177-623: The Chandrayaan programme ( / ˌ tʃ ʌ n d r ə ˈ j ɑː n / CHUN -drə- YAHN ) ( Sanskrit : Candra 'Moon', Yāna 'Craft, Vehicle', pronunciation ) also known as the Indian Lunar Exploration Programme is an ongoing series of outer space missions by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) for the exploration of the Moon . The program incorporates a lunar orbiter, an impactor,
354-458: A Radar altimeter to record the altitude data which would be used in qualifying technologies for future soft landing missions, a Video imaging system to acquire close-range pictures of the lunar surface, and a Mass spectrometer to study the tenuous atmosphere of the Moon. On 12 November 2008, the MIP separated from the orbiter and impacted near the lunar south pole's Shackleton crater . While descending,
531-486: A soft lander and a rover spacecraft . There have been three missions so far with a total of two orbiters, landers and rovers each. While the two orbiters were successful, the first lander and rover which were part of the Chandrayaan-2 mission, crashed on the surface. The second lander and rover mission Chandrayaan-3 successfully landed on the Moon on 23 August 2023, making India the first nation to successfully land
708-578: A dead language in the most common usage of the term. Pollock's notion of the "death of Sanskrit" remains in this unclear realm between academia and public opinion when he says that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead." Lunar south pole The lunar south pole is the southernmost point on the Moon . It is of interest to scientists because of the occurrence of water ice in permanently shadowed areas around it. The lunar south pole region features craters that are unique in that
885-412: A deal with Japan's JAXA to conduct a feasibility study for another joint lunar roving mission named Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX). For which a technical demonstration of soft landing was required to be conducted with Chandrayaan-2 mission. In 2018, the mission faced its second delay after ISRO made design changes for the spacecraft as well as changes in its maneuver where the lander would orbit
1062-433: A focus on Indian philosophies and Sanskrit. Though written in a number of different scripts, the dominant language of Hindu texts has been Sanskrit. It or a hybrid form of Sanskrit became the preferred language of Mahayana Buddhism scholarship; for example, one of the early and influential Buddhist philosophers, Nagarjuna (~200 CE), used Classical Sanskrit as the language for his texts. According to Renou, Sanskrit had
1239-532: A follow-up mission worth ₹ 425 crore (US$ 51 million) was already being planned and was targeted for a launch in 2012. Abdul Kalam suggested for collaboration between India and the United States for the Chandrayaan-2 mission, which would soft land near the lunar south pole and perform robotic penetrations into the surface to study more about the lunar water. However, an agreement had already been signed in
1416-501: A half years. The Orbiter High-Resolution Camera (OHRC) during the time remained the most advanced camera in the lunar orbit with a spatial resolution of 25 cm (9.8 in), four times higher than Chandrayaan-1 orbiter's 1 m (3 ft 3 in) resolution. The orbiter is currently studying the lava tubes and caves which were previously spotted by the Chandrayaan-1 orbiter. With the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter already operational and
1593-418: A higher thrust which made the errors accumulate over time, the lander being unable to turn very fast because it was not expected to perform at such a high pace turning and the final reason was the small 500x500 m landing site chosen that left the lander with less room for error. Two months after the failure of Chandrayaan-2, the third mission was proposed with the lander and rover being the primary components of
1770-581: A language competed with numerous, less exact vernacular Indian languages called Prakritic languages ( prākṛta - ). The term prakrta literally means "original, natural, normal, artless", states Franklin Southworth . The relationship between Prakrit and Sanskrit is found in Indian texts dated to the 1st millennium CE. Patañjali acknowledged that Prakrit is the first language, one instinctively adopted by every child with all its imperfections and later leads to
1947-643: A limited role in the Theravada tradition (formerly known as the Hinayana) but the Prakrit works that have survived are of doubtful authenticity. Some of the canonical fragments of the early Buddhist traditions, discovered in the 20th century, suggest the early Buddhist traditions used an imperfect and reasonably good Sanskrit, sometimes with a Pali syntax, states Renou. The Mahāsāṃghika and Mahavastu, in their late Hinayana forms, used hybrid Sanskrit for their literature. Sanskrit
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#17328477647082124-515: A magnetic anomaly due to the remnants of metal iron that was emplaced by the impactor that formed the South Pole–Aitken basin (SPA basin). However, the concentration of iron that is thought to be in the basin was not present in the mappings, as they could be too deep in the Moon's crust for the mappings to detect. Or the magnetic anomaly is caused by another factor that does not involve metallic properties. The findings were proven inadequate due to
2301-463: A mimic of Chandrayaan-2's lunar landing site in Challakere with craters that measured 10 m (33 ft) in diameter and were 3 m (9.8 ft) deep. This site was used for testing the electronics of the lander and rover. The project was now estimated to cost ₹ 600 crore (US$ 72 million) and was expected to launch in the first quarter of 2018 on GSLV MK-II . Later in 2017, India signed
2478-454: A natural part of the earliest Vedic language, and that these developed in the centuries after the composition had been completed, and as a gradual unconscious process during the oral transmission by generations of reciters. The primary source for this argument is internal evidence of the text which betrays an instability of the phenomenon of retroflexion, with the same phrases having sandhi-induced retroflexion in some parts but not other. This
2655-479: A negative evidence to Pollock's hypothesis, but it is not positive evidence. A closer look at Sanskrit in the Indian history after the 12th century suggests that Sanskrit survived despite the odds. According to Hanneder, On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read will probably convince most people that it cannot be
2832-546: A pan-Indo-Aryan accessibility to information and knowledge in the ancient and medieval times, in contrast to the Prakrit languages which were understood just regionally. It created a cultural bond across the subcontinent. As local languages and dialects evolved and diversified, Sanskrit served as the common language. It connected scholars from distant parts of South Asia such as Tamil Nadu and Kashmir, states Deshpande, as well as those from different fields of studies, though there must have been differences in its pronunciation given
3009-409: A primary mission of proving the landing technology. The mission was carrying 30 kg (66 lb) of scientific instruments, including a robotic arm for soil samples and possible drilling hardware. The launch took place on a Soyuz-2.1b rocket with Fregat upper stage, from Vostochny Cosmodrome . On August 23, 2023 12:34 UTC , India 's Chandrayaan-3 became the first lunar mission to achieve
3186-499: A propulsion module, a lander, and a rover. It was expected to launch a year later in November 2020. On 19 December 2019, P Veeramuthuvel was appointed as the director of the mission. The work on the project was underway come January 2020 and K. Sivan revealed that the launch may happen in early 2021 with the total cost of the project being ₹ 615 crore (US$ 74 million). Later in March,
3363-573: A refined and standardized grammatical form that emerged in the mid-1st millennium BCE and was codified in the most comprehensive of ancient grammars, the Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight chapters') of Pāṇini . The greatest dramatist in Sanskrit, Kālidāsa , wrote in classical Sanskrit, and the foundations of modern arithmetic were first described in classical Sanskrit. The two major Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and
3540-534: A restrained language from which archaisms and unnecessary formal alternatives were excluded". The Classical form of the language simplified the sandhi rules but retained various aspects of the Vedic language, while adding rigor and flexibilities, so that it had sufficient means to express thoughts as well as being "capable of responding to the future increasing demands of an infinitely diversified literature", according to Renou. Pāṇini included numerous "optional rules" beyond
3717-439: A similar phonetic structure to Tamil. Hock et al. quoting George Hart state that there was influence of Old Tamil on Sanskrit. Hart compared Old Tamil and Classical Sanskrit to arrive at a conclusion that there was a common language from which these features both derived – "that both Tamil and Sanskrit derived their shared conventions, metres, and techniques from a common source, for it is clear that neither borrowed directly from
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#17328477647083894-469: A soft landing near the lunar south pole. The mission consisted of a lander and a rover for carrying out scientific experiments. The IM-1 Odysseus lander has taken about six days to travel from the Earth to the Moon. Once in the vicinity of the Moon, the lander spent approximately one more Earth-day orbiting the Moon. This set February 22, 2024 at 11:24 PM UTC as the lander's lunar landing date. The initial aim
