Misplaced Pages

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87-511: The chestnuts are the deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus Castanea , in the beech family Fagaceae . The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Chestnut trees are of moderate growth rate (for the Chinese chestnut tree) to fast-growing for American and European species. Their mature heights vary from

174-480: A 10 kg (22 lb) yield for a 10-year-old tree is a reliable conservative estimate, though some exceptional specimens of that age have yielded 100 kg (220 lb). So, most producers earn less than $ 5,000 per year, with a third of them not having sold anything so far. Moreover, the plantings have so far been mostly of Chinese species, but the products are not readily available. The American Chestnut Foundation in collaboration with many partners ( SUNY ESF ,

261-399: A behavior known as " marcescence " whereby dead leaves are not shed in the fall and remain on the tree until being blown off by the weather. This is caused by incomplete development of the abscission layer. It is mainly seen in the seedling and sapling stage, although mature trees may have marcescence of leaves on the lower branches. A number of deciduous plants remove nitrogen and carbon from

348-542: A germ with two cotyledons connected to creamy-white flesh throughout. Some varieties have consistently only one embryo per fruit (nut) or have only one large fruit per burr, well rounded (no flat face). The name of varieties with these characteristics may start with "marron" for example marron de Lyon in France, or Marrone di Mugello in Italy. Chestnut fruit may not exhibit epigeal dormancy. It may germinate right upon falling to

435-602: A greater rate of transpiration (and hence CO 2 uptake as this occurs when stomata are open) during the summer growth period. The deciduous characteristic has developed repeatedly among woody plants. Trees include maple , many oaks and nothofagus , elm , beech , aspen , and birch , among others, as well as a number of coniferous genera , such as larch and Metasequoia . Deciduous shrubs include honeysuckle , viburnum , and many others. Most temperate woody vines are also deciduous, including grapes , poison ivy , Virginia creeper , wisteria , etc. The characteristic

522-550: A heavy, sweet odor that some people find too sweet or unpleasant. Other catkins have these pollen-bearing flowers, but also carry near the twig from which these spring, small clusters of female or fruit-producing flowers. Two or three flowers together form a four-lobed prickly calybium , which ultimately grows completely together to make the brown hull, or husk , covering the fruits. Chestnut flowers are not self-compatible, so two trees are required for pollination . All Castanea species readily hybridize with each other. The fruit

609-510: A mixture of hypogeal and epigeal development, even within the same plant family. Groups which contain both hypogeal and epigeal species include, for example, the Southern Hemisphere conifer family Araucariaceae , the pea family, Fabaceae , and the genus Lilium (see Lily seed germination types ). The frequently garden grown common bean , Phaseolus vulgaris , is epigeal, while the closely related runner bean , Phaseolus coccineus ,

696-467: A patchwork of leafy and leafless trees. Cotyledon In the case of dicot seedlings whose cotyledons are photosynthetic, the cotyledons are functionally similar to leaves. However, true leaves and cotyledons are developmentally distinct. Cotyledons form during embryogenesis , along with the root and shoot meristems , and are therefore present in the seed prior to germination. True leaves, however, form post-embryonically (i.e. after germination) from

783-400: A relatively low initial investment; this is a factor in the small size of the present production operations, with half of them being between 3 and 10 acres (12,000 and 40,000 m). Another determining factor in the small productivity of the sector is that most orchards have been created less than 10 years ago, so have young trees which are as now barely entering commercial production. Assuming

870-641: A song that celebrates chestnuts, as well as " Jeongseokga ", a song from the Goryeo period. Gongju , one of Baekje 's former capitals, is renowned for its chestnuts, with an annual chestnut festival that takes place in the winter. In the Samgukji(Records Of The Three Kingdoms) , a book that was compiled during the Jin dynasty about the Three Kingdoms , chestnuts are used in the description of Mahan,

957-706: A staple food in southern Europe, Turkey, and southwestern and eastern Asia for millennia, largely replacing cereals where these would not grow well, if at all, in mountainous Mediterranean areas. Evidence of its cultivation by humans is found since around 2000 BC. Alexander the Great and the Romans planted chestnut trees across Europe while on their various campaigns. A Greek army is said to have survived their retreat from Asia Minor in 401–399 BC thanks to their stores of chestnuts. Ancient Greeks, such as Dioscorides and Galen, wrote of chestnuts to comment on their medicinal properties—and of

