white settlers in
3570-513: The 21st century, Native Americans had achieved increased control over tribal lands and resources, although many communities continue to grapple with the legacy of displacement and economic challenges. Urban migration has also grown, with over 70% of Native Americans residing in cities by 2012, navigating issues of cultural preservation and discrimination. Continuing legal and social efforts address these concerns, building on centuries of resilience and adaptation that characterize Indigenous history across
3675-455: The 48 states and Alaska. Native American population rebounded sharply from 1950, when they numbered 377,273; it reached 551,669 in 1960, 827,268 in 1970, with an annual growth rate of 5%, four times the national average. Total spending on Native Americans averaged $ 38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to a low of $ 23 million in 1933, and returning to $ 38 million in 1940. The Office of Indian Affairs counted more American Indians than
3780-643: The Americas , including Mesoamerican peoples such as the Maya , as well as Canadian and South American natives . In 2022, 634,503 Indigenous people in the United States identified with Central American Indigenous groups, 875,183 identified with the Indigenous people of Mexico , and 47,518 identified with Canadian First Nations . Of the 3.2 million Americans who identified as American Indian or Alaska Native alone in 2022, around 45% are of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, with this number growing as increasing numbers of Indigenous people from Latin American countries immigrate to
3885-399: The Americas. According to the 2020 census, the U.S. population was 331.4 million. Of this, 3.7 million people, or 1.1 percent, reported American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry alone. In addition, 5.9 million people (1.8 percent), reported American Indian or Alaska Native in combination with one or more other races. The definition of American Indian or Alaska Native used in the 2010 census
3990-554: The Chimakum people, such as the Twana word čə́bqəb [t͡ʃə́bqəb] (earlier [t͡ʃə́mqəm] ). In 1890 anthropologist Franz Boas found only three speakers of the Chemakum language, and they spoke it imperfectly. The Census of 1910 reflects only three speakers of broken Chemakum dialect. Language was considered to be a primary communication barrier between the tribes of the Peninsula. Each tribe
4095-670: The Chimakums were nearly extinct at the time of the Point No Point Treaty and that those few Chimakums left had been absorbed into the Klallam tribe. The Klallams had occupied the former Chimakum lands and claimed them as their own. In 1957 the commission recognized the Klallam claim of possession of the Chimakum lands at the time of the treaty and granted compensation of over $ 400,000. In 1962, skeletal remains of slain Indians were discovered by
4200-694: The Cowichan and Puget Sound groups began strengthening their ties. Seattle's first wife was Cowichan, and his daughter, Angeline , married a half-Cowichan man. After the war, the Suquamish were strengthened in their confidence. Thirty Suquamish and a leader, likely Kitsap, visited the second James McMillan expedition on July 6, 1827, who were camping at Point Jefferson ( Lushootseed : sqʷayupšəd ). The Suquamish party brought trade goods, although McMillan felt threatened by their presence, worried that their newfound confidence may have led them to kill them and take their belongings. On June 29, 1829, Kitsap may have been
4305-595: The Cowichans of Vancouver Island , and envisioned a coalition stretching from the Columbia River to Puget Sound , with the Old Man House at the center. His relative, Schweabe, led efforts to produce canoes, while Schweabe's son, Seattle, may have intimidated other tribes into joining the coalition by taking hostages. The first attack came around 1825, according to the account of William Fraser Tolmie , with Kitsap and
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4410-538: The Ghost Dance properly, the European American colonists would vanish, the bison would return, and the living and the dead would be reunited in an Eden ic world. On December 29 at Wounded Knee, gunfire erupted, and U.S. soldiers killed up to 300 Indians, mostly old men, women, and children. Days after the massacre, the author L. Frank Baum wrote: The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon
4515-511: The Indians were destined to vanish under the pressure of white civilization, stating in an 1886 lecture: I don't go so far as to think that the only good Indians are dead Indians, but I believe nine out of ten are, and I shouldn't like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth. One of the last and most notable events during the Indian wars was the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. In
4620-664: The Klallams to move to the Skokomish Reservation, but few did. In 1936–37 the federal government established Klallam reservations for the Lower Elwha and Port Gamble communities. The Jamestown community was not federally recognized until 1981. The Klallams filed a claim with the Indian Claims Commission for compensation beyond that already received for lands ceded under the Point No Point Treaty. The Klallams claimed that