4071-419: A source due to sublimation , which would be a strong function of temperature in the prevailing ultra high vacuum condition, then, in the absence of fresh sources during the measurement phase, the increase/decrease in the concentration measured by ChACE should be at the cost of what M has detected in the form of ice; which means, the peak measurement recorded may be due to the presence of many water ice sources and
4248-560: A spacecraft in the lunar south pole region, and the fourth country to soft land on the Moon after the Soviet Union , the United States and China . The Indian space programme had begun with no intentions of undertaking sophisticated initiatives like human spaceflight and extraterrestrial missions during the initial days. It was only after ISRO developed the capabilities of creating satellites and orbital launch vehicles like PSLV , that
4425-463: Is 88.5 degrees from the plane of the ecliptic.) The lunar south pole has shifted 5.5 degrees from its original position billions of years ago. This shift has changed the rotational axis of the Moon, allowing sunlight to reach previously shadowed areas, but the south pole still features some completely shadowed areas. Conversely, the pole also contains areas with permanent exposure to sunlight. The south pole region features many craters and basins such as
4602-692: Is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages . It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late Bronze Age . Sanskrit is the sacred language of Hinduism , the language of classical Hindu philosophy , and of historical texts of Buddhism and Jainism . It was a link language in ancient and medieval South Asia, and upon transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia, East Asia and Central Asia in
4779-712: Is a planned lunar sample-return mission of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and will be the fourth mission in its Chandrayaan programme. It consists of four modules namely Transfer module (TM), Lander module (LM), Ascender module (AM) and Reentry Module (RM). The planned mission life is 1 lunar day , and the landing site is near to Statio Shiv Shakti , the landing site of Chandrayaan-3's Lander. On August 20, 2024, ISRO Chairman S Somnath announced plans for Chandrayaan-5. Building upon this foundation subsequent missions, such as Chandrayaan-5 and Chandrayaan-6 , will explore long-term presence on
4956-508: Is akin to that of Latin and Ancient Greek in Europe. Sanskrit has significantly influenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent , particularly the languages of the northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent. Sanskrit declined starting about and after the 13th century. This coincides with the beginning of Islamic invasions of South Asia to create, and thereafter expand
5133-415: Is carrying forward the research from the orbit and is expected to operate until 2026. The first soft landing and on-site science mission of Chandrayaan-3 conducted the first experiments in the lunar south pole region thus contributing to the understanding of the region which holds the potential for a future crewed lunar base . The presence of water on the Moon has always been a matter of intense debate since
5310-474: Is deemed to be a compelling place for future exploration missions and suitable for a lunar outpost. The permanently shadowed places on the Moon could contain ice and other minerals, which would be vital resources for future explorers. The mountain peaks near the pole are illuminated for large periods of time and could be used to provide solar energy to an outpost. With an outpost on the Moon, scientists will be able to analyze water and other volatile samples dating to
5487-452: Is found in the writing of Bharata Muni , the author of the ancient Natya Shastra text. The early Jain scholar Namisādhu acknowledged the difference, but disagreed that the Prakrit language was a corruption of Sanskrit. Namisādhu stated that the Prakrit language was the pūrvam ('came before, origin') and that it came naturally to children, while Sanskrit was a refinement of Prakrit through "purification by grammar". Sanskrit belongs to
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5664-524: Is rare in the later version of the language. The Homerian Greek, like Ṛg-vedic Sanskrit, deploys simile extensively, but they are structurally very different. The early Vedic form of the Sanskrit language was far less homogenous compared to the Classical Sanskrit as defined by grammarians by about the mid-1st millennium BCE. According to Richard Gombrich—an Indologist and a scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli and Buddhist Studies—the archaic Vedic Sanskrit found in
5841-479: Is taken along with evidence of controversy, for example, in passages of the Aitareya-Āraṇyaka (700 BCE), which features a discussion on whether retroflexion is valid in particular cases. The Ṛg-veda is a collection of books, created by multiple authors. These authors represented different generations, and the mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest while the mandalas 1 and 10 are relatively the youngest. Yet,
6018-580: Is the predominant language of one of the largest collection of historic manuscripts. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st century BCE, such as the Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana and Ghosundi-Hathibada (Chittorgarh) . Though developed and nurtured by scholars of orthodox schools of Hinduism, Sanskrit has been the language for some of the key literary works and theology of heterodox schools of Indian philosophies such as Buddhism and Jainism. The structure and capabilities of
6195-526: The Bhagavata Purana , the Panchatantra and many other texts are all in the Sanskrit language. The Classical Sanskrit with its exacting grammar was thus the language of the Indian scholars and the educated classes, while others communicated with approximate or ungrammatical variants of it as well as other natural Indian languages. Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside
6372-568: The Dalai Lama , the Sanskrit language is a parent language that is at the foundation of many modern languages of India and the one that promoted Indian thought to other distant countries. In Tibetan Buddhism, states the Dalai Lama, Sanskrit language has been a revered one and called legjar lhai-ka or "elegant language of the gods". It has been the means of transmitting the "profound wisdom of Buddhist philosophy" to Tibet. The Sanskrit language created
6549-613: The Indo-European family of languages . It is one of the three earliest ancient documented languages that arose from a common root language now referred to as Proto-Indo-European : Other Indo-European languages distantly related to Sanskrit include archaic and Classical Latin ( c. 600 BCE–100 CE, Italic languages ), Gothic (archaic Germanic language , c. 350 CE ), Old Norse ( c. 200 CE and after), Old Avestan ( c. late 2nd millennium BCE ) and Younger Avestan ( c. 900 BCE). The closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in
6726-467: The Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M) an imaging spectrometer on board the Chandrayaan-1 orbiter also detected the presence of water. While observing the reflectance spectra of the Moon, it observed the absorption features of the water ice which are in the 1.0-2.5 μm wavelength region. The shadowed regions that received the reflected light were chosen for the study with water ice being found near
6903-744: The Rigveda had already evolved in the Vedic period, as evidenced in the later Vedic literature. Gombrich posits that the language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit, while the archaic Vedic Sanskrit had by the Buddha 's time become unintelligible to all except ancient Indian sages. The formalization of the Saṃskṛta language is credited to Pāṇini , along with Patañjali's Mahābhāṣya and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patañjali's work. Panini composed Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight-Chapter Grammar'), which became
7080-532: The Rigveda , a collection of 1,028 hymns composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE by Indo-Aryan tribes migrating east from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across northern Pakistan and into northwestern India. Vedic Sanskrit interacted with the preexisting ancient languages of the subcontinent, absorbing names of newly encountered plants and animals; in addition, the ancient Dravidian languages influenced Sanskrit's phonology and syntax. Sanskrit can also more narrowly refer to Classical Sanskrit ,
7257-526: The Rāmāyaṇa , however, were composed in a range of oral storytelling registers called Epic Sanskrit which was used in northern India between 400 BCE and 300 CE, and roughly contemporary with classical Sanskrit. In the following centuries, Sanskrit became tradition-bound, stopped being learned as a first language, and ultimately stopped developing as a living language. The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to
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7434-459: The South Pole–Aitken basin , which appears to be one of the most fundamental features of the Moon, and mountains, such as Epsilon Peak at 9.050 km, taller than any mountain found on Earth. The south pole temperature averages approximately 260 K (−13 °C; 8 °F). The pole defined by the rotational axis of the Moon lies within Shackleton Crater . Notable craters nearest to
7611-495: The formation of the Solar System . Scientists used LOLA (Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter), which was a device used by NASA to provide an accurate topographic model of the Moon. With this data, locations near the south pole at Connecting Ridge, which connects Shackleton to the crater de Gerlache , were found that yielded sunlight for 92.27–95.65% of the time based on altitude ranging from 2 m above ground to 10 m above ground. At