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1044-435: Is frost -tender; bud -burst is later than most other fruit trees, so late frosts can be damaging to young buds. Trees can be found at altitudes between 200 and 1000 m above sea level; some mention between 300 and 750 m altitude, while the famous Hundred Horse Chestnut on Mount Etna stands at 1200 metres. They can tolerate maritime exposure, although growth is reduced. Seeds germinate in late winter or early spring, but

1131-598: Is a deciduous woody shrub found in Japan . Forests where a majority of the trees lose their foliage at the end of the typical growing season are called deciduous forests. These forests are found in many areas worldwide and have distinctive ecosystems, understory growth, and soil dynamics. Two distinctive types of deciduous forests are found growing around the world. Temperate deciduous forest biomes are plant communities distributed in North and South America, Asia, Southern slopes of

1218-423: Is a hard, shiny, brown outer hull or husk , called the pericarpus; the industry calls this the "peel". Underneath the pericarpus is another, thinner skin, called the pellicle or episperm. The pellicle closely adheres to the seed itself, following the grooves usually present at the surface of the fruit. These grooves are of variable sizes and depths according to the species and variety. The fruit inside these shows

1305-504: Is a traditional beverage, and it is gaining popularity with the tourists and in continental Portugal. Always served as part of the New Year's menu in Japan, chestnuts represent both success and hard times—mastery and strength. The Japanese chestnut ( kuri ) was in cultivation before rice and the Chinese chestnut ( C. mollissima ) possibly for 2,000 to 6,000 years. During British colonial rule in

1392-508: Is at the modern village of Keramidi . The town probably took its name, though, from the trees growing around it. In the Mediterranean climate zone, chestnut trees are rarer in Greece because the chalky soil is not conducive to the tree's growth. Kastania is located on one of the relatively few sedimentary or siliceous outcrops. They grow so abundantly there that their presence would have determined

1479-700: Is completed (marked by the transition from bright green spring leaves to dark green summer ones) the chlorophyll level in the leaves remains stable until cool temperatures arrive in autumn. When autumn arrives and the days are shorter or when plants are drought-stressed, the chlorophyll steadily breaks down, allowing other pigments present in the leaf to become apparent and resulting in non-green colored foliage. The brightest leaf colors are produced when days grow short and nights are cool, but remain above freezing. These other pigments include carotenoids that are yellow, brown, and orange. Anthocyanin pigments produce red and purple colors, though they are not always present in

1566-412: Is contained in a spiny (very sharp) cupule 5–11 cm in diameter, also called "bur" or " burr ". The burrs are often paired or clustered on the branch and contain one to seven nuts according to the different species , varieties , and cultivars . Around the time the fruits reach maturity, the burrs turn yellow-brown and split open in two or four sections. They can remain on the tree longer than they hold

1653-654: Is derived from an earlier English term "chesten nut", which descends from the Old French word chastain (Modern French, châtaigne ). The French word in turn derives from Latin Castanea (also the scientific name of the tree), which traces to the Ancient Greek word κάστανον (sweet chestnut). A possible source of the Greek word is the ancient town of Casthanaea in Magnesia . Its location

1740-442: Is for big-cone pinyon ( Pinus maximartinezii ), with 24 (Farjon & Styles 1997). Cotyledons may be ephemeral - lasting only days after emergence, or persistent - enduring at least a year on the plant. The cotyledons contain (or in the case of gymnosperms and monocotyledons, have access to) the stored food-reserves of the seed. As these reserves are used up, the cotyledons may turn green and begin photosynthesis , or may wither as

1827-400: Is formed between the leaf petiole and the stem. This layer is formed in the spring during active new growth of the leaf; it consists of layers of cells that can separate from each other. The cells are sensitive to a plant hormone called auxin that is produced by the leaf and other parts of the plant. When auxin coming from the leaf is produced at a rate consistent with that from the body of

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1914-457: Is hypogeal. The term cotyledon was coined by Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694). John Ray was the first botanist to recognize that some plants have two and others only one, and eventually the first to recognize the immense importance of this fact to systematics , in Methodus plantarum (1682). Theophrastus (3rd or 4th century BC) and Albertus Magnus (13th century) may also have recognized