4725-734: The Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis attempt to address. Below are numbers for U.S. citizens self-identifying to selected tribal groupings, according to the 2010 U.S. census. There are 573 federally recognized tribal governments and 326 Indian reservations in the United States. These tribes possess the right to form their own governments, to enforce laws (both civil and criminal) within their lands, to tax, to establish requirements for membership, to license and regulate activities, to zone, and to exclude persons from tribal territories. Limitations on tribal powers of self-government include
4830-562: The McLeod party burned a longhouse at Port Townsend. According to one Suquamish account, Kitsap tried to force himself upon a daughter of one of his slaves, and when she scratched him, he split her skull open with a rock. When Kitsap later died, some believed the girl's mother had sent killing power at him. By the 1830s, Kitsap had disappeared from the historical record. Historian David Buerge believes that his absence suggests that he had died by this time. According to his grandson, William, Kitsap
4935-484: The Penobscot Nation, Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians, and Passamaquoddy Tribe . These representatives can sponsor any legislation regarding American Indian affairs or co-sponsor any pending State of Maine legislation. Maine is unique regarding Indigenous leadership representation. In the state of Virginia , Native Americans face a unique problem. Until 2017 Virginia previously had no federally recognized tribes but
5040-481: The Point No Point Treaty that they would be given the means to continue fishing and hunting as they always had if they agreed to consolidate with other tribes at the head of the Skokomish river mouth. At the time of the Point No Point Treaty in 1855, the tribe was not viable for relocation to the Skokomish reservation because of the population decline through warfare, attrition to the Klallam tribe, and disease depletion of
5145-502: The Secretary of State, rather than the Bureau of Indian Affairs . The Bureau of Indian Affairs reports on its website that its "responsibility is the administration and management of 55,700,000 acres (225,000 km ) of land held in trust by the United States for American Indians, Indian tribes, and Alaska Natives ". Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights believe that it
5250-580: The Sound, as had Kitsap. Pioneer Theodore O. Williams called Kitsap "the greatest Indian warrior of the last century" and "the most powerful chief that ever the Indians of Puget Sound saw." Alternatively, 19th-century historian Elwood Evans posited that he was most revered for his abilities of healing serious wounds received in battle. Kitsap was also remembered for his violent personality, with his grandson, William Kitsap, stating that it brought him many enemies, eventually resulting in his murder. Despite this, he
5355-405: The Suquamish and Chimakum had reached the point where the Suquamish decided to launch a "war of extermination" as soon as some immediate provocation was offered. At least two pretexts for war soon came to pass and a war party was organized. Because Chief Kitsap , the Suquamish war chief, was either dead or unable to lead, Chief Seattle , for whom the city of Seattle was named, became the leader of
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#17328378932185460-516: The Suquamish fleet, who retreated into the open water. Kitsap and his brother Telibut survived, with Telibut allegedly being shot in the eye with an arrow only to rip it out and keep fighting. Kitsap himself returned arrow fire, picking up fallen arrows after his own ran out. Tales of the battle say that all arrows shot at him passed harmlessly through his hair. The battle lasted from around midday to around six o'clock, ending with only forty Suquamish canoes returning home. The Cowichan returned with "about
5565-670: The Suquamish leading the coalition. Contingents from the Stkamish , Sammamish , Puyallup , Nisqually , Squaxin , Chehalis , Cowlitz, and more joined the Suquamish in the attack in more than two hundred war canoes. On the way north, the coalition raided Snohomish and Skagit encampments for supplies before continuing past the San Juan Islands . After crossing Haro Strait to Vancouver Island, they arrived near Victoria Harbor , where they attacked Cowichan camps, finding all men gone, with only women, children and elderly men. After killing
5670-478: The U.S. federal government's claim to recognize the "sovereignty" of Native American peoples falls short, given that the United States wishes to govern Native American peoples and treat them as subject to U.S. law. Such advocates contend that full respect for Native American sovereignty would require the U.S. government to deal with Native American peoples in the same manner as any other sovereign nation, handling matters related to relations with Native Americans through
5775-405: The US and more Latinos self-identify with indigenous heritage. Of groups Indigenous to the United States, the largest self-reported tribes are Cherokee (1,449,888), Navajo (434,910), Choctaw (295,373), Blackfeet (288,255), Sioux (220,739), and Apache (191,823). 205,954 respondents specified an Alaska Native identity. Native Hawaiians are counted separately from Native Americans by
5880-589: The United States was established, Native American tribes were considered semi-independent nations, because they generally lived in communities which were separate from communities of white settlers . The federal government signed treaties at a government-to-government level until the Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 ended recognition of independent Native nations, and started treating them as "domestic dependent nations" subject to applicable federal laws. This law did preserve rights and privileges, including