7788-406: The sandhi rules, both internal and external. Quite many words found in the early Vedic Sanskrit language are never found in late Vedic Sanskrit or Classical Sanskrit literature, while some words have different and new meanings in Classical Sanskrit when contextually compared to the early Vedic Sanskrit literature. Arthur Macdonell was among the early colonial era scholars who summarized some of
7965-500: The verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- is a compound word consisting of sáṃ ('together, good, well, perfected') and kṛta - ('made, formed, work'). It connotes a work that has been "well prepared, pure and perfect, polished, sacred". According to Biderman, the perfection contextually being referred to in the etymological origins of the word is its tonal—rather than semantic—qualities. Sound and oral transmission were highly valued qualities in ancient India, and its sages refined
8142-414: The 13th century, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared, perhaps in the "fires that periodically engulfed the capital of Kashmir" or the "Mongol invasion of 1320" states Pollock. The Sanskrit literature which was once widely disseminated out of the northwest regions of the subcontinent, stopped after the 12th century. As Hindu kingdoms fell in the eastern and
8319-521: The 7th century where he established a major center of learning and language translation under the patronage of Emperor Taizong. By the early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas to Southeast Asia, parts of the East Asia and the Central Asia. It was accepted as a language of high culture and the preferred language by some of the local ruling elites in these regions. According to
8496-519: The Chandrayaan project which would consist of an orbiter that would conduct mineralogical and chemical mapping of the surface. During the assembly of the orbiter only mission, then president A.P.J. Abdul Kalam visited the ISRO office and advised that orbiter alone would not suffice and proposed of another instrument that could be dropped on the surface. Following the advice, the scientists made design changes to
8673-425: The Classical Sanskrit language launched ancient Indian speculations about "the nature and function of language", what is the relationship between words and their meanings in the context of a community of speakers, whether this relationship is objective or subjective, discovered or is created, how individuals learn and relate to the world around them through language, and about the limits of language? They speculated on
8850-521: The Dravidian languages borrowed from Sanskrit vocabulary, but they have also affected Sanskrit on deeper levels of structure, "for instance in the domain of phonology where Indo-Aryan retroflexes have been attributed to Dravidian influence". Similarly, Ferenc Ruzca states that all the major shifts in Indo-Aryan phonetics over two millennia can be attributed to the constant influence of a Dravidian language with
9027-513: The Dravidian words and forms, without modifying the word order; but the same thing is not possible in rendering a Persian or English sentence into a non-Indo-Aryan language. Shulman mentions that "Dravidian nonfinite verbal forms (called vinaiyeccam in Tamil) shaped the usage of the Sanskrit nonfinite verbs (originally derived from inflected forms of action nouns in Vedic). This particularly salient case of
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#17328477647089204-469: The Indo-Aryan language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit . The earliest attested Sanskrit text is the Rigveda , a Hindu scripture from the mid- to late-second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally confident that
9381-507: The Indo-European languages are the Nuristani languages found in the remote Hindu Kush region of northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Himalayas, as well as the extinct Avestan and Old Persian – both are Iranian languages . Sanskrit belongs to the satem group of the Indo-European languages. Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of
9558-454: The M was used by the scientist at University of Hawaiʻi , Dr. Shuai Li and his team to research lunar water in the dark craters of the poles. Since the data was patchy and hard for them to work with the dark craters, they used the traces of sunlight that had bounced off crater walls and analyzed the spectral data to find places where the three specific wavelengths (in the range of 1.0-2.5 μm) of near-infrared light were absorbed that indicated
9735-618: The Moon after Soviet Union, United States and China. Soon after the touchdown, the rover Pragyan got down of the ramp and drove 8 m (26 ft) making India only the third country to operate a robotic rover on the Moon after Soviet Union and China. The Chandrayaan programme consists of robotic explorers such as the Moon Impact Probe (MIP) an impactor, Chandrayaan-1 and 2 the orbiters, Vikram lander and Pragyaan rover. The Moon Impact Probe (MIP) weighed 35 kg (77 lb) with 25 minutes of expected operating duration. It carried
9912-452: The Moon to assess the performance of various systems before performing landing. This was contrary to the previous plan where the lander would directly descend after arriving in the designated orbit. A fifth engine was added to the lander, the diameter of the landing legs was increased, two additional propellant tanks were added and additional support systems for power, structure, and thermal control were also provided. This significantly increased
10089-556: The Moon to carry forward further explorations, with the robotic programme planned to continue beyond crewed landings. Soon after the proposals by the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1999 and by the Astronautical Society of India in 2000, a National Lunar Mission Task Force (NLMTF) was set up which constituted ISRO and leading Indian scientists and technologists across the nation to conduct the feasibility study. The study report
10266-626: The Moon, including the potential development of habitats. Each flight is designed to progressively expand India's capabilities in lunar exploration, potentially with the co-operation of all Artemis accords signatories. In an Interview ISRO chairman S Somanath has informed that India will continue sending lunar missions until an indeginious manned mission, with the program also continuing after that. Sanskrit Sanskrit ( / ˈ s æ n s k r ɪ t / ; attributively 𑀲𑀁𑀲𑁆𑀓𑀾𑀢𑀁 , संस्कृत- , saṃskṛta- ; nominally संस्कृतम् , saṃskṛtam , IPA: [ˈsɐ̃skr̩tɐm] )
10443-413: The Moon, then was circling the natural satellite for another five to seven days. The spacecraft then was planned to be set down in the Moon's south polar region, near the crater Boguslawsky . Luna developed an "emergency situation" that occurred during the reduction of the probe to a pre-landing orbit. The lunar lander abruptly lost communication at 2:57 p.m. (11:57 GMT). Luna 25 was a lander only, with
10620-510: The Moon. While the other scientific missions at the time usually had a 100 m (330 ft) resolution, many of TMC's images had a sharp resolution of 5 m (16 ft) thus enabling the production of a detailed map of the Moon. During mapping Rilles and Lava tubes on the lunar surface, the TMC discovered a large lava tube near the equator (specifically in the Oceanus Procellarum , to
10797-521: The Muslim rule in the form of Sultanates, and later the Mughal Empire . Sheldon Pollock characterises the decline of Sanskrit as a long-term "cultural, social, and political change". He dismisses the idea that Sanskrit declined due to "struggle with barbarous invaders", and emphasises factors such as the increasing attractiveness of vernacular language for literary expression. With the fall of Kashmir around
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#173284776470810974-489: The Muslim rulers. Hindu rulers such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire , reversed the process, by re-adopting Sanskrit and re-asserting their socio-linguistic identity. After Islamic rule disintegrated in South Asia and the colonial rule era began, Sanskrit re-emerged but in the form of a "ghostly existence" in regions such as Bengal. This decline was the result of "political institutions and civic ethos" that did not support
11151-545: The Russian request to accept the risk meant that India had to undertake the entire project independently. With Mars transfer window arriving in the 2013, ISRO repurposed the unused Chandrayaan-2 orbiter hardware for the Mars Orbiter Mission . With the Russian agreement falling apart, India was left alone and now had complete responsibility for the project including the development of lander technology. For which, ISRO created
11328-488: The Saṃskṛta language, both in its vocabulary and grammar, to the classical languages of Europe. In The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World , Mallory and Adams illustrate the resemblance with the following examples of cognate forms (with the addition of Old English for further comparison): The correspondences suggest some common root, and historical links between some of
11505-616: The South India, such as the great Vijayanagara Empire , so did Sanskrit. There were exceptions and short periods of imperial support for Sanskrit, mostly concentrated during the reign of the tolerant Mughal emperor Akbar . Muslim rulers patronized the Middle Eastern language and scripts found in Persia and Arabia, and the Indians linguistically adapted to this Persianization to gain employment with