2001-737: Is low, varying between 5 and 20 mg/(kg·h) depending on the temperature. Most chestnut wood production is done by coppice systems, cut on a 12-year rotation to provide small timber which does not split as badly as large logs. In southern England (particularly in Kent ), sweet chestnut has traditionally been grown as coppices, being recut every 10 years or so on rotation for poles used for firewood, and fencing (fence posts and chestnut paling). An excellent soil-enriching understory in pine forests, sustainable forest management incorporates more mixed plantings of proven efficiency, as opposed to monosylviculture. A study presented in 1997 has evaluated positively

2088-517: Is recommended at least during summer and early autumn. Once established, they resist droughts well. In addition to being consumed fresh, chestnuts can also be canned, pureed, or preserved in sugar or syrup ( marrons glacés ). Shelled and cooked nuts should be covered, refrigerated, and used within 3–4 days. Cooked chestnuts, either whole, chopped, or pureed, may be frozen in an airtight container and held up to 9 months. Because of their high water content, transpiration rates, and consequent loss weight,

2175-474: Is required later. The optimum rainfall for chestnut trees is 800 mm (31 in) or more, ideally in even distribution throughout the year. Mulching during summer is recommended. Rainfall below 700 mm (28 in) per year needs be complemented with, for example, a drip irrigation system. This should water the soil at the outer half of the circle formed by the drip line to encourage root growth. Independently from annual rainfall, watering young trees

2262-702: Is the Mugello region ; in 1996, the European Community granted the fruit Protected Geographic Indication (equivalent to the French Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée ) status to the Mugello sweet chestnut . It is markedly sweet, peels easily, is not excessively floury or astringent , and has notes of vanilla , hazelnut , and, more subtly, fresh bread. It has no unpleasant aroma, such as yeast , fungus , mold , or paper, which sometimes occur with other chestnuts. The main regions in France for chestnut production are

2349-522: Is useful in plant identification; for instance in parts of Southern California and the American Southeast , deciduous and evergreen oak species may grow side by side. Periods of leaf fall often coincide with seasons: winter in the case of cool-climate plants or the dry-season in the case of tropical plants, however there are no deciduous species among tree-like monocotyledonous plants, e.g. palms , yuccas , and dracaenas . The hydrangea hirta

2436-567: The Mississippi River were made from it. In 1911, the food book The Grocer's Encyclopedia noted that a cannery in Holland included in its "vegetables-and-meat" ready-cooked combinations, a "chestnuts and sausages" casserole beside the more classic "beef and onions" and "green peas and veal". This celebrated the chestnut culture that would bring whole villages out in the woods for three weeks each autumn (and keep them busy all winter), and deplored

2523-463: The Pacific Northwest . Due to disease, American chestnut wood almost disappeared from the market for decades, although quantities can still be obtained as reclaimed lumber . Today, they only survive as single trees separated from any others (very rare), and as living stumps , or "stools", with only a few growing enough shoots to produce seeds shortly before dying. This is just enough to preserve

2610-602: The Romagna region, roasted chestnuts are often served with a traditional wine, the Cagnina di Romagna . It is traditional to eat roasted chestnuts in Portugal on St. Martin's Day . Their popularity declined during the last few centuries, partly due to their reputation of "food for poor people". Many people did not want to take chestnut bread as " bread " because chestnut flour does not rise. Some slandered chestnut products in such words as

2697-553: The autumn ; to the shedding of petals , after flowering; and to the shedding of ripe fruit . The antonym of deciduous in the botanical sense is evergreen . Generally, the term "deciduous" means "the dropping of a part that is no longer needed or useful" and the "falling away after its purpose is finished". In plants, it is the result of natural processes. "Deciduous" has a similar meaning when referring to animal parts, such as deciduous antlers in deer , deciduous teeth (baby teeth) in some mammals (including humans); or decidua ,

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2784-532: The dormant period. Frosts and snowfalls are beneficial rather than harmful to the trees. The dormant plant is very cold-hardy in Britain, to the Royal Horticultural Society 's H6 hardiness rating, to -20 °C. Chestnut is hardy to USDA zone 5 , which is −29 °C (−20 °F) lower in average minimal temperature than London in zone 9 . The young growth in spring, even on mature plants, however,

2871-456: The dry season or other seasons, depending on variations in rainfall . The converse of deciduous is evergreen , where foliage is shed on a different schedule from deciduous plants, therefore appearing to remain green year round because not all the leaves are shed at the same time. Plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous ; they lose old foliage as new growth begins. Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before