5985-453: The United States, President George Washington and Secretary of War Henry Knox conceived the idea of " civilizing " Native Americans in preparation for their assimilation as U.S. citizens. Assimilation, whether it was voluntary, as it was with the Choctaw , or forced , was consistently maintained as a matter of policy by consecutive American administrations. During the 19th century,
6090-407: The census, being classified as Pacific Islanders . According to 2022 estimates, 714,847 Americans reported Native Hawaiian ancestry. The 2010 census permitted respondents to self-identify as being of one or more races. Self-identification dates from the census of 1960; prior to that the race of the respondent was determined by the opinion of the census taker. The option to select more than one race
6195-442: The cliffs. In 1821, Scottish trader James McMillan led an expedition through Puget Sound. Circa December 7–8, they landed at a Suquamish village, seeking to speak with a known chief, possibly Kitsap, but encountered few people. The rest had fled, expecting the party to be a raiding party of Cowichan people , whose slave raids terrorized much of the region in the early 1800s. Kitsap wanted to create an alliance to defend against
6300-447: The colonization process as comprising genocide against Native Americans. As part of a policy of white settler colonialism , European settlers continued to wage war and perpetrated massacres against Native American peoples, removed them from their ancestral lands , and subjected them to one-sided government treaties and discriminatory government policies. Into the 20th century, these policies focused on forced assimilation . When
6405-516: The dehumanizing attitude toward Indigenous Americans that the US was founded on." Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the U.S. throughout the 19th century, through what were called generally Indian Wars . Notable conflicts in this period include the Dakota War , Great Sioux War , Snake War , Colorado War , and Texas-Indian Wars . Expressing the frontier anti-Indian sentiment, Theodore Roosevelt believed
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#17328378932186510-406: The elderly men, they took the women and children prisoner, in retaliation for the women and children stolen and killed by the Cowichan. They attacked a Tsou-ke village, taking prisoners. The leader of the village warned them that the Cowichan and Saanich raiders were travelling to attack the S'Klallam that very day, and if they returned to see the Suquamish force, they would attack them and kill
6615-970: The first Native American television channel; established Native American studies programs, tribal schools universities , museums, and language programs. Literature is at the growing forefront of American Indian studies in many genres, with the notable exception of fiction—some traditional American Indians experience fictional narratives as insulting when they conflict with traditional oral tribal narratives. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial . The ways Native Americans refer to themselves vary by region and generation, with many older Native Americans self-identifying as "Indians" or "American Indians", while younger Native Americans often identify as "Indigenous" or "Aboriginal". The term "Native American" has not traditionally included Native Hawaiians or certain Alaskan Natives , such as Aleut , Yup'ik , or Inuit peoples. By comparison,
6720-438: The future. Kitsap was famed for his prowess, military strategy, wealth, and medicine powers, and is remembered by the Suquamish both for his military achievements, and his violent nature, which made him many enemies. His military campaigns influenced Seattle , his nephew. His contemporary, pioneer Theodore O. William said that Kitsap was the most powerful chief on Puget Sound from 1790 to 1845. Kitsap County, Washington , and
6825-525: The greatest loss of life for Indigenous populations. "The decline of native American populations was rapid and severe, probably the greatest demographic disaster ever. Old World diseases were the primary killer. In many regions, particularly the tropical lowlands, populations fell by 90 percent or more in the first century after the contact." Estimates of pre-Columbian population of the United States vary from 4 to 18 million. Jeffrey Ostler writes: "Most Indigenous communities were eventually afflicted by
6930-402: The guarantees of the U.S. Bill of Rights applicable within the tribes. Since the 1960s, Native American self-determination movements have resulted in positive changes to the lives of many Native Americans, though there are still many contemporary issues faced by them . Today, there are over five million Native Americans in the US, about 80% of whom live outside reservations. The states with
7035-556: The highest percentage of Native Americans are Alaska , Oklahoma , New Mexico , South Dakota , Montana , and North Dakota . Beginning toward the end of the 15th century, the migration of Europeans to the Americas led to centuries of population, cultural, and agricultural transfer and adjustment between Old and New World societies, a process known as the Columbian exchange . Because most Native American groups had preserved their histories by means of oral traditions and artwork,