11682-481: The Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC) which had a spatial resolution of 5 m (16 ft) and Radiation Dose Monitor (RADOM) were switched on for operations. Post deployment of MIP, rest of the nine scientific instruments began operations. On 25 November 2008, just a couple of weeks after entering lunar orbit, the orbiter's temperature rose to 50 °C (122 °F) after receiving equal amounts of heat from
11859-447: The Vedic Sanskrit in these books of the Ṛg-veda "hardly presents any dialectical diversity", states Louis Renou – an Indologist known for his scholarship of the Sanskrit literature and the Ṛg-veda in particular. According to Renou, this implies that the Vedic Sanskrit language had a "set linguistic pattern" by the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Beyond the Ṛg-veda, the ancient literature in Vedic Sanskrit that has survived into
12036-451: The Vedic Sanskrit's bahulam framework, to respect liberty and creativity so that individual writers separated by geography or time would have the choice to express facts and their views in their own way, where tradition followed competitive forms of the Sanskrit language. The phonetic differences between Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit, as discerned from the current state of the surviving literature, are negligible when compared to
12213-455: The alphabet, the structure of words, and its exacting grammar into a "collection of sounds, a kind of sublime musical mold" as an integral language they called Saṃskṛta . From the late Vedic period onwards, state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, resonating sound and its musical foundations attracted an "exceptionally large amount of linguistic, philosophical and religious literature" in India. Sound
12390-440: The capacity to understand the old Prakrit languages such as Ardhamagadhi . A section of European scholars state that Sanskrit was never a spoken language. However, evidences shows that Sanskrit was a spoken language, essential for oral tradition that preserved the vast number of Sanskrit manuscripts from ancient India. The textual evidence in the works of Yaksa, Panini, and Patanajali affirms that Classical Sanskrit in their era
12567-483: The centrally mounted fifth engine lacked the capability. This enabled the lander to control the attitude and thrust during all phases of descent. The attitude correction rate was also increased from Chandrayaan-2's 10°/s to 25°/s with Chandrayaan-3. An additional laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) was equipped that allowed attitude measurements in all three directions. The impact legs were made larger and stronger relative to Chandrayaan-2. The OHRC onboard Chandrayaan-2 enabled
12744-517: The close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the Baltic and Slavic languages , vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic languages , and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna. The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on
12921-423: The composition of the tenuous lunar exosphere through mass spectroscopy. On 12 November 2008, the MIP separated from the Chandrayaan-1 orbiter and began its descent to the surface, during which it detected the clear presence of molecules with atomic mass unit 18 i.e., water. The ionized water molecules ( H2O ) and their fragments (such as H and OH ions) were detected by ChACE. Three months later,
13098-609: The context of a speech or language, is found in verses 5.28.17–19 of the Ramayana . Outside the learned sphere of written Classical Sanskrit, vernacular colloquial dialects ( Prakrits ) continued to evolve. Sanskrit co-existed with numerous other Prakrit languages of ancient India. The Prakrit languages of India also have ancient roots and some Sanskrit scholars have called these Apabhramsa , literally 'spoiled'. The Vedic literature includes words whose phonetic equivalent are not found in other Indo-European languages but which are found in
13275-639: The crystallization of Classical Sanskrit. As in this period the Indo-Aryan tribes had not yet made contact with the inhabitants of the South of the subcontinent, this suggests a significant presence of Dravidian speakers in North India (the central Gangetic plain and the classical Madhyadeśa) who were instrumental in this substratal influence on Sanskrit. Extant manuscripts in Sanskrit number over 30 million, one hundred times those in Greek and Latin combined, constituting
13452-419: The decline may be due to fewer such sources and while M mapped the water ice sources on the surface the MIP detected the vapour generated from these sources, thus complementing each other. Despite the Chandrayaan-1 mission ending a year earlier than the intended duration of two years, the data recorded from the instruments onboard over 310 days were very useful even a decade later. In 2018, the data obtained from
13629-455: The descent and landing, the onboard computers had complete control over the lander. The initial descent and critical braking procedures went as intended but upon reaching 2.1 km (1.3 mi) altitude, the lander began deviating and lost its contact with the mission control after subsequent crash landing. Upon analysis, it was found that the main engines had higher thrust than normal which led to errors being accumulated over time and this meant
13806-416: The descent to the surface, the contact with the lander was lost after it crash-landed. According to the chairman K. Sivan , the lander was operating as expected until it was just 2.1 km (1.3 mi) above the surface when it started deviating from the intended trajectory. Four years later, ISRO chairman S. Somanath revealed three major reasons for the failure, the presence of five engines that generated
13983-467: The detailed and sophisticated treatise then transmitted it through his students. Modern scholarship generally accepts that he knew of a form of writing, based on references to words such as Lipi ('script') and lipikara ('scribe') in section 3.2 of the Aṣṭādhyāyī . The Classical Sanskrit language formalized by Pāṇini, states Renou, is "not an impoverished language", rather it is "a controlled and
14160-467: The differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit. Louis Renou published in 1956, in French, a more extensive discussion of the similarities, the differences and the evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit within the Vedic period and then to the Classical Sanskrit along with his views on the history. This work has been translated by Jagbans Balbir. The earliest known use of the word Saṃskṛta (Sanskrit), in
14337-413: The discovery of lunar water . It continues to provide scientific data and high-resolution imagery thanks to Orbiter High Resolution Camera (OHRC) which is the most advanced lunar camera so far with 25 cm (9.8 in) spatial resolution and it is currently operational onboard Chandrayaan-2's orbiter. Chandrayaan-1 lost its contact a year before its intended duration, however, the Chandrayaan-2's orbiter
14514-456: The distant major ancient languages of the world. The Indo-Aryan migrations theory explains the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages by proposing that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in South Asia from a region of common origin, somewhere north-west of the Indus region , during the early 2nd millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes
14691-483: The early medieval era, it became a language of religion and high culture , and of the political elites in some of these regions. As a result, Sanskrit had a lasting impact on the languages of South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in their formal and learned vocabularies. Sanskrit generally connotes several Old Indo-Aryan language varieties. The most archaic of these is the Vedic Sanskrit found in
14868-410: The elemental composition and its abundance near the landing site. It was designed to travel at a speed of 1 cm/s (0.39 in/s) and could drive up to 500 m (1,600 ft) in its lifetime. Both the lander and rover were expected to operate for one lunar day as they lacked any Radioisotope heater unit (RHU) and were entirely dependent on solar power for operations. The Chandrayaan-2's Pragyaan
15045-554: The estimated fuel availability and the safety to GEO spacecraft, the optimal Earth return trajectory was designed for October 2023. It operated until 22 August 2024. The lander was named Vikram and it weighed 1,471 kg (3,243 lb) including the 27 kg (60 lb) rover named Pragyan that it housed inside. Vikram had eight 58 N (13 lb f ) thrusters for attitude control and five 800 N (180 lb f ) liquid main engines that were derived from ISRO's 400 N (90 lb f ) liquid apogee motors and it
15222-451: The extreme temperature variations on the lunar surface. Intended hard landing Successful soft landing Unsuccessful soft landing 89°46′S 39°24′W / 89.76°S 39.40°W / -89.76; -39.40 70°52′52″S 22°47′02″E / 70.8810°S 22.7840°E / -70.8810; 22.7840 With successful demonstration in soft landing and roving,
15399-406: The fact that it does not indicate either a steady rise or decline or a constant level in its profile, could possibly be due to contamination of water from Earth. Adding to the concerns was the M's profile which showed a steady increase towards the south pole, unlike ChACE which saw a decline beyond 70 degrees south. But according to Indian mathematician Ramaiyengar Sridharan , if the water ice acts as
15576-412: The failure of the Chandrayaan-1 orbiter, the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter enabled ISRO to conduct science with modern cameras and instruments. The primary objectives of this mission were to soft land on the surface and operate a rover, to study the lunar surface, its exosphere , minerals and water ice . While the Chandrayaan-2 composite (orbiter, lander and rover) weighed 3,850 kg (8,490 lb) in total,