2958-503: The foliage before they are shed and store them in the form of proteins in the vacuoles of parenchyma cells in the roots and the inner bark. In the spring, these proteins are used as a nitrogen source during the growth of new leaves or flowers. Plants with deciduous foliage have advantages and disadvantages compared to plants with evergreen foliage. Since deciduous plants lose their leaves to conserve water or to better survive winter weather conditions, they must regrow new foliage during

3045-591: The American Chestnut Cooperators' Foundation and many others from education, research, and industry sectors contributing to the program) are in the last stages of developing a variety that is as close as possible to the American chestnut, while having incorporated the blight-resistant gene of the Asiatic species. Considering the additional advantage that chestnut trees can be easily grown organically, and assuming

3132-525: The American chestnut species, mainly C. dentata and some others, long before European immigrants introduced their stock to America, and before the arrival of chestnut blight . In some places, such as the Appalachian Mountains , one-quarter of hardwoods were chestnuts. Mature trees often grew straight and branch-free for 50 ft (15 m), up to 100 ft, averaging up to 5 ft in diameter. For three centuries, most barns and homes east of

3219-530: The American chestnuts is not completely resolved, particularly between the chinkapins ( Castanea ozarkensis and Castanea pumila ), which are sometimes considered to be the same species. Genetics have indicated the California native "golden chinkapin" ( Chrysolepis chrysophylla ) is worthy of inclusion in a different genus along with a species from Coastal China. There is also another chestnut, Castanea alabamensis , which may be its own species. The name "chestnut"

3306-834: The Himalayas, Europe and for cultivation purposes in Oceania. They have formed under climatic conditions which have great seasonable temperature variability. Growth occurs during warm summers, leaf drop in autumn, and dormancy during cold winters. These seasonally distinctive communities have diverse life forms that are impacted greatly by the seasonality of their climate, mainly temperature and precipitation rates. These varying and regionally different ecological conditions produce distinctive forest plant communities in different regions. Tropical and subtropical deciduous forest biomes have developed in response not to seasonal temperature variations but to seasonal rainfall patterns. During prolonged dry periods

3393-589: The Indian subcontinent. China has about 300 chestnut cultivars . Moreover, the 'Dandong' chestnut (belonging to the Japanese chestnut C. crenata ) is a major cultivar in Liaoning Province . In South Korea , roasted chestnuts ( gunbam ) are a popular winter snack, and serve as a symbol of abundance in ancestral rituals. Roasted chestnuts are also included in folk songs of Korea , which include " Gunbam Taryeong " ,

3480-464: The United States imports 7.5 million pounds of non-organic chestnuts per year. A study of the sector in 2005 found that U.S. producers are mainly part-timers diversifying an existing agricultural business, or hobbyists. Another recent study indicates that investment in a new plantation takes 13 years to break even, at least within the current Australian market. Starting a small-scale operation requires

3567-434: The bread which "gives a sallow complexion" written in 1770, or in 1841 "this kind of mortar which is called a soup". The last decades' worldwide renewal may have profited from the huge reforestation efforts started in the 1930s in the United States to establish varieties of C. sativa which may be resistant to chestnut blight, as well as to relieve the strain on cereal supplies. The main region in Italy for chestnut production

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3654-652: The chestnut oak ( Quercus prinus ) and the American beech ( Fagus grandifolia ), both of which are also in the Fagaceae family. Brazil nuts , called "Brasil chestnuts" ( castañas de Brasil in Spanish) or "chestnuts from Pará" ( castanha-do-Pará in Portuguese) are also unrelated. Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae , which also includes oaks and beeches . The four main species groups are commonly known as American, European, Chinese, and Japanese chestnuts. The taxonomy of

3741-469: The chestnut tree is practically the sole subsistence of our highlanders", while in 1879 it was said that it almost exclusively fed whole populations for half the year, as "a temporary but complete substitution for cereals". In Britain, boundary records compiled in the reign of King John already showed the famous Tortworth Chestnut in South Gloucestershire , as a landmark; it was also known by

3828-574: The cold in their first winter, and also from mice and squirrels . Chestnuts are considered self-sterile, so at least two trees are needed for pollination. Castanea grows best in a soil with good drainage and adequate moisture. The tree prefers sloping, deep soils; it does not like shallow or heavy soils with impermeable, clay subsoils . The Chinese chestnut prefers a fertile, well-drained soil, but it grows well in fairly dry, rocky, or poor soils. Although Castanea can grow in very acidic soil, and while these soils are reasonably well tolerated,