7140-532: The ideology known as manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Westward expansion of European American populations after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native Americans and their lands, warfare, and rising tensions. In 1830, the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act , authorizing the federal government to relocate Native Americans from their homelands within established states to lands west of
7245-437: The last Chimakum village in ruins and nearly all of the people either dead or captured. One of the few Suquamish who died in the encounter was Chief Seattle's eldest son. The few surviving Chimakum, including the primary chief who had gone upstream early that morning, subsequently joined the Twana, or Skokomish , at the head of Hood Canal. The Chemakum were strictly opposed to leaving their grounds, despite being promised under
7350-514: The latter term can encompass a broader set of groups, e.g. Native Hawaiians , which it tabulates separately. The European colonization of the Americas from 1492 resulted in a precipitous decline in the size of the Native American population because of newly introduced diseases , including weaponized diseases and biological warfare by colonizers, wars , ethnic cleansing , and enslavement . Numerous scholars have classified elements of
7455-462: The local Suquamish. Two Suquamish men, one of whom was likely Kitsap, led a welcoming procession in canoes, and they eventually were invited to board the Discovery . The men were shown various goods and trinkets, including molasses , which Kitsap tried to use to plug cracks in his canoe (only for the molasses to dissolve in the water). Kitsap was known for his leadership during warfare, but he disliked
7560-432: The northern force. The Cowichan and Saanich sang as well, with a contemporary source reporting that the Cowichan executed the S'Klallam slaves that they had taken in the raid. As the battle began, the Cowichan force retreated to draw the attacking Suquamish forwards. They rammed their great canoes into the smaller Puget Sound canoes and shot arrows into them, stabbing any who fell into the water. This quickly disintegrated
7665-458: The present day there are people who identify as Chimakums or descendants of Chimakums. The Chemakum language was one of two Chimakuan languages and very similar to the Quileute language . It is now extinct . It was spoken until the 1940s on the east side of the Olympic Peninsula between Port Townsend and Hood Canal. The name Chimakum (or Chemakum) is an Anglicized version of a Salishan word for
7770-500: The prisoners. The Puget Sound fleet followed the Cowichan across the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Dungeness Spit . Through the fog, the Suquamish force heard the Cowichan celebrating a successful raid against the S'Klallam, their canoes filled with slaves and plunder. Surprised, the Cowichan and Saanich force attempted to parley , but Kitsap and the Suquamish force roused the warriors, singing power songs and executing their prisoners in front of
7875-524: The problem was quickly resolved. King would later make trips to Arizona visiting Native Americans on reservations, and in churches encouraging them to be involved in the Civil Rights Movement. In King's book Why We Can't Wait he writes: Chief Kitsap Kitsap ( Lushootseed : k̓c̓ap ; fl. c. 1791 – c. 1829 ) was a leader of the Suquamish people during
7980-410: The problems of Virginia Indians in establishing documented continuity of identity, due to the work of Walter Ashby Plecker (1912–1946). As registrar of the state's Bureau of Vital Statistics, he applied his own interpretation of the one-drop rule , enacted in law in 1924 as the state's Racial Integrity Act. It recognized only two races: "white" and "colored". Plecker, a segregationist , believed that
8085-498: The right to label arts and crafts as Native American and permission to apply for grants that are specifically reserved for Native Americans. But gaining federal recognition as a tribe is extremely difficult; to be established as a tribal group, members have to submit extensive genealogical proof of tribal descent and continuity of the tribe as a culture. In July 2000, the Washington State Republican Party adopted
8190-471: The same limitations applicable to states; for example, neither tribes nor states have the power to make war, engage in foreign relations, or coin money (this includes paper currency). In addition, there are a number of tribes that are recognized by individual states , but not by the federal government. The rights and benefits associated with state recognition vary from state to state. Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights point out that
8295-430: The same number" as the Suquamish, according to the accounts of several who took part in the battle. Despite being described by some sources as a disaster, the attack halted Cowichan raiding of Puget Sound, and established Kitsap as "the most powerful chief on Puget Sound". When Kitsap's oldest son visited Fort Langley to trade, he met with Shashia, a leader of the Cowichan, who put him under his protection. Furthermore,
8400-511: The same requirements as they did. The Muwekma Ohlone of the San Francisco Bay Area are pursuing litigation in the federal court system to establish recognition. Many of the smaller eastern tribes, long considered remnants of extinct peoples, have been trying to gain official recognition of their tribal status. Several tribes in Virginia and North Carolina have gained state recognition. Federal recognition confers some benefits, including