15753-471: The final vertical descent phase. It then used two of its four engines to slow its descent to 150 m (490 ft) and then hovered twice for about thirty seconds before touching down on the chosen optimal spot. On 3 September 2023, before putting Vikram to sleep mode, ISRO conducted a hop on the lunar surface by firing its engines that moved it 40 cm (16 in) vertically as well as laterally before touching down again. The hop experiment proved to be
15930-543: The first language of the respective speakers. The Sanskrit language brought Indo-Aryan speaking people together, particularly its elite scholars. Some of these scholars of Indian history regionally produced vernacularized Sanskrit to reach wider audiences, as evidenced by texts discovered in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. Once the audience became familiar with the easier to understand vernacularized version of Sanskrit, those interested could graduate from colloquial Sanskrit to
16107-412: The foundation of Vyākaraṇa, a Vedānga . The Aṣṭādhyāyī was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar, but it is the earliest that has survived in full, and the culmination of a long grammatical tradition that Fortson says, is "one of the intellectual wonders of the ancient world". Pāṇini cites ten scholars on the phonological and grammatical aspects of the Sanskrit language before him, as well as
16284-401: The funding of missions focusing primarily on the lunar poles using global-scale infrared detection. The ice stays in these traps because of the thermal behavior of the Moon that are controlled by thermophysical properties such as scattered sunlight, thermal re-radiation , internal heat and light given off by the Earth. There are areas of the Moon where the crust is magnetized. This is known as
16461-537: The gods Varuna, Mitra, Indra, and Nasatya found in the earliest layers of the Vedic literature. O Bṛhaspati, when in giving names they first set forth the beginning of Language, Their most excellent and spotless secret was laid bare through love, When the wise ones formed Language with their mind, purifying it like grain with a winnowing fan, Then friends knew friendships – an auspicious mark placed on their language. — Rigveda 10.71.1–4 Translated by Roger Woodard The Vedic Sanskrit found in
16638-490: The government confirmed that the launch could take place in the first half of 2021. The earlier addition of the fifth engine in the Chandrayaan-2's lander that caused the additional thrust was now removed from the design of Chandrayaan-3. Like Chandrayaan-2, the testing for the lander was to be conducted in Challakere where ISRO's previously built Moon like site with craters had deteriorated. A total of ₹ 24.2 lakh (US$ 29,000)
16815-431: The historic Sanskrit literary culture and the failure of new Sanskrit literature to assimilate into the changing cultural and political environment. Sheldon Pollock states that in some crucial way, "Sanskrit is dead ". After the 12th century, the Sanskrit literary works were reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses. This contrasted with
16992-476: The inconsistencies between the maps that were used, and also, they were not able to detect the magnitude of the magnetic fluctuations at the Moon's surface. Orbiters from several countries have explored the region around the lunar south pole. Extensive studies were conducted by the Lunar Orbiters , Clementine , Lunar Prospector , Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter , Kaguya , and Chandrayaan-1 , that discovered
17169-449: The initial plan was to operate SHAPE for about three months during the mission life of orbiter, the precise lower earth orbit injection by LVM3 and optimal earth / lunar burn maneuvers, resulted in the availability of over 100 kg (220 lb) of fuel in the orbiter after over one month of operations in the lunar orbit. It was decided to use the available fuel in it to derive additional information for future lunar missions and demonstrate
17346-478: The intense change that must have occurred in the pre-Vedic period between the Proto-Indo-Aryan language and Vedic Sanskrit. The noticeable differences between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit include the much-expanded grammar and grammatical categories as well as the differences in the accent, the semantics and the syntax. There are also some differences between how some of the nouns and verbs end, as well as
17523-631: The lander could not change its attitude at such a fast pace due to safety constraints in the onboard computer that had a limit on the maximum rate with which it can change its attitude. Coarse throttling of main engines, error in computing the remaining time in the mission and a small landing site of 500 x 500 m were the other reasons attributed to the failure. Chandrayaan-3's Vikram lander had underwent major changes after its predecessor crash landed. There were now four instead of five main engines that provided 800 N (180 lb f ) of thrust and had slew rate changing capabilities, unlike previously when
17700-426: The lander that had previously reduced its orbit to 25 km × 134 km (16 mi × 83 mi) via de-orbit burns, began descending using all of its four engines after it reached near its Periselene at 30 km (19 mi). Roughly after eleven minutes of powered descent, the lander maintained the altitude of 7.5 km (4.7 mi) for 10 seconds before changing its attitude to vertical position for
17877-432: The largest cultural heritage that any civilization has produced prior to the invention of the printing press. — Foreword of Sanskrit Computational Linguistics (2009), Gérard Huet, Amba Kulkarni and Peter Scharf Sanskrit has been the predominant language of Hindu texts encompassing a rich tradition of philosophical and religious texts, as well as poetry, music, drama , scientific , technical and others. It
18054-435: The last century. The first study for the lunar water was conducted in 1961 and it revealed that the polar regions, which have a high density of cold traps , have more probability of lunar water ice than the equatorial regions. The samples returned from the equatorial region during Apollo programme failed to provide definitive evidence, reinforcing the need for research on the lunar poles. Since there hadn't been any missions to
18231-412: The launch targeted for the first or second week of July. On 14 July 2023, Chandrayaan-3 was successfully launched on LVM3 and was inserted in the lunar sphere of gravitational influence on 5 August 2023. On 23 August 2023, the lander Vikram successfully soft landed in the lunar south pole region, achieving humanity's first soft landing in the region and making India the fourth country to soft land on
18408-404: The launch was targeted for 2013. The project then hit a roadblock when Russia delayed its development of the lander due to failure of its Fobos-Grunt mission which revealed technical issues in the similar parts that would be used in the lunar lander. Russia then proposed a few changes which required ISRO to decrease mass of its rover due to increase in the mass of the lander. A delayed timeline and
18585-448: The launch was then targeted for the second quarter of the year. Final cost for the Chandrayaan-2 project was around ₹ 800 crore (US$ 96 million). On 22 July 2019, Chandrayaan-2 was finally launched on LVM3 putting an end to several roadblocks that hit the mission during the decade. After orbit-raising maneuvers and finally the trans lunar injection, Chandrayaan-2 attained the lunar Orbit on 20 August. On 6 September 2019, during
18762-412: The linguistic expression and sets the standard for the Sanskrit language. Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced. Despite differences in the analysis from that of modern linguistics, Pāṇini's work has been found valuable and
18939-503: The literary works. The Indian tradition, states Winternitz , has favored the learning and the usage of multiple languages from the ancient times. Sanskrit was a spoken language in the educated and the elite classes, but it was also a language that must have been understood in a wider circle of society because the widely popular folk epics and stories such as the Ramayana , the Mahabharata ,
19116-416: The lunar poles and since the poles had been speculated to harbour the water ice, Moon Impact Probe's impact site was chosen in the lunar south pole to search for firm evidence of the same in the lunar atmosphere. The Chandra's Altitudinal Composition (ChACE) was one of the three scientific instruments on board the Chandrayaan-1's Moon Impact Probe (MIP). It was a mass spectrometer that was developed to study
19293-727: The lunar south pole include de Gerlache , Sverdrup , Shoemaker , Faustini , Haworth , Nobile , and Cabeus . The lunar south pole features a region with crater rims exposed to near-constant solar illumination, yet the interior of the craters are permanently shaded from sunlight. The area's illumination was studied using high-resolution digital models produced from data by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter . The lunar surface can also reflect solar wind as energetic neutral atoms. On average, 16% of these atoms have been protons that vary based on location. These atoms have created an integral flux of backscattered hydrogen atoms due to
19470-549: The lunar south pole region has enough sustainable resources to sustain a permanent crewed station. The LRO carries the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment, which investigates the radiation and thermophysical properties of the south pole surface. It can detect reflected solar radiation and internal infrared emissions. The LRO Diviner is able to detect where water ice could be trapped on the surface. The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite ( LCROSS )