3915-440: The cotyledon persists for a lifetime. Such a plant is Streptocarpus wendlandii of South Africa in which one cotyledon grows to be up to 75 centimeters (2.5 feet) in length and up to 61 cm (two feet) in width (the largest cotyledon of any dicot, and exceeded only by Lodoicea ). Adventitious flower clusters form along the midrib of the cotyledon. The second cotyledon is much smaller and ephemeral. Related plants may show

4002-463: The country has nearly 350 growers, annually producing around 1,200 metric tons of chestnuts, of which 80% come from northeast Victoria . The produce is mostly sold to the domestic fresh fruit market. Chestnuts are slowly gaining popularity in Australia. A considerable increase in production is expected in the next 10 years, due to the increase in commercial plantings during the last 15 to 25 years. By far,

4089-425: The development of brands in the market and everything else being equal, home-grown products would reach higher prices than imports, the high volume of which indicates a market with expanding prospects. As of 2008, the price for chestnuts sold fresh in the shell ranges from $ 1.50/lb ($ 3.30/kg) wholesale to about $ 5/lb ($ 11/kg) retail, depending mainly on the size. The Australian gold rush of the 1850s and 1860s led to

4176-599: The départements of Ardèche , with the famous "Châtaigne d'Ardèche" (A.O.C) Archived 2012-02-27 at the Wayback Machine , of the Var (Eastern Provence), of the Cévennes (Gard and Lozère départements) and of the Lyon region. France annually produces over 1,000 metric tons, but still imports about 8,000 metric tons, mainly from Italy. In Portugal's archipelago of Madeira, chestnut liquor

4263-428: The earliest trees to lose their leaves in the fall. In sub-Arctic climates such as Alaska , leaves begin turning colors as early as August. However, for most temperate regions it takes place in late September through early November and in subtropical climates such as the southern US, it may be November into December. Leaf drop or abscission involves complex physiological signals and changes within plants. When leafout

4350-615: The fall months and the Western United States as it has more evergreen and fewer deciduous plants, combined with the West Coast and its maritime climate. ( See also : Autumn leaf color ) Most of the Southern Hemisphere lacks deciduous plants due to its milder winters and smaller landmass, most of which is nearer the equator with only far southern South America and the southern island of New Zealand producing distinct fall colors. The beginnings of leaf drop starts when an abscission layer

4437-583: The farmers and landowners to plant four trees yearly, among which was a chestnut tree – plus olive , fig and mulberry trees. Many communities owe their origin and former richness to the ensuing chestnut woods. In France, the marron glacé , a candied chestnut involving 16 different processes in a typically French cooking style, is always served at Christmas and New Year's time. In Modena , Italy, they are soaked in wine before roasting and serving, and are also traditionally eaten on Saint Simon's Day in Tuscany . In

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4524-422: The first recorded plantings of European chestnut trees, brought from Europe by settlers. Along the years, most chestnut tree plantations were C. sativa stock, which is still the dominant species. Some of these remain today. Some trees in northern Victoria are around 120 years old and up to 60 m tall. Chestnuts grow well in southwest Western Australia , which has cold winters and warm to hot summers. As of 2008,

4611-554: The first true leaves take over food production for the seedling. Cotyledons may be either epigeal , expanding on the germination of the seed, throwing off the seed shell, rising above the ground, and perhaps becoming photosynthetic; or hypogeal , not expanding, remaining below ground and not becoming photosynthetic. The latter is typically the case where the cotyledons act as a storage organ, as in many nuts and acorns . Hypogeal plants have (on average) significantly larger seeds than epigeal ones. They are also capable of surviving if

4698-553: The flatulence induced by eating too much of it. To the early Christians, chestnuts symbolized chastity . Until the introduction of the potato , whole forest-dwelling communities which had scarce access to wheat flour relied on chestnuts as their main source of carbohydrates . In some parts of Italy, a cake made of chestnuts is used as a substitute for potatoes. In 1583, Charles Estienne and Jean Liébault wrote, "an infinity of people live on nothing else but (the chestnut)". In 1802, an Italian agronomist said of Tuscany that "the fruit of

