35°50′05.0″N 129°13′08.4″E / 35.834722°N 129.219000°E / 35.834722; 129.219000
51-511: Cheomseongdae ( Korean : 첨성대 ; Hanja : 瞻星臺 ; lit. star-gazing tower) is an astronomical observatory in Gyeongju , South Korea . Cheomseongdae is the oldest surviving astronomical observatory in Asia, and possibly even the world. It was constructed in the 7th century in the kingdom of Silla , whose capital was Seorabeol, or present-day Gyeongju ( 경주 ). Cheomseongdae
102-482: A stylobate , or base upon which a column is constructed, a curved cylindrical body, and a square top. Midway up the body stands a square window and entrance to the inside of the structure. When viewed from above, Cheomseongdae resembles the Korean Hanja character 井 (Hangul: 정 jeong ), meaning "well." The square stylobate base is 5.7 meters wide and built from a single layer of 12 rectangular stones. From
153-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with
204-477: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this
255-541: A later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of the Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations ,
306-562: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding
357-541: A stone slab inside the top of the tower and not visible from the outside. The stones are fashioned as annular sectors , meaning each stone takes the shape of a curved or bent rectangle. At the top, there are two tiers of Jeongja-seok ( 井字石 ), and it is presumed that an observation device was placed on it. Its construction style parallels that used at the Bunhwangsa Temple in Gyeongju. The number and placement of
408-503: A strategic countermeasure. North Korea's approach to vocabulary management, consisting of maintenance, distribution, and control, is executed based on a centralized, top-down policy, which fundamentally differs from South Korea's approach. Vocabulary maintenance in North Korea principally targets words of foreign origin, classified into Sino-Korean words and loan words. During its third phase of language policy, efforts were made to preserve
459-409: A strict distribution process and become accepted as Mwunhwae, the standard language, once they are established in widespread use. Educational institutions and media play a key role in this distribution. The Korean dictionary serves to establish and control the usage of Mwunhwae vocabulary, requiring all users, including individuals and national institutions, to adhere strictly to its prescriptions. During
510-603: Is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and the Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from
561-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to
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#1732848131761612-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean
663-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be
714-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with
765-534: Is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as a minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by
816-716: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on
867-511: The Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which
918-523: The yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By
969-529: The Korean Language Society in 1933 with the "Proposal for Unified Korean Orthography" ( 한글 맞춤법 통일안 ) and in 1936 with the "Collection of Assessed Standard Korean Words" ( 사정한 조선어 표준말 모음 ). In 1954, the 1933 proposal was replaced by a new system ( 조선어 철자법 ) by the North Korean government in which thirteen words were slightly modified. Although the reformation created little difference, from this point
1020-570: The Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and
1071-557: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,
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#17328481317611122-868: The 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea
1173-408: The 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language )
1224-527: The Korean language" ( 조선어를 발전시키 위한 몇가지 문제 ), he emphasized the significance of the usage of language as a weapon in the socialist construction of all areas of development, and tried to align with the global trend of change as well as preserving ethnic uniqueness. Thus, North Korea began to refer to its own dialect as "cultural language" ( 문화어 ) as a reference to its return to words of Korean cultural origin, in juxtaposition to South Korea's reference to its own dialect as "standard language" ( 표준어 ). This includes
1275-603: The North Korean capital Pyongyang and its surroundings should be the basis for Munhwaŏ. Though this view is supported by some linguists, others posit that Munhwaŏ remains "firmly rooted" in the Seoul dialect , which had been the national standard for centuries. Thus, while the first group indicate that, besides the large divergence at the level of vocabulary, differences between the North and South Korean standards also include phonetic and phonological features, as well as stress and intonation,
1326-480: The base to the window, the tower is filled with earth and rubble. The cylindrical body of the tower is built out of 365 pieces of cut granite , symbolizing the number of days in a year . However, various historical documents have reported different numbers of stones. Song (1983) cites a 1962 survey of the site by Gyeongju National Museum director Hong Sa-jun, who found 366 blocks. This discrepancy in stone count may be attributed to some researchers including or omitting
1377-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,
1428-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in
1479-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains
1530-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it
1581-563: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or
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1632-466: The language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until