19647-415: The lunar surface include, among others, hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminium (Al), manganese (Mn) and titanium (Ti). Among the more abundant are oxygen, iron and silicon. The oxygen content is estimated at 45% (by weight). Blue Origin is planning a mission to the south polar region in about 2024. The Blue Moon lander derives from
19824-422: The lunar surface near the lander, with an impact velocity of about 10 m/s (22 mph). However, due to complications arising from a software patch, it was decided that EagleCam would not be ejected upon landing. It was later ejected on 28 February but was partially a failure as it returned all types of data, except post IM-1 landing images that were the main aim of its mission. The lunar south pole region
20001-504: The mass of the composite and required ISRO to upgrade the GSLV Mk-II vehicle, but the scientists felt it would be risky to fly the test flight of the uprated Mk-II with Chandrayaan-2 payload, hence a more capable and already flown LVM3 vehicle was chosen. During a landing test in February 2019, the lander suffered minor injuries in two of its legs due to a faulty orientation for the test, and
20178-414: The mission operation strategies for a sample return mission. In order to continue SHAPE payload for Earth observation, it was decided to re-orbit the orbiter to a suitable Earth orbit. This mission plan was worked out considering the collision avoidance such as preventing the orbiter from crashing on to the Moon's surface or entering into the Earth's GEO belt at 36000 km and orbits below that. Considering
20355-399: The mission to have an expanded landing site with 10 km (3.9 sq mi) landing area. The lander underwent several tests including a helicopter drop test that helped in improving the structural rigidity. In the event of a failure during descent and landing, multiple contingency systems were added to improve the survivability chances of the lander. The landing region was unchanged from
20532-511: The mission, unlike previously where the orbiter carried a greater scientific payload. The Chandrayaan-3 would be a re-attempt to demonstrate the landing capabilities needed for the LUPEX mission, a proposed partnership with Japan that was planned for 2025-26 time frame. ISRO sought ₹ 75 crore (US$ 9.0 million) from the government as initial funding for the Chandrayaan-3 project that included
20709-501: The modern age include the Samaveda , Yajurveda , Atharvaveda , along with the embedded and layered Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas , Aranyakas , and the early Upanishads . These Vedic documents reflect the dialects of Sanskrit found in the various parts of the northwestern, northern, and eastern Indian subcontinent. According to Michael Witzel, Vedic Sanskrit was a spoken language of
20886-429: The more advanced Classical Sanskrit. Rituals and the rites-of-passage ceremonies have been and continue to be the other occasions where a wide spectrum of people hear Sanskrit, and occasionally join in to speak some Sanskrit words such as namah . Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini , around the fourth century BCE. Its position in the cultures of Greater India
21063-401: The most advanced analysis of linguistics until the twentieth century. Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the start of Classical Sanskrit. His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of learning and literature for two millennia. It is unclear whether Pāṇini himself wrote his treatise or he orally created
21240-593: The most archaic poems of the Iranian and Greek language families, the Gathas of old Avestan and Iliad of Homer . As the Rigveda was orally transmitted by methods of memorisation of exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity, as a single text without variant readings, its preserved archaic syntax and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction of the common ancestor language Proto-Indo-European . Sanskrit does not have an attested native script: from around
21417-419: The most significant discovery by confirming the existence of water on Moon. This discovery was not made public until NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper payload onboard Chandrayaan-1 orbiter confirmed the same on 24 September 2009. The mission was intended to last two years, but the contact with the orbiter was lost on 28 August 2009, which officially ended the mission. After the success of the Chandrayaan-1 mission,
21594-441: The most significant test conducted by ISRO as the data would aid in future sample return missions under the programme. ISRO also attained a unique record of conducting its first vertical take-off and landing on an extraterrestrial surface before Earth; that was planned to be conducted under its Reusable technology demonstration programme . The Rover named Pragyan carried two scientific payloads that were to be used in determining
21771-417: The near-constant sunlight does not reach their interior. Such craters are cold traps that contain fossil records of hydrogen, water ice, and other volatiles dating from the early Solar System . In contrast, the lunar north pole region exhibits a much lower quantity of similarly sheltered craters. The lunar south pole is located on the center of the polar Antarctic Circle (80°S to 90°S). (The axis spin
21948-421: The need of demonstrating landing capabilities, Chandraayn-3's orbiter carried only a single payload and for its main purpose served as a propulsion module for carrying Vikram to the Moon. The Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) payload was developed to study Earth's atmosphere from distance and it would aid in the study of Exoplanets' atmospheres , which employs a similar technique. Chandrayaan-3
22125-430: The north of the rille named Rima Galilaei above the lunar equator). The tube measured about 2 km (1.2 mi) in length and 360 m (1,180 ft) in width. The lunar lava tubes are considered as potential habitation sites for future crewed outposts since they act as natural protectors from cosmic radiation , solar radiation, meteorites , micrometeorites , and ejecta from impacts. They are also insulated from
22302-583: The numbers are thought to signify a wish to be aligned with the prestige of the language. Sanskrit has been taught in traditional gurukulas since ancient times; it is widely taught today at the secondary school level. The oldest Sanskrit college is the Benares Sanskrit College founded in 1791 during East India Company rule . Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial and ritual language in Hindu and Buddhist hymns and chants . In Sanskrit,
22479-403: The oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition. However some scholars have suggested that the original Ṛg-veda differed in some fundamental ways in phonology compared to the sole surviving version available to us. In particular that retroflex consonants did not exist as
22656-476: The orbiter alone weighed 2,379 kg (5,245 lb). It carried eight scientific instruments with two of the instruments; the Terrain Mapping Camera 2 (TMC-2) and Chandrayaan-2 Atmospheric Compositional Explorer 2 (ChACE-2) being upgraded versions of Terrain Mapping camera (TMC) and Chandra's Atmospheric Compositional Explorer (CHACE) onboard Chandrayaan-1 orbiter and Moon Impact Probe respectively. The Chandrayaan-2
22833-418: The orientation of craft. The orientation was then barely maintained with the help of gyroscopes as a temporary measure before losing contact on 28 August 2009, which ended the mission a year before its intended duration. However, the mission was analyzed to be 95% successful with its intended operations. Chandrayaan-2 was the second mission under the programme and it included an orbiter, lander, and rover. After
23010-431: The other." Reinöhl further states that there is a symmetric relationship between Dravidian languages like Kannada or Tamil, with Indo-Aryan languages like Bengali or Hindi, whereas the same relationship is not found for non-Indo-Aryan languages, for example, Persian or English: A sentence in a Dravidian language like Tamil or Kannada becomes ordinarily good Bengali or Hindi by substituting Bengali or Hindi equivalents for
23187-455: The polar region. The ChACE profile indicates a steady rise in the concentration of water molecules starting from 20 degrees south to the poles, however, it peaks at 60-70 degrees south and then declines. Overlaying the M profile which begins at 43.1 degrees south depicts a complementary nature of the recordings, confirming the double evidence of lunar water near the south pole. However, the detection of water in every spectrum of ChACE coupled with
23364-481: The possibilities of India's first extraterrestrial exploration mission to the Moon were being explored in the early 2000s. The idea of a lunar scientific mission was first raised in 1999 during a meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences (IAS) which was then carried forward by the Astronautical Society of India (ASI) in 2000. The robotic exploration programme is intended as a precursor until Indian astronauts land on
23541-414: The possible influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is only one of many items of syntactic assimilation, not least among them the large repertoire of morphological modality and aspect that, once one knows to look for it, can be found everywhere in classical and postclassical Sanskrit". The main influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is found to have been concentrated in the timespan between the late Vedic period and