4785-591: The flowers can be damaged by frost or, in dry season regions, result in water stress on the plant. Spring leafout and fall leaf drop are triggered by a combination of daylight and air temperatures. The exact conditions required will vary with the species, but generally more cold-tolerant genera such as Salix will leaf-out earlier and lose their leaves later, while genera such as Fraxinus and Juglans can only grow in warm, frost-free conditions so they need at least 13 hours of daylight and air temperatures of around 70 °F (21 °C) to leaf out. They will be among

4872-426: The foliage is dropped to conserve water and prevent death from drought. Leaf drop is not seasonally dependent as it is in temperate climates. It can occur any time of year and varies by region of the world. Even within a small local area there can be variations in the timing and duration of leaf drop; different sides of the same mountain and areas that have high water tables or areas along streams and rivers can produce

4959-640: The former land of Baekje. In the Philippines , the endemic talakatak or Philippine chestnut ( Castanopsis philippinensis ) is not cultivated commercially, though its nuts are harvested from the wild and consumed locally. Imported chestnuts (known as kastanyas in Tagalog , from Spanish castañas ) are traditionally sold as street food in the Philippines during the Christmas season . Native Americans were eating

5046-541: The fruit was a local staple food in the early 17th century. These synonyms are or have been in use: Fagus Castanea (used by Linnaeus in first edition of Species Plantarum , 1753), Sardian nut, Jupiter's nut, husked nut, and Spanish chestnut (U.S.). The tree is noted for attracting wildlife. The nuts are an important food for jays , pigeons , wild boar , deer, and squirrels . American and Chinese chinquapins ( C. pumila and C. henryi ) have very small nuts that are an important source of food for wildlife. It has been

5133-462: The fruit, but more often achieve complete opening and release the fruits only after having fallen on the ground; opening is partly due to soil humidity . The chestnut fruit has a pointed end with a small tuft at its tip (called "flame" in Italian ), and at the other end, a hilum – a pale brown attachment scar. In many varieties, the fruit is flattened on one or two sides. It has two skins. The first one

5220-511: The genetic material used to engineer an American chestnut tree with the minimal necessary genetic input from any of the disease-immune Asiatic species. Efforts started in the 1930s are still ongoing to repopulate the country with these trees, in Massachusetts and many places elsewhere in the United States. In the 1970s, geneticist Charles Burnham began back-breeding Asian chestnut into American chestnut populations to confer blight resistance with

5307-629: The ground in the autumn, with the roots emerging from the seed right away and the leaves and stem the following spring. The germ can lose viability soon after ripening and under drying conditions. The superior fruiting varieties among European chestnuts have good size, sweet taste, and easy-to-remove inner skins. American chestnuts are usually very small (around 5 g ), but sweet-tasting with easy-to-remove pellicles. Some Japanese varieties have very large nuts (around 40 g ), with typically difficult-to-remove pellicles. Chinese chestnut pellicles are usually easy to remove, and their sizes vary greatly according to

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5394-417: The humid maritime climate and lower overall species diversity . It is also a factor that the continental United States and southern Canada are at a lower latitude than northern Europe, so the sun during the fall months is higher and stronger. This combination of strong sun and cool temperatures leads to more intense fall colors. The Southern United States also has poor fall colors due to warm temperatures during

5481-578: The lack of food diversity in the United States's shop shelves. Soon after that, however, the American chestnuts were nearly wiped out by chestnut blight. The discovery of the blight fungus on some Asian chestnut trees planted on Long Island , New York , was made public in 1904. Within 40 years, the nearly four billion-strong American chestnut population in North America was devastated; only a few clumps of trees remained in Michigan, Wisconsin, California , and

5568-470: The leaves. Rather, they are produced in the foliage in late summer, when sugars are trapped in the leaves after the process of abscission begins. Parts of the world that have showy displays of bright autumn colors are limited to locations where days become short and nights are cool. The New England region of the United States and southeastern Canada tend to produce particularly good autumn colors for this reason, with Europe producing generally poorer colors due to

5655-500: The life length is short. If kept moist, they can be stored in a cool place for a few months, but must be checked regularly for signs of germination. Low temperature prolongs dormancy. Sowing them as soon as ripe is better, either in cold frames or seedbeds outdoors, where they can be left in situ for one to two years before being planted in their permanent positions, or in pots, where the plants can be put out into their permanent positions in summer or autumn. They must be protected from