8505-649: The south in the late 1950s after they reached out to him. At that time the remaining Creek in Alabama were trying to completely desegregate schools in their area. In this case, light-complexioned Native children were allowed to ride school buses to previously all white schools, while dark-skinned Native children from the same band were barred from riding the same buses. Tribal leaders, upon hearing of King's desegregation campaign in Birmingham, Alabama, contacted him for assistance. He promptly responded and, through his intervention,
8610-454: The south, making the number of native peoples roughly about 6000. Shortly before 1790 they were fighting a number of tribes, including the Snohomish , Snoqualmie , Klallam, Makah , and Ditidaht (or Nitinaht ). In 1847, a disastrous conflict with the Suquamish devastated the Chimakum, effectively wiping them out. According to Wahélchu of the Suquamish, various conflicts and tensions between
8715-598: The southern and western states. In the south segregation was a major problem for Native Americans seeking education, but the NAACP's legal strategy would later change this. Movements such as Brown v. Board of Education was a major victory for the Civil Rights Movement headed by the NAACP , and inspired Native Americans to start participating in the Civil Rights Movement. Martin Luther King Jr. began assisting Native Americans in
8820-535: The state as "colored" and gave them lists of family surnames to examine for reclassification based on his interpretation of data and the law. This led to the state's destruction of accurate records related to families and communities who identified as Native American (as in church records and daily life). By his actions, sometimes different members of the same family were split by being classified as "white" or "colored". He did not allow people to enter their primary identification as Native American in state records. In 2009,
8925-493: The state had recognized eight. This is related historically to the greater impact of disease and warfare on the Virginia Indian populations, as well as their intermarriage with Europeans and Africans. Some people confused ancestry with culture, but groups of Virginia Indians maintained their cultural continuity. Most of their early reservations were ended under the pressure of early European settlement. Some historians also note
9030-529: The state's Native Americans had been "mongrelized" by intermarriage with African Americans; to him, ancestry determined identity, rather than culture. He thought that some people of partial black ancestry were trying to " pass " as Native Americans. Plecker thought that anyone with any African heritage had to be classified as colored, regardless of appearance, amount of European or Native American ancestry, and cultural/community identification. Plecker pressured local governments into reclassifying all Native Americans in
9135-474: The total extermination of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries, we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth. In the 20th century, Native Americans served in significant numbers during World War II, marking a turning point for Indigenous visibility and involvement in broader American society. Post-war, Native activism grew, with movements such as
9240-553: The tribe. After the near extinction of the Chimakum their country was occupied by the Klallam. In 1855, the Twana and Chimakum, along with the Klallam, signed the Point No Point Treaty , which established a reservation at the mouth of the Skokomish River near the southern end of Hood Canal. One of the Chimakum signatories of the treaty was Chief Kulkakhan, also known as General Pierce. The Point No Point Treaty required
9345-527: The uncle of Seattle, he was also an influence in Seattle's life and war campaigns. Kitsap Peninsula and Kitsap County are named after Kitsap, according to modern and contemporary historians. According to Evans, the county held an election to decide a new name for then-called Slaughter County. Kitsap was the name chosen, for "he was one of the most prominent of the chiefs" who resided in Port Madison, which
9450-449: The usual practice of decapitating one's enemies and displaying the head. Rather, he called the practice "showing off", which would later influence Seattle in his own war campaigns. Sometime around the turn of the 18th century, the Old Man House was built at dxʷsəq̓ʷəb , on Agate Pass . According to some informants in 1855, it was a brother of Seattle who built it. In the early 20th century, Suquamish informants reported that Kitsap
9555-406: The village and waited for a good chance to attack. A Chimakum family left the village and headed north, passing by the hidden Suquamish. The father was recognized as the man responsible for the death of respected Suquamish Tulébot, which had been one of the pretexts for war. The Suquamish immediately fired a volley of bullets. Many of the Chimakum villagers rushed to help the man and his family. Seeing
9660-521: The village mostly empty, the Suquamish rushed through the woods and entered the village from behind. Once their numbers inside the stockade were sufficient, the Suquamish opened fire upon the Chimakum inside the village. The Chimakum were taken completely by surprise and found themselves unable to resist or escape. According to Edward S. Curtis , recounting Wahélchu's telling, "the rapid rain of bullets mowed them down." Women and children were captured and taken away as slaves. The Suquamish paddled away, leaving