23718-449: The presence of lunar water . NASA's LCROSS mission found a significant amount of water in Cabeus . The LCROSS mission deliberately crashed into the floor of Cabeus and from samples found that it contained nearly 5% water. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) was launched by NASA on 18 June 2009 and is still mapping the lunar south pole region. This mission will help scientists see if
23895-421: The presence of water ice. They conducted thorough statistical analysis to ensure that their findings were not influenced by random anomalies or errors in the instruments. "I consider this to be the most convincing evidence that you actually do have true water ice at the uppermost surface — what we call the optical surface — of the Moon" , Li said on the results. Mapping and Studying the lunar surface features were
24072-439: The previous 1,500 years when "great experiments in moral and aesthetic imagination" marked the Indian scholarship using Classical Sanskrit, states Pollock. Scholars maintain that the Sanskrit language did not die, but rather only declined. Jurgen Hanneder disagrees with Pollock, finding his arguments elegant but "often arbitrary". According to Hanneder, a decline or regional absence of creative and innovative literature constitutes
24249-429: The previous mission, with the area of new site being expanded to 4 km × 2.5 km (2.5 mi × 1.6 mi) from previous 500 m × 500 m (1,600 ft × 1,600 ft). Other major changes in the new 'failure-based' approach included the removal of the fifth engine, an increase in fuel capacity, an increase in vertical velocity component, and other software changes. On 23 August 2023,
24426-466: The primary scientific objectives of Chandrayaan-1. The first images of the surface were acquired by the Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC) onboard the mission's orbiter. The CMOS camera with 5 m (16 ft) resolution and 40 km (25 mi) swath in the Panchromatic band, was activated on 29 October 2008 (within the earth's orbit) and it had captured over 70,000 images during its 3,000 orbits around
24603-467: The probe's Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE) instrument detected the presence of water. Chandrayaan-1 launched on 22 October 2008 aboard PSLV-XL was a solar-powered cuboid orbiter that weighed 1,380 kg (3,042 lb) along with the Moon Impact Probe. It was powered by a single-sided solar array during the day and supported by lithium-ion batteries at night. The attitude of
24780-480: The problems of interpretation and misunderstanding. The purifying structure of the Sanskrit language removes these imperfections. The early Sanskrit grammarian Daṇḍin states, for example, that much in the Prakrit languages is etymologically rooted in Sanskrit, but involves "loss of sounds" and corruptions that result from a "disregard of the grammar". Daṇḍin acknowledged that there are words and confusing structures in Prakrit that thrive independent of Sanskrit. This view
24957-500: The programme then moved into its next phase where a rover with greater scientific payload is to be sent to conduct on-site sample analysis. The mission named Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX) is suggested to be launched in the time frame of 2028–29. India is collaborating with Japan in this mission. It will be a lander-rover mission near lunar pole to perform on-site sampling and analysis of collected lunar material and demonstrate lunar night survival technologies. Chandrayaan-4
25134-472: The project and included an impact probe named Moon Impact Probe (MIP). The MIP was planned to be dropped from 100 km (62 mi) altitude and would acquire close-range images of the surface, collect telemetry data for future soft landing missions and measure the constituents of the lunar atmosphere. The project required India set up its deep space network and the entire project cost ₹ 360 crore (US$ 43 million). On 22 October 2008, Chandrayaan-1
25311-415: The project and pushed its tentative launch date to the third quarter of 2022. Few more changes with strengthening the landing legs, improvisation in instruments, a failure-proof configuration and additional testing meant that the new schedule for the launch was moved to second quarter of 2023. In May 2023, the spacecraft was in its final stage of the assembly of payloads at the U R Rao Satellite Centre with
25488-666: The reflected amount of plasma that exists on the surface of the Moon. They also reveal the line boundary and the magnetic dynamics within the regions of these neutral atoms on the Moon' surface. Cold traps are some of the important places on the lunar south pole region in terms of possible water ice and other volatile deposits. Cold traps can contain water and ice that were originally from comets , meteorites and solar wind -induced iron reduction. From experiments and sample readings, scientists were able to confirm that cold traps do contain ice. Hydroxyl has also been found in these cold traps. The discovery of these two compounds has led to
25665-596: The regional Prakrit languages, which makes it likely that the interaction, the sharing of words and ideas began early in the Indian history. As the Indian thought diversified and challenged earlier beliefs of Hinduism, particularly in the form of Buddhism and Jainism , the Prakrit languages such as Pali in Theravada Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi in Jainism competed with Sanskrit in the ancient times. However, states Paul Dundas , these ancient Prakrit languages had "roughly
25842-490: The relationship between various Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia. The Iranian and Indo-Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and then south into South Asia in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India,
26019-422: The rest of the scientific data and attitude information. Moon Mineralogy Mapper , an American scientific payload onboard carried its own SSR with 10 GB capacity. The orbiter-impactor composite entered the lunar sphere of gravitational influence on 8 November 2008. After orbital reduction manoeuvres, it attained an elliptical polar orbit of 100 km (62 mi), upon which, two of the eleven scientific payloads,
26196-558: The role of language, the ontological status of painting word-images through sound, and the need for rules so that it can serve as a means for a community of speakers, separated by geography or time, to share and understand profound ideas from each other. These speculations became particularly important to the Mīmāṃsā and the Nyaya schools of Hindu philosophy, and later to Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism, states Frits Staal —a scholar of Linguistics with
26373-491: The same relationship to Sanskrit as medieval Italian does to Latin". The Indian tradition states that the Buddha and the Mahavira preferred the Prakrit language so that everyone could understand it. However, scholars such as Dundas have questioned this hypothesis. They state that there is no evidence for this and whatever evidence is available suggests that by the start of the common era, hardly anybody other than learned monks had
26550-668: The same spots it was discovered that the longest continuous periods of darkness were only 3 to 5 days. The lunar south pole is a place where scientists may be able to perform unique astronomical observations of radio waves under 30 MHz. The Chinese Longjiang microsatellites were launched in May 2018 to orbit the Moon, and Longjiang-2 operated in this frequency until 31 July 2019. Before Longjiang-2 , no space observatory had been able to observe astronomical radio waves in this frequency because of interference waves from equipment on Earth. The lunar south pole has mountains and basins, such as
26727-551: The semi-nomadic Aryans . The Vedic Sanskrit language or a closely related Indo-European variant was recognized beyond ancient India as evidenced by the " Mitanni Treaty" between the ancient Hittite and Mitanni people, carved into a rock, in a region that now includes parts of Syria and Turkey. Parts of this treaty, such as the names of the Mitanni princes and technical terms related to horse training, for reasons not understood, are in early forms of Vedic Sanskrit. The treaty also invokes
26904-594: The social structures such as the role of the poet and the priests, the patronage economy, the phrasal equations, and some of the poetic metres. While there are similarities, state Jamison and Brereton, there are also differences between Vedic Sanskrit, the Old Avestan, and the Mycenaean Greek literature. For example, unlike the Sanskrit similes in the Ṛg-veda, the Old Avestan Gathas lack simile entirely, and it
27081-506: The soft landing, the ramp was deployed for the Pragyan to touch down and begin its operations on the surface. A few days later, the instruments were turned on and the rover moved 8 m (26 ft) on the surface, thus achieving the primary goal of the mission. On 3 September 2023, with the lunar night approaching, the rover was shut down and put into 'sleep mode'. The Chandrayaan programme has been vastly regarded as successful, especially with
27258-429: The south side of Malapert Mountain , that do not face Earth and would be an ideal place to receive such astronomical radio signals from a ground radio observatory. Solar power, oxygen, and metals are abundant resources in the south polar region. By locating a lunar resource processing facility near the south pole, solar-generated electrical power will allow for nearly constant operation. Elements known to be present on
27435-432: The spacecraft was controlled by three-axis stabilization method using two star sensors , gyroscopes and four reaction wheels . The scientific data transmission was conducted in X band frequencies while telemetry tracking was done in S band frequencies. To store these data, two solid-state recorders (SSR) were used with SSR-1 carrying 32 GB dedicated capacity for scientific data while SSR-2 carrying 8 GB capacity for