5742-653: The mid-1700s to 1947, the sweet chestnut, C. sativa , was widely introduced in the temperate parts of the Indian subcontinent , mainly in the lower to middle Himalayas . They are widely found in British-founded hill stations in northern India , and to a lesser extent in Bhutan and Nepal . They are mainly used as an ornamental tree and are found in almost all British-founded botanical gardens and official governmental compounds (such as larger official residences) in temperate parts of

5829-480: The mid-20th century, most of the US imports are from Southern Italy , with the large, meaty, and richly flavored Sicilian chestnuts being considered among the best quality for bulk sale and supermarket retail. Some imports come from Portugal and France. The next two largest sources of imports are China and South Korea. The French varieties of marrons are highly favored and sold at high prices in gourmet shops. As of 2024,

5916-556: The minimum difference in genes. In the 1950s, the Dunstan chestnut was developed in Greensboro, N.C., and constitutes the majority of blight-free chestnuts produced in the United States annually. Today, the demand for the nut outstrips supply . The United States imported 4,056 metric tons of European in-shell chestnuts worth $ 10 million in 2007. The U.S. chestnut industry is in its infancy, producing less than 1% of total world production. Since

6003-484: The most common species in Australia is the European chestnut, but small numbers of the other species, as well as some hybrids, have been planted. The Japanese chestnut ( C. crenata ) does well in wet and humid weather and in hot summers (about 30 °C); and was introduced to New Zealand in the early 1900s, more so in the upper North Island region. Chestnuts produce a better crop when subjected to chill temperatures during

6090-410: The need for light. In 2020, world production of cultivated chestnuts was 2,322 tonnes , led by China with 75% of the total (table). Deciduous In the fields of horticulture and botany , the term deciduous ( / d ɪ ˈ s ɪ dʒ u . ə s / ) means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves , usually in

6177-566: The need for sun for optimal growth. The butt of the tree is sometimes painted with white paint to protect the tree from sunburn until it has developed enough canopy . Wide spacing between the trees encourages low, broad crowns with maximum exposure to sunshine to increase fruit production. Where chestnut trees touch, virtually no fruit is produced. Current industrial planting spacings can range from 7 x 7 to 20 x 20 m. The closer plantings, which are more popular, mean quicker increases in short-term production, but heavy pruning or even tree removal

6264-412: The next growing season, retaining some during winter or dry periods. Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination . The absence of leaves improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants. This strategy is not without risks, as

6351-783: The next suitable growing season; this uses resources which evergreens do not need to expend. Evergreens suffer greater water loss during the winter and they also can experience greater predation pressure , especially when small. Deciduous trees experience much less branch and trunk breakage from glaze ice storms when leafless, and plants can reduce water loss due to the reduction in availability of liquid water during cold winter days. Losing leaves in winter may reduce damage from insects; repairing leaves and keeping them functional may be more costly than just losing and regrowing them. Removing leaves also reduces cavitation which can damage xylem vessels in plants. This then allows deciduous plants to have xylem vessels with larger diameters and therefore

6438-478: The nuts react as fresh fruits (not as nuts). They should be kept cool at all times, including in shops when on display for sale. To preserve their freshness for a few months with no artificial refrigeration, the chestnuts can be soaked in cold water for about 20 hours immediately after harvest , after which they are dried in the shade, then layered in dry sand. Chestnuts behave similarly to seeds in that they produce very little ethylene , and their respiration rate

6525-530: The place's name. Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of Sardis glans (Sardis acorn) – Sardis being the capital of Lydia , Asia Minor, from where the fruit had spread. The name is cited twice in the King James Version of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the water troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock. Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates

6612-469: The plant, the cells of the abscission layer remain connected; in autumn, or when under stress, the auxin flow from the leaf decreases or stops, triggering cellular elongation within the abscission layer. The elongation of these cells breaks the connection between the different cell layers, allowing the leaf to break away from the plant. It also forms a layer that seals the break, so the plant does not lose sap. Some trees, particularly oaks and beeches, exhibit

6699-519: The potential increase in productivity with mixed stands and plantations, compared to plots of only one species. The relative yield total values of the mixed plantings steadily increase with time. C. sativa responds well to competitive pressure from Pseudotsuga menziesii , the latter also showing a higher productivity. C. dentata seedlings in Ohio reforestation efforts are best achieved by planting them in places with little or no arboreous land cover, because of