1683-515: The languages spoken by people on both sides on the Korean peninsula only grew in difference. During the emergence of the Juche idea in the 1960s, Kim Il Sung coordinated an effort to purify the Korean language from English , Japanese , and Russian loanwords as well as words with less common Hancha characters, replacing them with new words derived from native Korean words. In a lecture by Kim Il Sung on 3 January 1964, titled "Some problems to develop
1734-451: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to
1785-491: The national characteristics of the Korean language by substituting foreign-derived words with native Korean ones. These target words for maintenance included foreign-origin technical and scientific terms, foreign words replaceable by pure Korean ones, unadapted loan words, obsolete words, and Sino-Korean homonyms. Vocabulary maintenance approaches included discarding words representing outdated customs or concepts, implementing pure Koreanization, and adapting words. Pure Koreanization
1836-592: The others consider these differences attributable to replacement of Sino-Korean vocabulary and other loanwords with pure Korean words, or the Northern ideological preference for "the speech of the working class" which includes some words considered non-standard in the South. Following the liberation of Korea in 1945, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea continued to follow the Korean language guidelines as defined by
1887-507: The population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by
1938-414: The second period, efforts were made to simplify and standardize academic, technical, and Sino-Korean terms, leading to some degree of language differentiation between the North and South. The third period emphasized the language's national characteristics, significantly increasing this differentiation by replacing Sino-Korean terms with pure Korean ones, which led South Korean scholars to study the language as
1989-660: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting
2040-509: The stones in Cheomseongdae have been theorized to represent various historical and astronomical figures. The central hole or window separates the body into 12 layers of stones both above and below, symbolizing the 12 months in a year and the 24 solar terms . Additionally, the 12 stones which comprise the stylobate may also reference the 12 months. Cheomseongdae's original appearance and shape has remained unchanged for over 1300 years; however
2091-531: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF North Korean standard language North Korean standard language or Munhwaŏ ( Korean : 문화어 ; Hancha : 文化語 ; lit. "cultural language") is the North Korean standard version of the Korean language . Munhwaŏ was adopted as the standard in 1966. The adopting proclamation stated that the Pyongan dialect spoken in
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2142-414: The structure is regularly washed down to remove moss. The National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage in Korea has conducted inspections on the structure regularly since 1981. The Gyeongju municipal government oversees the site's management and preservation. Cheomseongdae is mentioned in the popular Korean drama Queen Seondeok . In the 2009 drama, Cheomseongdae was constructed when Queen Seondeok
2193-419: The structure now tilts slightly to the north-east. In 2007, a system was installed to measure the state of Cheomseongdae every hour. Of particular concern are cracks and structural displacements, and movements of the foundation stones. Cheomseongdae is additionally susceptible to wear due to aging and weathering, particularly from air pollution and structural imbalance caused by ground subsidence . The exterior of
2244-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at
2295-487: The third period, place names and personal names were targeted for vocabulary management, seeing significant alterations to reflect national sentiment and eliminate foreign influences; the traditional naming system, based on Chinese characters representative of certain elements, also began to be disregarded, as younger generations started favoring pure Korean names. Munhwaŏ, the standardized language in North Korea, incorporates pure Korean words from various dialects, especially
2346-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ
2397-437: The use of some archaic vocabulary and grammar. Vocabulary maintenance in North Korea traces its origins to the 1930s' partisan struggle against Japan, where a shift in vocabulary was influenced by new political and revolutionary terms introduced by Kim Il Sung's partisans. From 1945 to 1949, the focus was on eradicating illiteracy and abandoning Chinese characters, with more structured vocabulary maintenance beginning in 1954. In
2448-556: Was achieved by mandating exclusive use of pure Korean words, identifying rarely used or dialectic pure Korean substitutes, activating weakly derived pure Korean words, and creating new words from pure Korean elements if no suitable replacements existed. North Korea's vocabulary maintenance, managed mainly by the National Language Decision Committee, was recorded in a work titled "Tatumunmal", accumulating up to 50,000 words by 1976. These newly introduced words undergo
2499-566: Was designated as the country's 31st national treasure on December 20, 1962. It forms a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with other Gyeongju Historic Areas. Modeled on Baekje 's Jeomseongdae, which now exists only in historical records, the Cheomseongdae influenced the construction of the Japanese Senseidai ( 占星台 ) observatory in 675, and Duke Zhou's observatory in China in 723. Cheomseongdae stands 9.17 meters high and consists of three parts:
2550-487: Was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of
2601-519: Was still a princess; this was her first decree as a princess. Cheomseongdae was meant to share the knowledge of astronomy with everyone, rather than letting one person (Lady Misil ) abuse the knowledge of it. By doing so, she also abdicated her divine rights. Because this was uncommon at the time and unsupported by many conservatives, at the opening of Cheomseongdae, barely any nobles showed up. Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ )
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