27612-403: The sun as well as the moon (due to its Albedo ). Efforts such as rotating the craft by 20 degrees, shutting down the mission computers, and increasing its orbit to 200 km (120 mi) were made to bring its temperature down and to avoid damaging the onboard instruments. A year later, the overheating problem was responsible for ending the mission as it damaged the star sensors which maintained
27789-641: The turn of the 1st-millennium CE, it has been written in various Brahmic scripts , and in the modern era most commonly in Devanagari . Sanskrit's status, function, and place in India's cultural heritage are recognized by its inclusion in the Constitution of India 's Eighth Schedule languages . However, despite attempts at revival, there are no first-language speakers of Sanskrit in India. In each of India's recent decennial censuses, several thousand citizens have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue, but
27966-408: The variants in the usage of Sanskrit in different regions of India. The ten Vedic scholars he quotes are Āpiśali, Kaśyapa , Gārgya, Gālava, Cakravarmaṇa, Bhāradvāja , Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, Senaka and Sphoṭāyana. In the Aṣṭādhyāyī , language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, is a classic that defines
28143-564: The vernacular Prakrits. Many Sanskrit dramas indicate that the language coexisted with the vernacular Prakrits. The cities of Varanasi , Paithan , Pune and Kanchipuram were centers of classical Sanskrit learning and public debates until the arrival of the colonial era. According to Lamotte , Sanskrit became the dominant literary and inscriptional language because of its precision in communication. It was, states Lamotte, an ideal instrument for presenting ideas, and as knowledge in Sanskrit multiplied, so did its spread and influence. Sanskrit
28320-402: The year 2007 by ISRO and Roscosmos , the Russian federal space agency, for the second lunar mission under the Chandrayaan-2 project. According to the agreement, ISRO had the responsibility of launching, orbiting, and deployment of the Pragyan rover while Russia's Roscosmos would provide the lander. The design of the spacecraft by ISRO was completed in 2009, the payloads were also finalized and
28497-497: The Ṛg-veda is distinctly more archaic than other Vedic texts, and in many respects, the Rigvedic language is notably more similar to those found in the archaic texts of Old Avestan Zoroastrian Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey . According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton – Indologists known for their translation of the Ṛg-veda – the Vedic Sanskrit literature "clearly inherited" from Indo-Iranian and Indo-European times
28674-466: Was a robotic spacecraft operated by NASA . The mission was conceived as a low-cost means of determining the nature of hydrogen detected at the polar regions of the Moon . Launched immediately after discovery of lunar water by Chandrayaan-1 , the main LCROSS mission objective was to further explore the presence of water in the form of ice in a permanently shadowed crater near a lunar polar region. It
28851-408: Was a spoken language ( bhasha ) used by the cultured and educated. Some sutras expound upon the variant forms of spoken Sanskrit versus written Sanskrit. Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang mentioned in his memoir that official philosophical debates in India were held in Sanskrit, not in the vernacular language of that region. According to Sanskrit linguist professor Madhav Deshpande, Sanskrit
29028-427: Was a spoken language in a colloquial form by the mid-1st millennium BCE which coexisted with a more formal, grammatically correct form of literary Sanskrit. This, states Deshpande, is true for modern languages where colloquial incorrect approximations and dialects of a language are spoken and understood, along with more "refined, sophisticated and grammatically accurate" forms of the same language being found in
29205-472: Was adopted voluntarily as a vehicle of high culture, arts, and profound ideas. Pollock disagrees with Lamotte, but concurs that Sanskrit's influence grew into what he terms a "Sanskrit Cosmopolis" over a region that included all of South Asia and much of southeast Asia. The Sanskrit language cosmopolis thrived beyond India between 300 and 1300 CE. Today, it is believed that Kashmiri is the closest language to Sanskrit. Reinöhl mentions that not only have
29382-722: Was also the language of some of the oldest surviving, authoritative and much followed philosophical works of Jainism such as the Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati . The Sanskrit language has been one of the major means for the transmission of knowledge and ideas in Asian history. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim Faxian who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE. Xuanzang , another Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, learnt Sanskrit in India and carried 657 Sanskrit texts to China in
29559-442: Was designed to safely land on slopes up to 12°. It carried four payloads to study lunar seismic activity, measure the lunar sub-surface temperatures and to measure density and variation of lunar surface plasma (using a langmuir probe ). After two de-orbiting manoeuvers, Vikram attained a final orbit of 95 km × 119 km (59 mi × 74 mi) after which the powered descent phase began on 7 September 2019. During
29736-461: Was launched on 14 July 2019 and attained the lunar orbit on 20 August 2019. After five orbital reduction manoeuvres, the composite attained a near circular orbit of 127 km × 119 km (79 mi × 74 mi), which was followed by the separation of Vikram on 2 September 2019. The crash landing of Vikram left the orbiter as a sole successful component of the mission with its new mission duration being extended from one year to seven and
29913-410: Was launched on 14 July 2023 aboard LVM3 and on 16 August 2023, the composite attained a final lunar orbit of 113 km × 157 km (70 mi × 98 mi). A day later, the orbiter separated from the lander and began its independent operations with SHAPE. The orbiter also known as Propulsion Module (PM) of Chandrayaan-3, was moved from its orbit around Moon to an orbit around Earth. While
30090-407: Was launched together with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and it's Centaur Upper stage. It was successful in confirming water in the southern lunar crater Cabeus . The Moon Impact Probe (MIP) developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), India's national space agency, was a lunar probe that was released by ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 lunar remote sensing orbiter which in turn
30267-491: Was launched, on 22 October 2008. The Moon Impact Probe separated from the Moon-orbiting Chandrayaan-1 on 14 November 2008, 20:06 IST and after nearly 25 minutes crashed as planned, near the rim of the crater Shackleton . With this mission India became the first to hard land or impact on the lunar South Pole. Russia launched its Luna 25 lunar lander on August 10, 2023. Luna-25 spent five days journeying to
30444-404: Was precluded from its operations after the crash landing of its carrier Vikram . Unlike the lander, there were no changes made in the Pragyan rover except for switching ISRO's logo with Emblem of India on the left and right wheels respectively that would imprint them on the regolith. The scientific objectives too remained unchanged since the previous mission. On 23 August 2023, a few hours after
30621-409: Was spent on recreating the site with craters of similar dimensions (10 m (33 ft) wide and 3 m (9.8 ft) deep). The launch which was planned for early 2021, was then delayed to 2022 due to COVID-19 pandemic in India . The propulsion module which was ready before the pandemic had begun its testing, following which the lander and rover tests were to be conducted but the pandemic delayed
30798-504: Was successfully launched aboard the PSLV rocket. After earth bound maneuvers and trans lunar injection, Chandrayaan-1 entered the lunar orbit on 10 November, making India the fifth nation to orbit Moon. Four days later, on 14 November, the Moon Impact Probe (MIP) impacted near the Shackleton crater , in the lunar south pole , this made India the fifth country to reach the lunar surface. The MIP made
30975-411: Was then reviewed by a peer group of 100 scientists from various fields. The recommendations put forward were as follows: It is not whether we can afford it. It is whether we can afford to ignore it. On 15 August 2003, then prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee announced the project which was estimated to cost ₹ 350 crore (US$ 42 million). In November of the same year, the government approved
31152-598: Was to land within the Malapert-A crater, which is about 300 km (190 mi) from the lunar south pole. Later, the exact time of landing was announced as 11:24 PM UTC. Odysseus became the first US moon landing in the 21st century. Just before landing, at approximately 30 m (98 ft) above the lunar surface, the Odysseus lander was planned to eject the EagleCam camera-equipped CubeSat, which would have been dropped onto
31329-442: Was visualized as "pervading all creation", another representation of the world itself; the "mysterious magnum" of Hindu thought. The search for perfection in thought and the goal of liberation were among the dimensions of sacred sound, and the common thread that wove all ideas and inspirations together became the quest for what the ancient Indians believed to be a perfect language, the "phonocentric episteme" of Sanskrit. Sanskrit as
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