6786-466: The preferred range is from pH 5.5-6.0. It does not grow well on alkaline soils , such as chalk , but thrives on soils such as those derived from granite , sandstone , or schist . On alkaline soils, chestnut trees can be grown by grafting them onto oak rootstocks. Recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist the root rot , Armillaria mellia . Castanea likes a full sun position. An experiment with C. dentata seedlings in Ohio confirmed

6873-517: The same name of "Great Chestnut of Tortworth" in the days of Stephen . This tree measured over 50 ft (15 m) in circumference at 5 ft (1.5 m) from the ground in 1720. The Hundred Horse Chestnut in the chestnut forests on Mount Etna is the oldest living chestnut tree and is said to be even larger. Chestnut trees particularly flourish in the Mediterranean basin . In 1584, the governor of Genoa , which dominated Corsica , ordered all

6960-414: The seedling is clipped off, as meristem buds remain underground (with epigeal plants, the meristem is clipped off if the seedling is grazed). The tradeoff is whether the plant should produce a large number of small seeds, or a smaller number of seeds which are more likely to survive. The ultimate development of the epigeal habit is represented by a few plants, mostly in the family Gesneriaceae in which

7047-409: The shoot apical meristem, which generates subsequent aerial portions of the plant. The cotyledon of grasses and many other monocotyledons is a highly modified leaf composed of a scutellum and a coleoptile . The scutellum is a tissue within the seed that is specialized to absorb stored food from the adjacent endosperm . The coleoptile is a protective cap that covers the plumule (precursor to

7134-430: The sides and develop broad, rounded, dense crowns at maturity. The foliage of the European and American species has striking yellow autumn coloring. Its bark is smooth when young, of a vinous maroon or red-brown color for the American chestnut, grey for the European chestnut. With age, American species' bark becomes grey and darker, thick, and deeply furrowed ; the furrows run longitudinally, and tend to twist around

7221-693: The smallest species of chinkapins, often shrubby, to the giant of past American forests, C. dentata that could reach 60 metres (200 feet). Between these extremes are found the Japanese chestnut ( C. crenata ) at 10 m average; followed by the Chinese chestnut ( C. mollissima ) at about 15 m , then the European chestnut ( C. sativa ) around 30 m . The Chinese and more so the Japanese chestnuts are both often multileadered and wide-spreading, whereas European and especially American species tend to grow very erect when planted among others, with little tapering of their columnar trunks , which are firmly set and massive. When standing on their own, they spread on

7308-664: The stem and leaves of the plant). Gymnosperm seedlings also have cotyledons. Gnetophytes , cycads , and ginkgos all have 2, whereas in conifers they are often variable in number (multicotyledonous), with 2 to 24 cotyledons forming a whorl at the top of the hypocotyl (the embryonic stem) surrounding the plumule. Within each species, there is often still some variation in cotyledon numbers, e.g. Monterey pine ( Pinus radiata ) seedlings have between 5 and 9, and Jeffrey pine ( Pinus jeffreyi ) 7 to 13 (Mirov 1967), but other species are more fixed, with e.g. Mediterranean cypress always having just two cotyledons. The highest number reported

7395-597: The trunk as the tree ages, sometimes reminiscent of a large cable with twisted strands. The leaves are simple, ovate or lanceolate , 10–30 cm long and 4–10 cm wide, with sharply pointed, widely spaced teeth, with shallow rounded sinuates between. The flowers follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer or into July. They are arranged in long catkins of two kinds, with both kinds being borne on every tree. Some catkins are made of only male flowers, which mature first. Each flower has eight stamens , or 10 to 12 for C. mollissima . The ripe pollen carries

7482-464: The uterine lining that sheds off after birth. In botany and horticulture , deciduous plants , including trees , shrubs and herbaceous perennials, are those that lose all of their leaves for part of the year. This process is called abscission . In some cases leaf loss coincides with winter—namely in temperate or polar climates . In other parts of the world, including tropical, subtropical, and arid regions, plants lose their leaves during

7569-442: The varieties, although usually smaller than the Japanese chestnut. The unrelated horse chestnuts (genus Aesculus ) are not true chestnuts, but are named for producing nuts of similar appearance that are mildly poisonous to humans. True chestnuts should also not be confused with water chestnuts , which are tubers of an aquatic herbaceous plant in the sedge family Cyperaceae . Other species commonly mistaken for chestnut trees are

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