9765-402: The war against the Chimakum. The Suquamish under Chief Seattle were assisted by about 150 Klallam warriors. Before long, the Chimakum were confined to one village with a stockade, located near the mouth of Chimakum Creek, near present-day Irondale . The village stronghold was named Tsetsibus, or C'íc'abus, and had long been an important gathering place. The Suquamish warriors hid themselves near
9870-694: The years leading up to it the U.S. government had continued to seize Lakota lands. A Ghost Dance ritual on the Northern Lakota reservation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota , led to the U.S. Army's attempt to subdue the Lakota. The dance was part of a religious movement founded by the Northern Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka that told of the return of the Messiah to relieve the suffering of Native Americans and promised that if they would live righteous lives and perform
9975-646: Was a very significant moment for the rights of Native Americans and other people of color. Native Americans faced racism and prejudice for hundreds of years, and this increased after the American Civil War . Native Americans, like African Americans, were subjected to the Jim Crow Laws and segregation in the Deep South especially after they were made citizens through the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924. As
10080-511: Was as follows: According to Office of Management and Budget, "American Indian or Alaska Native" refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment. Despite generally referring to groups indigenous to the continental US and Alaska, this demographic as defined by the US Census Bureau includes all Indigenous people of
10185-446: Was described as "unintelligible to their neighbors" and other tribal members described the language as "speak like birds", citing this language barrier along with a predisposition for violence and disagreement with neighboring tribes for their demise. It is thought that marriage and interbreeding amongst tribes may account for some linguistic similarity. Franz Boas, considered one of the main authorities on local Indian linguistics, cites
10290-621: Was introduced in 2000. If American Indian or Alaska Native was selected, the form requested the individual provide the name of the "enrolled or principal tribe". Censuses counted around 346,000 Native Americans in 1880 (including 33,000 in Alaska and 82,000 in Oklahoma, back then known as Indian Territory ), around 274,000 in 1890 (including 25,500 in Alaska and 64,500 in Oklahoma), 362,500 in 1930 and 366,500 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in
10395-490: Was known to have their own dialect, including the Chimakum, making communication for trading and other purposes difficult between the Chimakum and other tribes. The Chimakum language is a tribal language thought to be similar in lexicographic and phonetic aspect with very little diversion to the Quileute language, implying that the Chimakum, Salishan and Wakashan tribes may be proved to be genetically related. The Chimakum language
10500-465: Was middle-aged, and was described to be a "tall, broad and thick man" and a "ruthless, domineering leader who killed his own uncle". His ancestry, as well as the ownership of the Old Man House and the older longhouse on Rich Passage, showed that he was wealthy, and his strength was also famous. According to tradition, he was able to stand in a canoe off Point Defiance ( Lushootseed : sč̓itus ) and shoot an arrow more than 200 feet (61 m) up and over
10605-495: Was murdered and his body was buried in a secret location. However, grave robbers from the Smithsonian Institution later found and stole his bones. After his death, the S'Klallam carried out a raid on the Suquamish, killing several. The Suquamish wanted to carry out a raid in revenge, however, a new leader, Challacum , stated that he did not want any more killing, intending to keep violence from once again erupting on
10710-404: Was relatively common among the Suquamish. Kitsap allegedly foretold the arrival of Europeans around a year before HMS Discovery would come to Puget Sound. It is said that Kitsap, holding a trade bead , announced that the people who were the origin of the beads would come to visit soon. George Vancouver would eventually stop by a Suquamish encampment on May 20, 1792, where they engaged with
10815-417: Was the carved image of a thunderbird , which may have represented his spirit power , tubšədəd . It may also have been associated with the creation story of Agate Pass, in which an eagle and a serpent widened a narrow channel into the broad passageway during a battle. Allegedly, Kitsap made one of the petroglyphs on x̌alilc , a glacial erratic associated with the Old Man House. By 1815, Kitsap
10920-575: Was the county seat. Other people were named "Kitsap". These include a Skopamish headman who fought with Leschi during the Puget Sound War , a Klickitat who killed Lt. William Alloway Slaughter during the Indian Wars, and one of Kitsap's descendants, Johnny Kitsap, who was also known as Chief Kitsap. Although it is impossible to be sure, Suquamish Tribe chairman Leonard Forsman believes that most people were aware that they were voting for Kitsap
11025-499: Was the creator of the famed longhouse. One of Seattle's grandsons, Sam Wilson, said that Kitsap was inspired to build the Old Man House by a dream where he and the Suquamish could greet the Europeans when they returned. To build the house, a cattail swamp at Agate Pass was cleared and a swath of land was excavated. Men cut down great cedar trees to fashion the rafters and planks. Kitsap invited workers from across Puget Sound, as far south as
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